Job satisfaction in the security Industry: perceptions of security guards working in UKZN Westville Campus.

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UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU-NATAL

Job Satisfaction in the Security Industry:

Perceptions of security guards working in UKZN Westville Campus

by

Kamendren Govender 991212826

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Business Administration

Graduate School of Business & Leadership College of Law and Management Studies

Supervisor: Dr A Kader

2016

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DECLARATION

I, Kamendren Govender declare that:

 The research reported in this thesis, except where otherwise indicated, and is my original work.

 This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university.

 This thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons.

 This thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then:

a) their words have been re‐written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced;

b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks, and referenced.

c) Where I have reproduced a publication of which I am author, co‐author or editor, I have indicated in detail which part of the publication was actually written by myself alone and have fully referenced such publications.

d) This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being

detailed in the thesis and in the References sections.

Signature

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Acknowledgements

I wish to express my sincere appreciation and gratitude to the following individuals, without whose assistance, this study would not have been possible.

My sincere appreciation goes to Dr A Kader and members of the UKZN GSB staff who help guide me through all the stages of this project. Thank you for your time, guidance, critique, and encouragement.

To all the staff at UKZN RMS division at Westville Campus, without their willingness to participate, this project would not have taken off; thank you so much for your kindness.

Finally my sincere gratitude to my family, friends and colleagues for all the support and encouragement that you have given me.

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Abstract

Job satisfaction among security guards has been widely publicised as news and current affairs issues, even more so in South Africa. Factors affecting the level of job satisfaction for example salary, work itself, training and promotions, working conditions, relationship with supervisor and relationship with co-workers have been researched in considerable depth as well as its effects on employees’

commitment to their company and the level of service they provide. This research study’s aim is firstly to determine whether there is a high or low level of job satisfaction amongst security guards officers working in the UKZN Westville campus. The second aim is to determine what factors influence this level of job satisfaction. The current research study used quantitative research methods and was conducted among a population size of 93 using a self-administered questionnaire to collect feedback from all respondents. The feedback was converted into data and then analysed using the built in data analysis package on Microsoft Excel 2010. Descriptive and inferential statistics was employed to analyse the data received and to obtain the research objectives for this study. The analysis of the data indicated that the majority of respondents had a level of job satisfaction that was considered to be low. The factors that had a significant influence on the level of job satisfaction were that of salary and relationship with supervisor while other factors of work itself, training and promotions, working conditions and relationship with co-workers do not influence job satisfaction. Low levels of job satisfaction has a negative effect on a number of things including lack of job motivation, future career decisions, family relationships as well as personal health and wellbeing. Security guard officers have an extremely demanding career both physically and mentally. Reduced job satisfaction also has a negative effect of the business owners, their clients and to the employees themselves.

Dissatisfied security guards officers can provide poor quality service and less efficient care. Hence, to improve the level of job satisfaction from a low level to high level suitable interventions must be planned and thereafter applied amongst the security guards officers.

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List of Figures

Number Description Page

2-1 Maslow’s Theory 15

4-1 Central Tendency Data of General Job Satisfaction 51

4-2 Central Tendency Data of Salary 54

4-3 Salary Satisfaction Level 55

4-4 Central Tendency Data of Work Itself 57

4-5 Work Itself Satisfaction Level 58

4-6 Central Tendency Data of Training and Promotion 60

4-7 Training and Promotions Satisfaction Level 61

4-8 Central Tendency Data of Working Conditions 63

4-9: Working Conditions Satisfaction Level 64

4-10 Central Tendency Data of Relationship with Supervisor 66

4-11 Relationship with Supervisor Satisfaction Level 67

4-12 Central Tendency Data of Relationship with Co-workers 69

4-13 Relationship with Co-workers Satisfaction Level 70

4-14 Central Tendency Comparisons 71

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List of Tables

Number Description Page

2-1 Motivation and hygiene factors 17

3-1 Cronbach’s alpha coefficients 44

4-1 Socio-Biographic Information 49

4-2 General Job Satisfaction of respondents 50

4-3 Salary characteristics of respondents 53

4-4 Work Itself characteristics of respondents 56

4-5 Training and Promotions characteristics of respondents 59

4-6 Working Conditions characteristics of respondents 62

4-7 Supervisor characteristics of respondents 65

4-8 Co-Workers characteristics of respondents 68

4-9 Regression Statistics 72

4-10 ANOVA 72

4-11 Coefficients and P-Values 73

4-12 Multiple Regression Statistics 74

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

We often hear about the hardships of being employed as a security guard, be it from the newspapers, social media or friends and family. Security guards are part of the lives of most South Africans and the security industry plays an important part in the South African economy as well. Hence, it is of importance to all concerned parties (employers employees, and customers) that there is a high level of job satisfaction of security guards and that the factors influencing these levels are known and controlled.

Low levels of job satisfaction levels can cause employees to not execute their tasks at an acceptable level resulting in possible endangering of lives, and an increase in staff turnover. It may also create a poor reflection about their employer and there services that they render. The ever growing consciousness about the South African security industry is that there are several difficult challenges facing them. Low salaries and unacceptable working conditions are some of the factors that influence the level of job satisfaction among security guards officers. This is also often coupled with a lack of proper supervision and training. Recent violence arisen at South African universities where security provides and maintains a protected and secure environment for all persons on the campuses and protects university assets from theft, damage or destruction has added further negativity to these conditions.

Earlier this year at University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) Howard College campus several security officers were protesting for better treatment and justice. The security officers laid demands. Other illegal protests at the UKZN continued on its Westville, Edgewood, Howard College, and Pietermaritzburg campuses. The protesters, mostly gardeners, cleaners and security guard officers, downed tools and issued demands to UKZN (Singh, 2016).

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Job satisfaction can be defined as the emotional state that security guard officers feel when their jobs are in synchronization with their wants and values. It focuses on the degree of satisfaction or disapproval employees have towards theirs jobs.

Positive experiences shall come from friendly co-workers, worthy salaries, considerate supervisors, and acceptable working conditions. This shall create a high level of job satisfaction. The more an employee achieves positives from the above factors for their needs, values or personal characteristics, the higher level job satisfaction will be got (Ramasodi, 2010).

According to Karacan (2011) the following key points regarding security guard officers can be drawn:

 employees with a few years of service have lower levels of satisfaction with regards to their salaries

 employees with high levels of education have greater job satisfaction levels when it comes to promotional increases

 job satisfaction levels with the relationship with supervisors increase as age and years of service increases

 adequate equipment is more important to male than females

 recognition for their work increase with years of age and service

 job satisfaction levels are high for relationship with co-workers

Human resources is one of the most significant and prized asset in any organisation. Satisfied employees not only result in increased productivity levels but there are usually less absenteeism, leave taking as well as a better display of organizational commitment. It is therefore vital for an organisation to ensure and focus on an acceptable working culture for all employees within an organisation.

This study determined whether there is a high or low level of job satisfaction and the main factors that influenced this level of job satisfaction within the security industry. The current research also allows for possible proposed solutions in future research undertakings.

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3 1.2 Problem Statement

According to Karacan (2011) there are current gaps identified with job satisfaction levels amongst security guards. It is suggested that the application of the study to a wider audience that shall yield more comprehensive and effective results.

According to Bodnar (2012) South Africa’s large private security industry had an annual turnover greater that R30 billion. In addition, the number of employed security guards officers was estimated to be more than 1.7 million. The constant increasing number of the individuals looking to get entry to the security industry as security guards officers can be accredited to South Africa’s rampant crime levels as well as high unemployment rates. Although the development and fast-tracked growth of private security industry has definitely created many job opportunities, the actual job satisfaction level of the security guard officers was questionable due to the nature of their work. Security guard officers are exposed to a numerous variety of incidents, such as death threats, physical injury, hijacking, assault, and hold-ups as part of their daily work routine. These could negatively affect their personal wellbeing and performance at work.

Amongst all the resources and assets of an organisation employees are often regarded as the most prized and valuable. It is therefore imperative especially from a managerial point of view that knowledge of employee’s job satisfaction level and the factors that influence this level is known and understood. There has been numerous and well documented research on the factors that influence job satisfaction such as salary, training, working conditions and development that has been fully researched or recorded. However research and information on job satisfaction levels and the factors that influence job satisfaction levels with regard to the security guards officers in the security industry is minimal throughout the world, even less so in South Africa.

Hence this research study aimed to determine whether there is a high or low level of job satisfaction and to determine which factors (salary, work itself, training, and promotions, working conditions, relationship with supervisor and relationship with co-workers) influence job satisfaction levels among security guard officers working

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in UKZN Westville Campus. Gaining knowledge into these aims and finding solutions will offer many rewards. High job satisfactions levels among employees improve the efficiency of an organization, the employees adopt organizational goals better, and studies also indicate that the productivity of the organization shall increase.

1.3 Motivation of the Study

According to Karacan (2011), although a vast number of studies have identified factors that influence job satisfaction of employees from various fields and various countries, there is limited research focusing on security guard officers from a wider audience. Hence this study will be a unique contribution to address the gap of limited knowledge on whether there is a high or low level of job satisfaction amongst security guard officers and to determine which factors influence this level of job satisfaction. By knowing the present job satisfaction levels and by identifying the factors that influence job satisfaction levels both employers and employees can then strive to improve and negate the negative factors thereby increasing the level of job satisfaction among the security guard officers. Employers, employees and stakeholders will benefit from these outcomes as the organization will become a more effective and efficient run unit.

1.4 Aim of the Study

This research study aimed to address the gap of limited knowledge on the level of job satisfaction of security guard officers and identify the factors that influenced this level of job satisfaction. The aim was to determine the job satisfaction level (is there high or low level) as well as the factors (salary, work itself, training and promotions, working conditions, relationship with supervisor, relationship with co- workers) that influence job satisfaction levels among security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus.

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The study was only conducted on security guards officers working at the UKZN Westville campus. The choice is based on the following rationale:

 Universities have recently experienced a large amount of protests and violence resulting in a greater spotlight being placed on security guards

 Co-operation received by UKZN RMS Division was excellent as opposed to other security companies from other industries. It must be noted that many security companies refused to participate when asked in the initial stages of this research study.

1.5 Objectives of the study

 To determine whether there is a high or low level of job satisfaction amongst security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus

 To determine the factors influencing job satisfaction levels amongst security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus

1.6 Research Questions

 What is the level (high or low) of job satisfaction amongst security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus?

 What factors influence job satisfaction levels amongst security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus?

1.7 Methodology

This research study used a quantitative approach to determine whether there was a high or low job satisfaction level among security guard officers in the UKZN Westville Campus. All security guards were asked to participate in a survey. The measuring instrument was a self-administered questionnaire that was hand delivered to all participates. Data analysis was then performed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Chapter Three shall discuss the research methodology in greater detail.

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6 1.8 Outline of the Dissertation

The chapters that will comprise the current research study are:

Chapter One presents an outline of the research study and the proposed methods as to how the study shall be conducted. It outlines the problem statement, justification for the study, research objectives proposed methodology.

Chapter Two discusses the South Africa security industry overview, current perceptions in South Africa, job satisfaction definitions, significance of job satisfaction, job satisfaction theories, factors influencing job satisfaction levels, job satisfaction measurements, and outcomes obtained from other research studies.

Chapter Three presents the research methodology as well as the research design.

It includes the research instrument, survey questionnaire, population and sample size and administrative measures.

Chapter Four presents the finding from the research instrument using descriptive and interferential statistics. Discussion of the analysis compared to the literature reviewed is given.

Chapter Five details the recommendations to be given to select personnel to improve the job satisfaction level of security guard officers. Concluding remarks and recommendations are also presented.

1.9 Summary

This research study focused on an investigation that determined whether there is a high or low job satisfaction levels amongst security guard officers and to determine which factors influence job satisfaction levels. The study was only conducted on security guards officers working at the UKZN Westville campus. The current problems facing job satisfaction levels of private security guards officers led to the motivation for this study. Research objectives and questions were delivered using data analysed from a questionnaire. The study took on a quantitative approach.

The next chapter details the review of current literature in the areas of job satisfaction and the security industry.

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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Levels of job satisfaction and the factors effecting job satisfaction levels has been well-documented as well as researched by many over the years. There are current gaps identified with job satisfaction levels amongst security guards and studies suggest that the study to a wider audience shall yield more comprehensive and effective results. The latter part of this chapter will focus on the factors that may influence job satisfaction among security guard officers working in UKZN Westville Campus. The initial chapters shall focus on establishing solid foundations into job satisfaction concepts and definitions, job satisfaction theories, factors that affect job satisfactions levels, the importance of employee job satisfaction and findings from other research. To begin the chapter the scene with respect to the current feelings and perceptions of security guard officer’s job satisfaction levels within South Africa. Focus will also be placed to the more recent violence at universities involving security guard officers. (Karacan, 2011)

2.2 The South Africa Security Industry

According to Berg & Nouveau (2011)the private security industry in South Africa is one of the fastest growing private industries in the world. Its development contributes to both the economy and social livelihood of society.

According to Sibanoyoni (2013) the security industry in South Africa is believed to be the largest in the world. It has reached an annual turnover close to R72 billion.

Security guard officers are individuals performing activities on professional basis for a third party and their objective is to preserve the security of person and property or maintenance of public law and order.

The South African private security industry originated during the apartheid regime in the 1980s. Factors that pushed the development of the private security industry at that time were the rise of insecurity as a result of apartheid activities.

Furthermore there was a willingness of the apartheid state to accept private

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security as an alternative to state police as well as the endeavour to professionalise the industry through various policies of legislation.

After the banishment of the apartheid government and their laws, South Africa was welcomed back into the global arena. This subsequently led to the following:

 rise in private properties

 identification of new threats in the so called “risk society”

 Rising trends towards consumerism and commodification

 Cost cutting measures of the government as well as the encouragement of personal security usage

The above factors have been the chief influencers in the fast expansion of the private security industry for post-apartheid South Africa. In addition multiple factors have resulted in the rapid development of the private security industry post- apartheid South Africa, such as crime, unemployment, urbanisation, as well as the increased number of gated communities (Berg & Nouveau, 2011).

Economic factors such as poverty and high unemployment has also played a major role in the constant development of the private security industry. The recent South Africa Quarterly Labour Force Survey report 2015, revealed an unemployment rate of 24.5% (Statistics SA, 2015).

The entry of young people as well as migrant workers entering the security sector is prejudiced by poverty and unemployment. The lack of tertiary education and misfit skills were found to be leading contributors to the high unemployment rates in the country. Their choices are not only limited by their socio-economic situation.

It is also by the exploitation of human rights influenced by lower wages, poor living conditions, and inadequate employment conditions such as access to maternity leave, unemployment insurance funds and other employee benefits stipulated within employment acts. This is evident further when the exploitation of the security guard officer’s and maltreatment is rampant and well documented in the media and other forms of mass communication. The lack of education and availability of security employment opportunities make security guard officers to be easily accessible and as a result that effectively make security employers in the

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industry to have unfair economic power and leverage of the terms of employment relationships (Bodnar, 2012).

The private security industry has the potential to play a positive role in South African society. Economically, it is a source of foreign direct investment and a major employer throughout the country. The industry also has the flexibility to adapt to new situations and client demands. At a time when the government is repeatedly criticized for lack of accountability to citizens, the private security industry is directly accountable to its consumers. Also, the industry is already established and therefore has expertise and resources available that can be utilized to create a safer society. In addition the security industry has an important part to play with respect to ensuring safety and security standards are met This is stressed by the large number of human capital and assets it set ups to guard and protect the people and property in South Africa (Govender, 2013).

2.3 Current Perceptions in South Africa

The private security guard officers are often among the list of employees across South Africa country that has gone on strike. Often it’s a demand for higher wages but other factors such also play a major part.

According to Maregele (2014, p.1) in his article entitled “Now security guard officers go on strike” Gauteng security guard officers were not unhappy. One of the guards who earn R3 300 per month said the following:

“We work abnormal hours. As the private sector, unions have failed us. We do not get transport or danger allowance like other security guard officers. They do not care about us, just their businesses. I have an eight-year-old child. Do you think I will be able to afford university with the money I am earning?”

According to Maregele (2014, p.1) many workers protested outside the company’s offices. They said that they have not received a salary for the last two months. A protesting security guard officer who asked to remain anonymous out of fear of victimization by the company had this to say:

“Today, we were paid R3 500 and we usually get R6 500 and R500 as a performance bonus. Last month we didn’t get paid at all. They kept promising to

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pay us and now the owner of the company says he has no money to pay us. How must I see to my family with a little money?”

According to Ngoepe (2016) brings to the attention that some guards were fired for participating in a strike at the University of SA (Unisa) against outsourcing. The guards, employed by the Red Alert security company, were sacked for participating in the strike according to EFF Student Command President Mpho Morolane.

Unsatisfactory working environment has also recently been created at South African universities especially during the Fees Must Fall Campaigns. Clashes between private and striking campus security guard officers broke out at the Walter Sisulu University in Mthatha resulting in several injuries. Private security personnel made their way on to the campus after which the alleged shooting incidents including that of students and contracted security staff took place (Shange & Herman, 2016).

Earlier this year at University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) Howard College campus several security officers were protesting for better treatment and justice. The security officers laid demands to be employed as permanent staff of the university.

They were tired of being outsourced and claimed that the company that has the contract with the university is “sucking their blood”. It was reported that the security guard officers that were hired specifically for this strike had attacked many workers. One worker was even arrested after many of the workers were sjambokked by the hired security company (The Daily Vox Team, 2016).

According to Tandwa (2016) security guard officers at universities are experiencing more violent conduct from student strikes. It is claimed that damages to higher education institutions during recent student protests has cost universities more than R145 million. The most notable cost was at the UKZN, with damage amounting to R82-million, from October 2015 until January 2016. The University of the Western Cape lost R46 million in damages. The department said that Minister Blade Nzimande insisted that while protests were a democratic right, resorting to violence and damage to property were criminal acts. Several university buildings, including the North West University administration building, were set alight during

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the protests while scores of student protesters were also arrested during clashes with police.

In his article Umraw (2015) discusses how armed with sticks, a group of about 50 students at UKZN PMB Campus went on the rampage, threatening students, staff and guards before letting off fire extinguishers in lecture venues. It is believed three security guard officers were assaulted in the fray and their two-way radios stolen. The students started chanting and singing on the main campus before proceeding to the other residences, where they allegedly bashed open doors and set off fire alarms to rouse sleeping students. As the wave of violence swept through the campus, police and private security guard officers mobilised before starting a two-hour cat-and-mouse chase to apprehend the protesters. The joint effort by the university’s risk management services (RMS), Mi7 security guard officers who are employed by the university for extra muscle, and members of various policing units resulted in 13 students being arrested.

Earlier this year illegal protests at the UKZN continued on its Westville, Edgewood, Howard College, and Pietermaritzburg campuses. The protesters, mostly gardeners, cleaners and security guard officers, downed tools last week to demand that UKZN end outsourcing and employ them directly. UKZN spokesperson Lesiba Seshoka said that a group of around 700 contract workers and students disrupted lectures on the Howard College campus. Small-scale violent protests took place on the Edgewood campus. Police and security guard officers brought it under control (Singh, 2016).

2.4 Job Satisfaction Definitions

According to Aziri (2011) job satisfaction is defined as the manner in which employees feel about their job as well as its several facets in brings with it. It simpler terms it determines how much a person likes or dislikes their job. Job satisfaction can consist of a combination of positive and negative feelings employees may have for their job. Job satisfaction also characterises the amount to which expectations are desired and the real awards that match these desires.

Job satisfaction is also meticulously related to an employee’s conduct in the work

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place. In addition is it often believed to have a direct link to efficiency as well as to the personal well-being of the employee.

According to Maniram (2007) job satisfaction definitions can be summed as a collection of attitudes, feelings, beliefs, and behaviour one has towards his or her job. Job satisfaction is a job related attitude that can be represented as an emotional sense of success or failure that may be expressed in quantitative or qualitative manner.

According to Tanjeen (2013) job satisfaction is very simply defined as how people feel about their jobs. It can be seen as a portray of an image of worthy management and a gauge of emotional well-being that directly relates to the measure of feeling at which employees have a satisfaction or dissatisfaction towards their jobs.

According to Mafini & Dlodlo (2014) job satisfaction can be defined as a pleasurable and positive emotional state that has resulted from the assessment of one’s job or job experiences. Job satisfaction is a combination of the evaluation of the conditions present in the job and the outcomes or benefits that have arisen as a result of having a job. It is related to the general scale in which employee’s appreciate doing their jobs and being at work as well as being remunerated for this effort. An employee’s job perception is heavily subjective by unique factors such as wants, morals, and future prospects. Finally job satisfaction comprises of a complex set of interrelationships of people, tasks, collaboration as well as rewards and motivations.

It is evident that job satisfaction is a multi-dimensional model from the all the definitions thus far described. Nonetheless, for the aims of this research study, job satisfaction shall be defined as the emotional state that security guard officers feel when their jobs are in synchronization with their wants and values. It shall focus on the degree of satisfaction or disapproval employees have towards theirs jobs.

Positive experiences shall come from friendly co-workers, worthy salaries, considerate supervisors, and acceptable working conditions. This shall create a high level of job satisfaction. The more an employee achieves positives from the

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above factors for their needs, values or personal characteristics, the higher level job satisfaction will be got (Ramasodi, 2010).

2.5 Importance of Job Satisfaction

According to Aziri (2011) job satisfaction significance becomes very important because there are several undesirable concerns of job dissatisfaction. These include an increased number of accidents, increased absenteeism, and a lack of loyalty. Three important features of job satisfaction are:

 Job satisfaction that is high is a good indicator of the emotional and mental state of employees. Companies should be led by good human values that are more towards treating workers fairly and giving them due respect. If this is done then job satisfaction assessments can prove to be extremely respectable indicators of employee effectiveness

 Job satisfaction level among employees will affect their behaviour. Employee behaviour has an influence on the daily activities of any business and the effective functioning of it as well. It is then evident that job satisfaction can produce positive behaviour. The opposite is also true in that job dissatisfaction can result in undesirable conduct of employees.

 Job satisfaction evaluation from different organizational divisions is said to be a good indicator as to which business unit changes would boost performance.

Job satisfaction can serve as very good indicators of effective organizational activities.

According to Sageer & Rafat (2012) turnover, profits and expansion of a business is greatly stimulated by having a loyal customer base. A loyal customer base is a direct consequence of providing acceptable or excellent customer satisfaction.

Customer satisfaction entails the perceptions of the value of services they obtain from a company. Value is created by having highly satisfied, trustworthy, and productive employees in an organisation. Additionally employees who have a great sense of collaboration and mutual determination produce great value. This comes from having a high level of job satisfaction.

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Satisfied employees are productive workers that results in improved organizational productivity and efficiency. This can be achieved through attention to employees physical as well as socio emotional needs. A combined effort fixed towards attaining organisational goals is essential in the attainment of organizational objectives. Unhappy or dissatisfied employees fail to participate effectively in these efforts. In an exclusive study based on 8 000 business units in 36 companies, the researchers found the following:

 Optimistic and applicable associations between employee satisfaction and outcomes such as efficiency, income, employee turnover, employee accidents, and client satisfaction

 It was found that at high-performance work practices a positive working climate can substantially increase employee satisfaction (Harter, et al., 2002).

Employees are found to be more devoted to their work and contribute more forcefully and positively in job related tasks when they have levels of job satisfaction that are high. Such employees are often less inclined to seek employment elsewhere. It is evident that by improving job satisfaction levels benefits to any organisation can be attained.

2.6 Job Satisfaction Theories

2.6.1 Overview

Content theories and process theories form the two categories of job satisfaction theory. Content theories aims to define job satisfaction with regards to the needs that ought to be met and morals that ought to be present in work. If both are met then employees will have a high level of job satisfaction. This theory places a lot of importance on what provokes or inspires human behaviour. Thus, it gives valuable understandings into employee needs in companies. It further describes the methods on how these needs may be realized to ensure that they are benefits to the performance of an organisation and the realization of organisational goals (Mosikidi, 2012).

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Process theories on the other hand emphasize on the actual motivational process.

Process theories concentrate on how employees seek rewards in their working environment and the way in they became motivated. However, research has supported the fact that content theory and process theory can supplement one another. A typical case of this is with regards to salary. Salary is a motivator and the process at which the salary encourages an employee may be described through the process theory. The next section will discuss in further detail three of the most recognised and prominent theories in this area (Mosikidi, 2012).

2.6.2 Theories

2.6.2.1 Maslow-Hierarchy of needs (Content theory)

In 1954 Maslow proposed that employees are motivated as they have an assortment of needs that they want to satisfy. Taking this into account Maslow produced a hierarchy of needs. This is shown in Figure 2-1.

Figure 2-1: Maslow’s Theory

Source: Adapted from Satterfield, L. M., 2015. Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction of Radiologic Sciences Faculty, Knoxville: University of Tennessee.

The wants are shown as five levels comprising of:

 simple wants such as water, warmth, food, and relaxation commonly known as physiological needs

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 need for stable employment, medical aid, safety environment as well as and security from dangers commonly known as safety and security needs

 social needs such as belonging, love and friendliness as well as recognition

 esteem needs such as acknowledgment for activities

 self-actualization needs such as attainment of a high potential. Attaining a sense of fulfilment and opportunities for creativity are further needs.

According to Satterfield (2015) Maslow proclaimed that the lower level needs must be firstly satisfied before an employee can move on to the higher order needs. He claimed that an employee’s motivational wants is gained in the form of levels. After a certain needs is got and then satisfied this want fails to motivate an employee further. Hence, the next and higher level of want has to be obtained for an employee to become satisfied and stay motivated in their jobs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is appropriate to the working environment and it has long been used to aid to obtaining knowledge on job satisfaction, although he later developed it to explain motivation for humans in general. Within any company remuneration and medical benefits are a few of the needs which help employees in meeting their basic physiological needs. Physically safety for employees at their work settings and locations and having a good sense of job security with suitable company policies and procedures manifest itself through safety needs. After the safety needs are satisfied, the employees can then concentrate on feelings of belonging at their place of work. This usually surfaces from the forming of positive relationships with colleagues and supervisors. Having that feeling that they are a part of a team and that they contribute to that team is an important feeling for employees. This leads to employees having a feeling of being valued and appreciated by their colleagues as well as by their employer. The last step is when the employee tries to find self-actualisation. Here is where employees want to enjoy a personal growth and character development and achieve their highest potential. It is now evident that companies that are aiming to increase employee job satisfaction can endeavour to provide all the basic needs for their employees and then look to progress and address all the higher-order wants. However this approach has become less implemented recently as it has a number of drawbacks. There is a lack of experimental evidence as well as it does not canter

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for the thinking and mental persona of individual employees. Many researchers have also made negative remarks with regards to the self-actualisation and final stage. The conceptual understanding of self-actualisation is hard to define as well as the difficulty of measuring something like this. Therefore the final outcomes are bit of an unknown as well as or when it can been achieved (Saif & Nawaz, 2012).

2.6.2.2 Hertzberg’s Two Factor Theory (Content theory)

In 1966 Herzberg developed his Two Factor theory where the needs for fulfilment were expanded. Herzberg proposed that employees are prejudiced by 2 factors that of motivation and hygiene. He further claimed that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction were independent factors. Motivation factors result in job satisfaction and psychological growth for the employee and are beneficial from an employer perspective as they motivate employees and therefore gain better productivity from their employees. Hygiene factors result in job dissatisfaction for an employee and must be obtained to prevent dissatisfaction of an employee.

Although hygiene factors do not result in increased levels of motivation, a lack of them results in dissatisfaction amongst employees. Typical motivation factors and hygiene factors are given in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1: Motivation and hygiene factors

Source: Adapted from Satterfield, L. M., 2015. Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction of Radiologic Sciences Faculty, Knoxville: University of Tennessee.

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As part of a motivational study Herzberg interviewed 200 accountants and engineers. He asked two questions that became part of his data collection. The two questions were:

 “When did you feel particularly good about your job – what turned you on?”

 “When did you feel exceptionally bad about your job – what turned you off?”

According to Saif & Nawaz (2012) Herzberg’s theory helps understanding the job satisfaction factor in the educational settings. It is for this reason that Herzberg’s theory is one of the most beneficial models to study job satisfaction. In evaluating the levels of job satisfaction many researchers have also used it as a theoretical framework. Criticisms of the motivator-hygiene theory have recently come to the fore. Some critics indicate that the theory disregards individual differences and those changes in both motivators and hygiene factors are accepted by all employees in a similar manner. One of the major drawbacks is that the hygiene and motivational factors can be seen independent factors. It can then be possible that employees can be neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. For example, an

Motivators Factors

• Work Itself

• Autonomy

• Authority

• Responsibility

• Recognition

• Achievement Hygiene Factors

• Relationships

• Job Security

• Work Conditions

• Salary/Wages

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employee that has a low hygiene factor is seen as being dissatisfied. However, an employee that has a high hygiene factor is seen as being neutral or not dissatisfied. This does not mean they are satisfied. Employee satisfaction is dependent on motivator factors only. This split in interpretation could support in accounting for the complexity of an individual’s emotional state.

It can be quite common that an employee has a feeling of both satisfaction and dissatisfaction or those they can have no feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

Although the theory is critical in initially differentiating between job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction it failed to receive substantial experimental support.

Furthermore Herzberg’s original research study was heavily slated for having been performed using poor research approaches. Attempts to corroborate this theory thereafter have outcomes that have varied results and as a consequence some researchers are supporting itwhile others are not supporting it.

2.6.2.3 The Job Characteristic Model (Process Theory)

Hackman and Oldham developed the Job Characteristics Model (JCM) in 1976. It examines how employees respond to their jobs when job characteristics are changed. Three psychological states exist that has outcomes that effect employees both from a personal and business point of view. Employees should feel that their jobs are of great importance and have a sense of responsibility and obligation.

In addition constructive feedback must be given on their job performance. Five dimensions provoke these three psychological states and they are:

 the percentage of the task that warrants a variety of different actions

 the amount to which the task that warrants completion of a entire project

 the amount of significance that the task has on being a substantial bearing on the company

 the degree to which the task provides significant free will and individuality

 the worker’s opportunity to receive direct and clear appraisal for his job

The JCM explains that job satisfaction occurs when intrinsically motivating features are inspired by the working environment. According to the JCM the five

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key job characteristics influence the three psychological states. Job satisfaction is one of the possible outcomes as a result of three psychosocial states. From a company’s perspective, it is understood that an improvement on the five core job dimensions will consequently increase job satisfaction as a result of an improved working environment.

The JCM has received much more empirical support compared to that of the Maslow or Herzberg’s theories. However, researchers claim that they completely disregard the critical psychological states and that the model does not consider the personal and work outcomes that come from the impact of the core job dimensions. Regardless of this, further support to the JCM model has being given in terms of its influence on job satisfaction. This was after the JCM had undergone the subject of three reviews. In a research of thirteen studies it was found that the JCM theoretical and practical parts are a significant factor in the psychological states (Satterfield, 2015).

2.6.3 Summary of Theories

Empirical support for both the hierarchy of needs and motivator-hygiene approaches are known to be at a minimal amount. However, growth in the empirical support of the JCM continues. Job satisfaction levels of employees that are influenced by the motivating factors of the surrounding environment are very challenging to negate from a practical point of view. It is evident that employee personality together with Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene method is a better combination to evaluate their impact on job satisfaction.

Research has indicated that demographic variables and personality traits scores that include that of honesty, extraversion, thoroughness, friendliness, and neuroticism has had a significant impact on evaluation of job satisfaction levels.

2.7 Job Satisfaction Factors

According to Tanjeen (2013) the most commonly used factors of job satisfaction are work, pay, promotion, supervision, and co-workers. In addition ensuring that there are adequate resources, tools for your job, work load equity and training opportunities result in an increase level of job satisfaction amongst employees.

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21 2.7.1 Salary

According to Maniram (2007) job satisfaction is very significantly determined by remuneration. Employees will also compare what they earn compared to other employees as well as what they put in and get out from an organisation.

Surveys aimed at describing the various job characteristics were conducted in the vehicle manufacturing environment and how they were ranked in terms of importance by the employees. The outcomes were not unexpected. Pay was the main factor that influenced that level of job satisfaction and job motivation. The level of pay is very important and increases either attraction or retention of employees. The pay given to an employee for his services indicates that the employee is key for the organization and that their employment is valued (Saeed, 2013).

According to Neog (2014) salary is the main variable for job satisfaction levels.

They conclude that the relationship between salary and job satisfaction is that salary was found to be the key aspect for the drive and job satisfaction of salaried employees of the automobile industry. The survey evaluated the various characteristics of the job as well as how they were graded as motivators or satisfiers by the employees. The findings from this study indicated the importance of a good salary. It was evident that salary increases was the main reason for job motivation and that an employee’s salary was the main influence on job satisfaction levels.

Salary packages are also required to be as fair and reasonable as possible and adhere to the expectations of the employees. This results in high levels of job satisfaction. It illustrates that employees experience an emotion of satisfaction as soon as the employees distinguish that their remuneration is fair. This is a consequence of the fact that money helps people to get the common needs and wants in their lives (Mafini & Dlodlo, 2014).

According to Mosammod & Kabir (2011) different people interpret salary differently. Salary topped the list of being the main factor that influences levels of

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motivation and job satisfaction amongst employees. It was also found that salary increases for performance is ranked as the main factor for motivation in one’s job.

Salary influences employee retention and staff turnover and increases organisation commitment to the organisation. Each year the private industry contributes 2% to the South African GDP with approximately R50 billion turnover income. However, this positive turnover is argued to be positively welcomed and beneficiary to few members in the industry, with the majority members still hanging on what they call a mere income. Although the private security industry is a successful and rapidly growing industry, it is still among of the lowest paying industry, with its employees still living under the poverty line.

In April and June 2006, the private security industry embarked on a labour strike, recorded to be the longest strike ever taken in the history of the South African private security industry. Their concerns were poor working conditions and low wages, and arguing to be performing similar functions as the state police officers yet experiencing inequality when compared to police officers. Although it is acknowledged by government and workers unions that private security guard officers are earning low wage, issues of pay are still not included in the new amended bill aiming to regulate the private industry, which yet again fails to address the socio-economic conditions of security guard officers coming from poor backgrounds (Berg, 2007).

According to Robbins & Judge (2012) employee attitudes comprise of three components that are cognition, affect, and behaviour. An example that can be given is that of low pay. If applied to this framework, then the statement, “my pay is low” is the mental component of an attitude. They go further to explain that the mental effect grows into an emotional attitude. This can be reflected as: “I am angry over how little I am paid.” This then leads to negative social results which define the determination to behave in a possible negative way toward ones job.

According to Govender (2013) it is stated that low salary contributes to disciplinary problems at Eskom centres. It further indicates that basic wages and salary do not increase motivation of employees who show up to work and put in the obligatory hours. To increase motivation incentive compensation is required. Further to this

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the security officers do not receive a transport grant when they have to travel long distances to their areas of work.

According to Mariwo (2008) the notion is that by having to pay for their own transport costs security guards officers are effectively subsidizing employers.

Many security officers are required to use their relatively low salaries to fund their transport costs to even remote locations for work. It is evident that service quality is given by security guards officers are directly related to their wages. The issues of relatively poor pay continue to have negatively impacted of the level of job satisfaction among security guard officers.

Despite the high and ever increasing cost of living, many security guard officers earn low salaries every month. Low salaries have resulted in making many of them have a low level of job satisfaction. Poor job performance and an increasing lack of commitment is a consequence of low levels of job satisfaction. It is also recommended that the government plays a bigger part and stress the significance of looking after the welfare of guards that are employed by various private security companies. (Karacan, 2011).

2.7.2 The Work (job) Itself

The “work itself” plays a significant role in defining the levels of job satisfaction an employee has. Employees may be content with factors such as salary, working conditions and relationship with co-workers but have low levels of satisfaction with the job and the tasks they are assigned. Furthermore employees may view their work as dull and boring with no stimulation. This signifies that employee would prefer a job that is motivating and challenging as well as one that can create opportunities for self-actualisation and acknowledgment (Maniram, 2007).

Expressiveness in ones work is also found to result in high job satisfaction levels.

Employees are inclined to select jobs where they are given the chance and freedom to explore their proficiencies as well as make use of their abilities. They want to be offered a diversity of tasks, independence, and feedback as to how well they are performing (Rehman & Rehman, 2013).

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According to Selin, et al., (2011) it is imperative to understand if a person has experienced any form of violence, their health wellbeing becomes endangered.

Private security guard officers are among professionals highly exposed to violence, with almost 73% of Finland security guard officers reported to be experiencing some kind of violence in a month. In a work context, violence can be defined as any threat or violent act, physical and/or psychological in nature that is directed towards a person while at work. In addressing workplace violence in the private security industry, the European Commission extends the meaning of work- related violence as to incidents where persons are abused, threatened, or assaulted in circumstances related to their work, involving an explicit or implicit challenge to their safety, well-being, and health. This definition has enabled occupational researchers to identify the health implications that security guard officers encounter in their line of duty (Sibanoyoni, 2013).

Work-related violence experienced by contracted security guard officers conducted in Finland on 1 010 security guard officers, presented that 82% of security guard officers encounter work-related violence from verbal aggression, including swearing and shouting. More than 39% of the 82% security guard officers reported to experience such acts of violence at least once in a month. In a study on work-related violence, it was found that 53% of security guard officers experienced threats of assault, including kicking and hitting, 8% threats to break property and 51% threats on physical acts during an arrest. A number of work- related violence were found to be common at night, during early hours of the morning and when working alone, which can be argued that since security guard officers are active shift work employees, they are more likely to encounter similar experience, especially in a crime stricken country like South Africa (Sibanoyoni, 2013) .

Moreover, a study conducted with South African security guard officers revealed that, officers remained fearful of going to work. This fear follows even after being equipped with necessary work related resources such as pepper spray, panic buttons, button sticks and two-ways radios. Therefore, it can be claimed that, safety remains an issue within the private security industry that has a considerable history of work-related violence (Sefalafala & Webster, 2013).

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Security guards should be part of strict and extreme training programmes to safeguard not only the security of the organisation but their own survival as well. It is a very high risk job. Poor training and recruitment standards can have a very damagingly effect on the reputation of the security industry. Security guards officers are often the faces of the company and are in the frontline in terms of contact with customers or the public. If the correct training is not provided security guards may abuse their positions by violating the members of the public human rights. Continuous training as well as prospects for development must be given so that security guards can display increased competency and professionalism. The benefits of proper training will mirror in the security guards attitude as well as performance. It is noteworthy to state that once a security guard has completed their training development it must not be taken for granted that they will be able to do the task effectively for a long period of time. It is crucial that all security guards attend refresher courses to confirm that their knowledge and skills are at an acceptable standard. Retraining will also enable employees to compete for or retain their jobs as well as enable security companies to compete for business.

Thus, continual investments in training can be beneficial in that the productivity of the organisation will increase and employees can see an increase in the quality of work life. Training can also result in better chances for promotion and improve management relationships. If security officers are effectively trained, then they have the chance to discover other opportunities within their establishments (Govender, 2013).

According to Mafini & Dlodlo (2014) self-actualisation in the place of work can be obtained through the creation of openings for employee promotion. It is evident from this that job satisfaction levels increase when there are chances of promotions within an organisation. Employees are said to be motivated to work harder if they have a chance to gain a promotion. Most employees want to attain better job titles or higher ranks.

According to Rehman & Rehman (2013) it is evident that reasonable advancement as well as chances for personal development improves job satisfaction levels.

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When a person gets a fair promotion especially to his true evaluation he receives a type of acknowledgment and hence job satisfaction. This is said to strengthen an employee’s perception to the quality of their work. This improves both their job satisfaction and their organizational commitment.

Promotion is an achievement in one’s life that is very significant as it assures a better salary, accountability, and status. It is therefore evident that the prospects for promotions influence the job satisfaction levels of employees. Opportunity for promotion, fair and equal chances to grow, suitable training, and development also fall within this category (Sageer & Rafat, 2012).

The lack of proper and correct training has been the biggest challenge of private security guard officers in Nigeria. People are been recruited as security guards into major security firms even though they have no experience. Some even have little or no training. Majority of the private security guard officers just undergo a simple physical fitness workout as part of their training. Their employers do not provide training on the many other aspects required of security training such as data collection and analysis and crowd or riot control. These shortcomings have resulted in much incompetence and inefficiency in many security guard officers (Kasali, 2013).

2.7.4 Relationship with Supervisor

According to Maniram (2007) poor supervision has always been a negative factor with respect to job satisfaction levels. Many employees have complained that there is a lack of supervisory skill from the person they report to. Employees also have heavily criticised the fact that favouritism and inequalities that occur at management level are at incredible levels. Employees that see managers as reasonable, fair, and competent have high levels of job satisfaction. Moreover, those employees that distinguish their bosses as biased, incompetent, and self- centred will consequently have a job satisfaction levels that are low.

According to Saeed (2013) workers prefer supervisors with whom they can develop a bond with and where there is a mutual feeling of trust. However, if the supervisor is offensive the employee will more often than not become dissatisfied

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with their job. Consequently it has been evident many times that supervisors play such a significant role that many people resign from their jobs because of the person they report to and not because of the company they work for.

Employee retention is also heavily influenced by supervisor support. Supervisor support can be described as the level at which supervisors take care of their employees especially with regards to welfare and valuing their inputs. A supervisor is considered to give high supervisor support if they make employees feel valued, heard, and wanted. Research conducted has indicated that many employees enter an organisation for different reasons. However, the duration for which that employee stays and how productive they are is heavily influenced by their bond with their immediate supervisor (Neog, 2014).

It is evident from research that job satisfaction and the relationship with supervisors are directly proportional. Supervision creates a vital role effecting job satisfaction. The ability to give emotional and technical support on work-related tasks is a true sign of a superior’s capability. It can be concluded that both high and low spirits in the workplace are contributed from the supervisors and that their attitudes as well as behaviour towards other employees also contribute to work- related complaints (Mafini & Dlodlo, 2014).

According to Mosammod & Kabir (2011) when supervisors gives proper mentoring the employee skill development improves faster and intentions to remain with the company increase. Essential knowledge as well as skills acquisition rate leadership styles that encompass human collaboration and promote decision- making as highly rated.

According to Mosikidi (2012) true educational leaders have the ability to produce and transfer a vision that motivates and inspires employees. This vision is usually accomplished through the empowerment of employees which includes providing information about the company. By identifying employees as stakeholders of their company employee are given the chance to freely partake in decision-making.

This also creates an environment that is built on the improvement of trust and opens communication which is vital for a collective group effort.