3.3 Leadership
3.4.1 What is learning?
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3.4 Learning
Knowledge-sharing occurs when an individual is willing to assist as well as to learn from others in the development of new competencies (Yang 2007). Learning refers to the concerted activity that increases the capacity and willingness of individuals, groups, organizations and communities to acquire and productively apply new knowledge and skills, to grow and mature and to adapt successfully to changes and challenges (PacifiCorp Foundation 2004). According to Senge (1990: 142) learning is not merely the acquisition of more information, but rather the “expanding the ability to produce the results we truly want in life”. It is lifelong generative learning. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, knowledge-sharing is the exchange and transfer of knowledge with the purpose of creating new knowledge. Therefore, it is the view of the researcher that the purpose of learning is equally to create new knowledge. Hence, knowledge-sharing can be instrumental in “lifelong generative learning” (Senge 1990: 142). It is the view of the researcher that knowledge-sharing cannot be separated from the process of learning. Spinello (2000 in Yang 2007) in this regard claims that organizational learning and knowledge-sharing are intimately connected. Organizational learning and knowledge-sharing result in the prevention of knowledge depreciation and the reinforcement of organizational capabilities and effectiveness (Senge 1990). Any discussion on learning begs a definition of learning.
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empowerment. Argyris and Schön (1978) identified three types of learning: single-loop learning, double-loop learning and deutero-learning.
• Single-loop learning
In single-loop learning, also called adaptive learning by Senge (1990), the members of the organization respond to changes in the internal and external environments of the organization by detecting errors, which they then correct. The focus is thus on “survival learning” (Senge 1990).
This is the type of learning that enables an organization to remain stable in a changing context.
Single-loop learning has a single feedback loop, which links detected outcomes to organizational strategies and assumptions that are adapted so as to keep organizational performance within the range set by organizational norms. The norms themselves, however, remain unchanged (Argyris and Schön 1978). An individual at a single-loop level just conforms to the set standards and will focus on solving the problem. Single-loop learning tends to occur more frequently in traditional organizations (Hitt 1995).
• Double-loop learning
Double-loop learning, also called generative learning by Senge (1990), occurs when flaws have been detected and corrected in a manner that results in the modification of an organization’s underlying norms, policies, strategies, objectives and assumptions associated with the norms (Argyris and Schön 1978). This type of learning has a double feedback loop, which connects the detection of flaws or errors not only to strategies and assumptions for effective performance but also to the very norms which define effective performance (Argyris and Schön 1978). In other words, double-loop learning differs from single-loop leaning in that products and services are not the focus of mediation when error is detected, but the organization’s underlying norms, policies,
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strategies and objectives associated with the norms. People operating at a double-loop level will not just conform to the standards and norms that have been set, but will question whether the standards and norms are the proper ones, and will ask what could be done to design the system so that problems will not occur again. Double-loop learning seems to be more aligned with learning organizations (Hitt 1995).
• Deutero-learning (second-order learning)
Deutero-learning is the type of learning where organizations learn how to learn, in other words how to carry out single-loop and double-loop learning (Argyris and Schön 1978). Through deutero-learning, an organization’s members also learn about previous contexts for learning.
Previous episodes of organizational learning, or failure to learn, present opportunities for reflection to discover what they do that facilitates or inhibits learning (Argryis and Schön 1978).
Consequently, they invent new strategies for learning, which they then produce, evaluate and generalize (Argyris and Schön 1978). Deutero-learning can be regarded as the type of learning where organizations learn about learning.
In summary, single-loop learning relates to “survival learning” and double-loop learning relates to “generative learning”. Deutero-learning is a type of learning where the organization learns to learn. As the complexity of the environment and organizations increases, so too does the evolution of the type of learning. With the interconnectivity of globalization, organizations are becoming increasingly complex. Consequently learning in an organization becomes complex.
The size of the organization and the abundance of knowledge calls for strategic endeavours in knowledge-sharing. In order for an organization to evolve into a learning organization, knowledge hoarding has to be a thing of the past. New mental models need to be adopted, ensuring that knowledge-sharing and learning become part of the organizational values and behaviours. Resolving challenges, reflecting on experiences and learning from them constitute
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the cycle of learning. However, in the current exponentially changing environment, the ability to learn to learn is crucial to be adaptive. Learning enables employees to acquire knowledge and skills and to replenish creativity, imagination, exploration, discovery, and intentional risk-taking (McGill in Yang 2004). In particular, learning organizations can provide the opportunity for employees to be empowered.