To my mother Baloyi Mthavini for your love, support and for always believing in me. DoE: Department for Education DBP: Diastolic blood pressure FFQ: Food Frequency Questionnaire GCP: Good Clinical Practice. Introduction: Adolescent obesity is becoming one of the most challenging public health problems worldwide.
The prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents has increased dramatically in recent years in both developed and developing countries. Objective: The objective of the study was to determine the prevalence and determinants of obesity among youth in Vhembe District. The following measurements were performed: anthropometric measurements, dietary assessment, biochemical measurements, blood pressure and physical activity level.
Determinants of obesity in this study included gender, age, source of income, SBP, cholesterol, and nutrient intake. Conclusion: The study results suggest a double burden and trend of undernutrition and overnutrition.
- Overview
- Background of the study
- Problem statement
- Aim of the study
- Objectives of the study
- Significance of the study
- Structure of the dissertation
CSI is mediated by pro-inflammatory markers produced by adipose tissue (Rodriguez-Hernández et al confirm that a variety of pro-inflammatory markers associated with cardio-metabolic dysfunction are influenced by the degree of obesity. There is existing evidence that obesity in adolescents contributes to the non-communicable disease burden in South Africa (Rossouw et al., 2012) Obesity in children and adolescents has a negative impact on their physical and psychological well-being (Rossouw et al., 2012).
Increased rates of obesity among children and adolescents have not yet received public and media attention in countries where obesity-related problems are common (Reddy et al., 2012). Literature indicates a double burden of malnutrition living in the same populations and households in rural South Africa, indicating both over- and under-nutrition in children and adolescents (Reddy et al., 2010; Kimani-Murage et al., 2010 ; Rossouw et al., 2010; Rossouw et al., 2012; Mogre et al., 2013; Manyanga et al., 2014). Although studies (Reddy et al., 2010 and Shisana et al., 2013) indicated that Limpopo province has the lowest prevalence of obesity (2.8%) among adolescents, Guo et al. 2012) noted that children and adolescents are most affected by obesity.
Obesity among children and adolescents indicates a higher risk of transition to adulthood, which often begins in childhood (Kimani-murage et al., 2010, and Freedman et al., 2010, and Freedman et al., showed that early identification of adolescents at risk of developing metabolic syndrome, successive progression to diabetes and cardiovascular disease later in life should not be underestimated. Therefore, it is essential to identify the determinants of obesity and address the problem at an early age for prevent the transfer of these risks to adulthood (Kimani-Murage et al., 2010).
- Overview
- Introduction
- Age
- Gender
- Socio-economic status
- Educational level
- C-Reactive Protein (CRP)
- Cholesterol level
- Blood pressure
- Dietary intake
- Physical activity and inactivity
- Sleeping patterns
- Television viewing
- Conclusion
An obese environment is one of the risk factors that increase the risk of obesity in young people (Zimmet et al., 2007). Home and school environments play an important role in the prevalence of obesity among young people (Rossouw et al., 2012). The socioeconomic status (SES) plays a significant role in the growth of obesity among youth (Ahmad et al., 2018).
However, high-income adolescents were found to be associated with obesity in developing countries (Gebrie et al., 2018). In developed countries, the prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents has been found to be high in socially and economically disadvantaged communities (O'Dea et al., 2014). Primary education and above has been shown to be associated with obesity among adolescents in most developing countries (Gebrie et al., 2018).
Diet and nutrition play a critical role in adolescent growth and development (Affenito et al., 2012). Long-term television viewing is associated with BMI in both adolescents and children worldwide (Braithwaite et al., 2013).
- Overview
- Study design
- Study area
- Target population
- Sampling and sampling procedure
- Inclusion criteria
- Exclusion criteria
- Subject recruitment
- Physical arrangements
- Measurements/ Assessments
- Anthropometric measurements
- Blood collection
- Clinical assessment
- Survey questionnaire
- Pilot Study
- Validity
- Reliability
- Fieldworkers
- Institutional approval
- Tools and specific procedures
- Ethical consideration
- Statistical methods/analyses
We visited the selected schools to ask for permission and to explain the goals and procedures of the study to the principal. The participants stood quietly in the middle of the platform of the scale without touching anything, and the body weight was evenly distributed on both legs. A sterile disposable auto-disable lancet was used to puncture the side of the fingertip.
The aim of the analysis was to determine the amount of each nutrient and energy consumed per day. This research project was launched to test the feasibility of the entire data collection plan and the competence of the interviewers. It also provided potential information needed to improve the quality of the data collection tools.
Repeated anthropometric measurements were averaged to ensure reliability, and field workers were trained to standardize data collection methods. The study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013), Good Clinical Practice (GCP) and the laws of South Africa.
Demographic profile of participants
Demographic profile of parents/guardian of study participants
Anthropometric status of the study participants
Determinates of obesity
Participants whose diets contained more Total Fats and Total Fats were more likely to be obese, with an extra gram of each in the diet being associated with 24% and 89% increased odds of being obese, respectively. One extra gram of carbohydrate in the diet was associated with a 12% increase in the odds of becoming obese. One extra gram of added sugar in the diet was associated with a 2% decrease in the odds of becoming obese.
Correlation of anthropometric status, biochemical indicators and Clinical indicators
Biochemical investigations
- Blood glucose readings
- Cholesterol level of the study participants
- CRP of study participants
Almost all (99.3%) male participants had TC in the normal range and only 0.7% were in the high range. All male participants (100%) had LDL in the normal category, while 2.6% of females had LDL in the high category.
Blood pressure readings of the study participants
Dietary intake
- Energy and nutrient intake of study participants
- Pocket money, lunch box and buying food at school by the participants
Physical activity and sedentary lifestyle
- Physical activity index
- Activities of the participants in and around home
- Traveling to school
- Physical activity of the participants
- Time spent in physical activity
- Television (TV) viewing
- Sleeping patterns of the participants
- Lifestyle habits classification
- Lifestyle habits
Among men, a total of 90% browse and shop at the same time, 92% take care of children and 81.3% take care of the disabled (80.6%). The results of the current survey show that the majority (83.2%) of male and female participants (80.6%) walked to school. Physical activity in this study ranged from swimming, running, weeding to playing soccer and basketball.
The result of the study shows that the majority of both men and women did not engage in skipping, cycling, watering, bathing and knitting. The majority (75.3%) of men and two-thirds (66.1%) of women did not watch TV during the week before six. On the other hand, about 15.5% of women watched television for more than 3 hours after 6, compared to 7.4% of men.
During the weekend, the results show that only 8.6% of male and 16.7% of female participants watched TV for more than 3 hours or more before six. The results of the survey show that almost two-thirds (64%) of men and half (52.9%) of women eat three meals a day.
- Overview
- Demographic information of participants
- Prevalence of obesity
- Determinants of obesity
- Gender
- Age
- Socio-economic status
- Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)
- Cholesterol
- Nutrient intake
- Correlation of anthropometric status, biochemical indicators and Clinical indicators
- CRP of study participants
- Blood glucose level (BGL)
- Cholesterol level
- Blood pressure readings of study participants
- Energy and nutrient intake of study participants
- Pocket money, lunch box and buying food at school by the participants
- Physical activity and sedentary lifestyle
- Physical activity index
- Traveling to school
- Television (TV) viewing
- Sleeping patterns of the participants
- Lifestyle habits
- Limitations of the study
The results of the study are supported by Shisana et al. 2015), where the prevalence of overweight and obesity is said to be higher in girls than in boys. Abdominal obesity is associated with metabolic disorders, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (Shisana et al., 2013). Adolescents with abdominal obesity are more prone to cardio-metabolic risk factors (Kelishadi et al., 2015).
At the same time, a study of Moroccan adolescents reported that high family income was a determinant of obesity (Kabbaoui et al., 2018). Also a study conducted by Ghomari-Boukhatem et al. 2017) reported that elevated TC, LDL-C, TG and low HDL-C are a risk factor for obesity. High energy intake is an important risk factor for childhood and adult obesity (Shisana et al., 2013).
High energy, high fat and low fiber intake is associated with obesity and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescents (Appannah et al., 2015). It was reported that 70% of South African adolescents buy unhealthy food at school (Wrottesley et al., 2019). Congruent, a study conducted by Sedibe et al. 2018) reported that more than 70% of adolescents were irregular lunch box users.
It is known that a higher level of physical activity is associated with a lower risk of obesity (Katzmarzyk et al., 2015). As can be seen in the current study, Sedibe et al. 2018) confirm that the majority of rural youth walk long distances to school. Walking to school adds an amount of physical activity to a daily routine (Kumar et al., 2015).
Furthermore, going to school is the first step towards an active lifestyle (Kumar et al., 2015). According to the National Sleep Foundation (2015), study participants are not getting enough sleep (Hirshkowitz et al., 2015). The prevalence of participants who skipped breakfast in the current study was higher than the national prevalence of 17.7% (Reddy et al., 2013).
Summary
Conclusion
The predictors of obesity in this study can be adjusted and avoided to prevent obesity. Most of the nutrients consumed by the study participants did not meet their daily needs.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Prevalence of overweight, obesity and associated risk factors among school children and adolescents in Tianjin, China. The worldwide association between television viewing and obesity in children and adolescents: cross-sectional study. Modifiable risk factor for overweight and obesity in children and adolescents from São Paulo, Brazil.
Hypertension prevalence, incidence and risk factors in children and adolescents in Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. Prevalence and associated factors of overweight/obesity in children and adolescents in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BioMed Central Journals, 5:19. Prevalence and risk factors of overweight or obesity among children and adolescents in Northeast China.
2013. Prevalence and potential determinants of obesity among school children and adolescents in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Systematic review on the association of abdominal obesity in children and adolescents with cardio-metabolic risk factors. Potential determinants of obesity in children and adolescents in Germany: results from the KIGGS cross-sectional study.
Prevalence of high blood pressure in children and adolescents in Africa: A systematic review and Met analysis. Study Title: Prevalence and Determinants of Adolescent Obesity in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province. Research Title: Prevalence and Determinants of Obesity among Adolescents in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province.
The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in the Vhembe district. Thoho ya Thoduluso: Prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province. RESEARCH PROJECT: Cross-sectional survey to determine the prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province.
The aim of the study is to determine the prevalence and determinants of obesity among adolescents in Vhembe district, Limpopo province. Obesity with all its consequences is increasing in South Africa, especially among children and adolescents.
PERMISSION FROM THE CIRCUITS
