44 Figure 4.5: Frequency of responses reporting attacks by predators on cattle and donkeys for each preventive measure used in the field. 45 Figure 4.6: Frequency of responses reporting attacks by predators on goats and sheep for each preventive measure used in the field.
Biodiversity loss and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Achieving conservation goals and improving local livelihoods requires drastic changes and new approaches to integrated management between governments, the private sector and local communities through Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programs (Boggs, 2000). To achieve the objectives of preserving natural resources and improving local livelihoods, the MEA developed two approaches: i) to integrate the principles of sustainable development into policies and programs; and ii) to ensure the recovery of environmental losses through the Integrated Management of Natural Resources (IRM). The new approach to integrated NRM (i.e. CBNRM) adopts the principle of sustainability and allows local communities to manage and benefit from natural resources.
Human–carnivore conflicts in perspective
The cost of cattle rustling is greatest where people's livelihoods depend entirely on keeping cattle, such as with herding societies (Ogada et al., 2003). Across Africa, many traditional pastoral societies are abandoning traditional pastoral practices in the wake of new development and technological advances (Woodroffe et al., 2001).
Study aim and specific objectives
Aim
This study aimed to understand the role of traditional livestock farming practices in managing livestock predation and its contribution to the conservation of large carnivores in the Maasai Steppe, Tanzania. Results from this study will provide information needed to develop effective human-carnivore conflict reduction strategies and promote conservation of large carnivores in the Maasai steppe.
Specific Objectives
Retaliatory killing of large carnivores is a serious problem in the Maasai steppe (Kissui, 2008), and some conflict mitigation interventions have been proposed, such as the use of fencing. This study examined the role of livestock practices in preventing livestock predation and examined the factors that limit pastoralists' participation in the implementation of strategies to reduce human-carnivore conflict.
Conservation status and threats to large carnivores
Kanarraa kan ka’e, bineensonni foon nyaatan gurguddoon balaadhaaf saaxilamaniiru (Canis simensis, lukkuu Itoophiyaa), balaa hamaa jala jiru (Lycaon pictus, saree bosona Afrikaa), balaadhaaf saaxilamaniiru (Panthera leo, leenca Afrikaa) ykn saaxilamoo ta’aniiru (Acinonyx jubatus, cheetah) (Ogada et al., 2013 ). 2003; Noowel fi Jaaksan, 1996). Kanarraa kan ka’e, foon nyaatan gurguddoon yeroo baay’inni namaa babal’atee bakka jireenyaa qulqulluu ta’e horatu jalqaba kan rakkatudha (Graham et al., 2005).
Husbandry practices by pastoral communities
Wild dogs often contribute to problems of livestock predation, but the blame is often placed on their wild relatives (Cozza et al., 1996). Pastoralists are known to keep large numbers of livestock that serve as social capital and a sign of wealth (Hazar, 2006).
Attitude of pastoral communities towards conservation
Historically, much of the land outside the PAs was home to pastoral communities and their livestock (Fascione et al., 2004). However, when natural prey is scarce, predators will gradually start consuming livestock as a substitute food source (Schiess-Meier et al., 2007).
Community conservation interventions as a tool for long-term carnivore conservation
In Africa, the local costs of tolerating large carnivores exceed the benefits gained from conservation (Fabricius et al., 2001). Community conservation interventions (CCIs) have been criticized for the lack of role of local institutions in their strategies (Agrawal and Gibson 1999; Wells et al., 1992; Barrett and Arcese 1995; Oates, 1999).
Other conservation efforts towards long-term carnivore conservation
Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) as a way forward
In Botswana, all the income from natural resources goes back to the local communities (Taylor, 2000). Another major limitation of the program is the uneven distribution of wildlife benefits to local communities (CAMPFIRE, 2001).
Introduction
The study area
Tarangire and Manyara National Parks are included in the Maasai steppe ecosystem and cover approximately 10% of the ecosystem, while 80% of the land is private land owned by individuals or villages (Borner, 1985). Tarangire and Manyara National Parks are the most important protected areas within the Maasai Steppe ecosystem.
Sampling Techniques
Questionnaire survey
- Factors affecting livestock security
The homestead (boma), which often includes several households (i.e. the owner, several wives and children), was considered the appropriate research unit to complement the general observations on preventive measures within a homestead. The prosperity indicator is the amount of livestock a person has. They were asked whether wealth influences their attitudes toward improving livestock safety (i.e., participating in insurance programs for livestock predation and improving the security of their livestock through the use of fencing instead of traditional thorn fences). bush fences).
Field observation
A dataset collected from ongoing studies conducted by the Tarangire Lion Project (TLP) was used to compare the effectiveness of chain-link fence reinforced bomas against traditional bomas made from walls or thorny bush trees. This information was collected through monthly visits to chain-reinforced booms, referred to as experimental booms, and to traditional thorn bush enclosure booms used as controls.
Statistical analysis
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the challenges associated with pastoral practices in the surveyed villages. Descriptive analysis was applied to qualitative data such as livestock security measures used by herders against livestock predation for each type of stock on homesteads, pastures and temporary bomas.
Limitations of the study
Variables such as experiences of animal attacks and awareness of insurance schemes explained the attitudinal trends of livestock participation in livestock robbery insurance schemes. Similarly, with the herding challenges faced by herdsmen and the willingness of pastoralists to improve the security of their livestock through the use of chain link fences and participation in cattle rustling insurance schemes.
Introduction
Profile of study population and household characteristics
The number of men and women in different age groups in the village is summarized in Table 4.2, which shows that the age-sex structure of the sampled population is biased towards children and women with fewer adult men. Despite the large number of people in their households, 82% (n=120) of respondents indicated that their livestock (cattle, donkeys, goats or sheep) had been attacked by a predator in the last two years (Table 4.3), indicating that a large number of households had not improved livestock safety.
Preventive measures against livestock predation by carnivores
Livestock protection at home
- Chain-link fences as a preventive measure against predation of livestock
There were several types of bomas used to protect livestock determined by the type of materials used to build the walls of the bomas (Plate 4.1), including the use of thorn fences, the combination of posts and thorn bush enclosure, the planting of trees for fences, boma made of poles and mud, use of bricks, posts and chain link fences (Table 4.5). Forty-three (43) booms were reinforced with chain-link fences to prevent cattle rustling.
Livestock protection in the grazing fields
Protection of livestock in grazing fields is predominantly based on herdsman's vigilance and behavior as perceived by respondents. Predators can be deterred by the presence of a large number of people, noise and the weapons carried by the shepherds, which is why shepherding in groups, as perceived by most of the respondents, can increase the safety of both shepherds and livestock.
Livestock herding practices and livestock losses
35 percent of respondents believed that livestock were lost when different herds were mixed in the pastures and at water points. A number of respondents had several answers as to why they thought their livestock disappeared in the field and believed that the loss of livestock in the grazing fields helped to increase livestock predation.
Effect of the season on herding practices and livestock predation
Eighty-six percent of respondents who took livestock to temporary bomas mentioned taking livestock with them to maximize livestock protection, while 14% did not take livestock. Respondents were asked if they believed that having livestock in temporary bomas contributed to livestock losses due to predators.
Challenges related to livestock herding practices in the Maasai steppe
Attitude of pastoralists towards schemes to improve livestock security
Respondents who did not know the meaning of insurance were asked if they would be willing to participate in an insurance scheme after being given a description, meaning and operation of an insurance scheme in relation to livestock insurance. The responses to this question were tested to understand whether awareness of insurance influenced willingness to participate in an insurance plan.
Tanzania National Park’s efforts towards addressing human–carnivore conflicts
Role of outreach programmes in resolving human–wildlife conflicts
To assess the effectiveness of awareness programs in resolving human-carnivore conflicts in the area, TANAPA officials were asked to rate the effectiveness of awareness programs in conflict resolution. The majority of respondents (90%) believed that the programs were not effective in solving conflicts between humans and carnivores, 10%.
Conclusion
Moreover, TANAPA's outreach programs are not effective in addressing human-carnivore conflicts and do not involve local communities in conservation initiatives, which leads to negative attitudes among local people towards conservation. This requires a change in conservation strategies to address human-carnivore conflicts in areas with similar conservation concerns and to achieve conservation goals.
Traditional measures for protecting livestock from predation
In the pasture, the attention of herders and the number of herders present are the most important factors that influence livestock protection against predation. This may be the case because the number of herders in the field may increase vigilance and likelihood of predator detection.
Herding challenges faced by pastoralists in the Maasai steppe
Furthermore, TANAPA does not in any way involve the local communities in the area in conservation initiatives. What do you think is the level of conflict between humans and carnivores in the Maasai steppe ecosystem.
Attitudes of pastoralists toward insurance schemes and willingness to participate in schemes
Conflict mitigation strategies in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem by TANAPA
Through its outreach programs (formerly known as Community Conservation Services - CCS), TANAPA aims to gain the support of local communities for conservation initiatives by building a positive relationship between national parks and local communities surrounding protected areas through a benefit-sharing process. Devolution to local communities will have several negative impacts on the future of conservation initiatives.
Conclusion
Conclusions
The seasonal movement of herders in search of pastures and water, however, increases the risk of livestock predation, suggesting that further studies are needed on how best to improve livestock safety in temporary bomas. However, human-wildlife conflicts hinder the recovery of carnivores and must be overcome if carnivores and humans are to coexist.
Recommendations
- Local community participation
- Conservation awareness
- Land use plans
- Insurance schemes
- Role of conservation agencies
One of the problems with TANAPA's outreach department in the Maasai Steppe is that it does not have sufficient manpower to address the human-wildlife issues in the area (ie, a lead worker for the entire ecosystem). Conservation agencies (ie TANAPA and WD) need to restructure their community conservation programs to address the current human-wildlife conflicts in the Maasai steppe.
Concluding remarks
Therefore, it is proposed that there be a restructuring of TANAPA's outreach programs to address human-carnivore conflicts and to involve local communities in conservation initiatives. Conservation awareness regarding communal lands should also be emphasized by TANAPA to improve local communities' attitudes towards conservation.
8 in the series Community Conservation Research in Africa: Principles and Comparative Practice, Institute for Development Policy and Management, University of Manchester, Manchester. Conservation as an integral part of optimal land use in East Africa: the case of the Maasai ecosystem in Northern Tanzania.
Do you think more livestock are lost to predators in temporary bomas than in permanent bomas at home? Do you have a boma that has been reinforced with materials such as fencing to improve the safety of your livestock?
Have any of these predators (lion, hyena, leopard, cheetah, wild dogs) ever attacked livestock while you were on the herd/temporary boma. What do you personally do when you see any of these predators (lion, hyena, leopard, cheetah, jackal, wild dogs) near your livestock in the field/temporary boma.
