All University of Zululand students (graduate and undergraduate) who gave their time to complete the questionnaires and be part of the focus group. However, the University of Zululand (Unizulu) was one of the first universities to initiate a response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the form of a policy document.
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Introduction
The Epidemiology and treatment of HIV/Aids
Brain infection (encephalopathy) - swelling and inflammation of the brain can occur even in the early stages of HIV infection. Tuberculosis (TB) – one of the most serious chronic infections associated with HIV infection is tuberculosis.
A brief overview of global HIV infection trends
- The United States of America (USA)
- The United Kingdom (UK)
- China
- India
- Russia
According to Kalichman (2000), between 1999 and 2003 there was a sharp increase in the number of HIV diagnoses. It was estimated that, at the end of 2006, around forty-one percent (41%) of all people living with HIV in the UK were men who had sex with men.
A brief overview of sub-Saharan Africa HIV infection trends
- Zimbabwe
- Botswana
- Zambia
- South Africa
With approximately one in seven adults living with HIV and an estimated five hundred (500) adults and children infected every day (one person every three minutes), Zimbabwe is experiencing one of the worst AIDS epidemics in the world. Today it is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world (WHO, 2007).
The Debate on Knowledge, Practice, Attitude and Behaviour Change (KPAB) The majority of research on HIV/Aids can be captured under the heading of KAPB
In July 2005, South Africa's National Department of Health stated that the number of South Africans with HIV is six million. It is predicted that the number of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) will exceed six million by 2015.
Cognition Models
Commitment to condom use, positive communication with sexual partners, and availability of condoms also appear to be important factors in intended condom use. Health behaviors are seen by both models as related to attitudes and intentions (Dickenson, 2004).
The Health Belief Model
- Key Concepts of the Health Belief Model
- Conceptual models
- Rationale for the Health Belief Model in understanding HIV/Aids behaviour(s)
- Limitations of the Health Belief Model
Perceived barriers – this refers to an individual's belief in the influences that facilitate or discourage the adoption of promoted behaviors (Weston, 2006). Perceived benefits - the concept refers to an individual's belief in the positive consequences of an adopted behavior.
The Protection Motivation Theory
Support for the Protective Motivation Theory
The effects of this information were adjusted and evaluated with the components of PMT and women's intentions to perform breast self-examination. In a comparative study, the effects of persuasive appeals for increased exercise on intentions to exercise were evaluated using the components of the PMT.
Limitations of the Protective Motivation Theory
The results of the study showed that the information he shared increased the students' fear of tooth decay.
Theoretical Perspectives
They agree that risky sexual practices rank as the highest of risk-taking behaviors. The rapid spread of the HIV/AIDS pandemic prompted the need to obtain baseline information to measure the outcome of interventions.
Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviour
Global trends and Knowledge in Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviour
It is important to consider that men may be more honest in reporting risky sex.
Sub-Saharan African trends and Knowledge in Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviour
South African trends in Knowledge and Risk-Taking Behaviour
The results showed that only twenty-eight percent of the respondents regularly used a condom during sex (Weston, 2006). The study suggests that research on young people in South Africa has shown that misconceptions are high about the risk of HIV/Aids infection.
Substance Abuse and Risky Behaviour
Global Substance Abuse and Risky Behaviour
Levine and Ross (2002) conducted a study on HIV/AIDS perceptions and attitudes of young adults at the University of Cape Town.
South African trends in Substance Abuse and Risky Behaviour
Research by Cameron (2001) shows that white women still drink alcohol more often than black women, but that the consumption of alcohol among black women is increasing rapidly. It also noted that the role of alcohol consumption in relation to HIV infection is not good.
Stigmatization and Social Perceptions
Global trends Stigmatization and Social Perceptions
HIV/AIDS is as much about social phenomena as it is about biological and medical problems. Fear of infection and stigmatizing attitudes are common in locations with a high risk of HIV/AIDS.
Sub-Saharan African trend, stigmatization and social perceptions
It can be used to marginalize, exclude and exercise power over individuals who exhibit certain characteristics.
South African trends in Stigmatization and Social Perceptions
Many HIV-positive people have engaged in prevention initiatives by openly declaring their HIV status. The author also explored many of the issues surrounding stigma, which cause people to avoid disclosing their HIV positive status.
Women and stigma
Stigmatization links to risk and disclosure
Perceptions toward Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
Global trends in Perceptions toward Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
Sub-Saharan African trends in Perceptions toward Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
The situation in the country highlighted the fact that there is a high demand for HIV counseling and testing in Africa. Another problem with not getting tested and receiving VCT is that individuals who live in places where there is little or no access to antiretroviral medications (ARVs) view counseling and testing as pointless.
South African trends in perceptions toward Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT)
The number of VCT sites in South Africa has increased significantly in recent years, with four thousand one hundred and seventy-two (4,172) operating as of November 2006. Another problem is that women seem to be accessing testing more easily than men. in South Africa.
Religion and HIV/Aids
Other Christian churches do not have this dogmatic view and support contraception, condom use and in some cases do not stand in the way of the woman's right to choose an abortion (Nel, 2003). Globally, many liberal religions do not condemn condom use, although many do not support abortion.
HIV/Aids as a Gender Issue
Global trends in HIV/Aids as a Gender Issue
In most societies, the rules governing sexual relations are different for women and men, with men holding most of the power. In many parts of the world, women have to use sex in exchange for money, accommodation or food.
Sub-Saharan Africa trends in HIV/Aids as a Gender Issue
Concrete actions are needed to prevent violence against women and to ensure access to basic education and employment rights for women and girls. There are large social and economic gaps between women and men, for example, in Zimbabwe, and these inequalities have played a central role in the spread of HIV.
South African trends in HIV/Aids as a Gender Issue
In South Africa, black female students use transactional sex in exchange for money to buy things, sometimes to pay for their studies. Currently in South Africa this is mostly a black women phenomenon - although white women have been known to use Sugar Daddies (an older man who pays for the women's needs).
Barriers to HIV/Aids prevention
Currently, little research has been done on the phenomena and it is an interesting area for future research (private communication with Dr. Kathryn Nel, 5.20.09). In South Africa, the research campaign to promote HIV awareness has been accepted by local ethnic groups because it is culturally sensitive.
Culture Beliefs and Condoms Usage
Most people in Africa also believe that semen contains important vitamins which play a role in the development of the fetus in the womb (Mashego, 2004). Compatible children and women increase men's economic status in society and increase social security for their old age (having many children to take care of them when they are old).
Condom Effectiveness
It is argued that the image (or profile) of condom use needs to be improved. One way to encourage safe sex discussions and condom negotiation is to normalize condom use among sexually active individuals.
Condom use amongst students in South Africa
However, increasing condom use appears to be difficult in the South African context, as the following discussion illustrates. School education plays one of the most important parts in educating young people about HIV and AIDS.
Increased access to treatment may reduce stigma
Bloom (2006) states that HIV/AIDS threatens the sustainability of businesses, mainly due to its impact on the workforce. There is no doubt that HIV/AIDS is having a devastating effect on the South African economy.
Employee health in South Africa
The most important result of any corporate initiative is total commitment to the program which helps to counter issues such as stigma and prejudice about HIV in the workplace. In terms of HIV/Aids awareness or education, companies use tools such as posters and leaflets (69%), free condom provision (69%) condom promotion and education (53%), newsletters that convey knowledge about the pandemic (49%) , and detailed brochures with the names of counselors and clinics dealing with HIV-infected clients (42%).
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Introduction
Quantitative methodology was used to examine differences between cases and to analyze the data with numerical comparisons. Qualitative methodology was used to look at orientations concerned with attitudes and beliefs of the participant.
Research hypotheses
The qualitative analysis of themes in the focus group gave extra focus to the development of the questionnaire based on the Health Belief Model (HBM) and Protection Motivation Theory (PMT).
Data collection for question construction of additional questions for the survey (Focus Group)
Research participants for the Focus Group (Sample)
Analysis of Interview schedule for Focus Group (Qualitative)
Interpretation and control – an explanation (or interpretation) is given of the thematic categories found in the data.
Survey Questionnaire
Development of questions
VCT, HIV status, risk behavior and social conditions (see Appendix E for an explanation of how the survey questions were formulated based on the focus group themes and statements). I feel that I will get HIV/AIDS anyway, so I feel what is the point of wearing a condom ("Strongly Agree", "Agree", "Neutral:, "Disagree" or "Strongly Disagree").
Survey research participants
Data collection methods (Survey)
Data Analysis from the Survey (Quantitative)
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Introduction
Qualitative Results from the Focus group
The focus group generally believed that the consumption of alcohol is likely to have an impact on the infection rate at Unizulu. It was also noted that the peer group generally felt that they would prefer not to share intimate sexual details with VCT counselors as they are unsure of confidentiality.
Demographic/ Results
- Gender of respondents Table 1
- Social year of respondents Table 2
- Academic year of respondents
- Ethnicity
- Faculty to which respondents belong
- Sexual orientation of respondents Table 6
- Living situation of respondents Table 7
The above demographics indicate that while the majority of respondents are heterosexual (87%), twelve percent (12%) report being homosexual - this is more than forty individuals, which is a high percentage of homosexuality in a sample of four hundred . One percent (1%) of respondents live in lodgings, thirteen percent (13%) live at home, while twenty-six percent (26%) of respondents live off-campus, possibly with relatives.
Risk-taking behaviour
- Perceived risk-group Table 8
- Gender and risky behaviour
- Ranking risk behaviour
- Gender and risk behaviour
- Choice of partner
- Gender and choice of partner
- Protective behaviour
- Perceived risk
- Risk and preventative ability of condoms
- Attitudes towards condom use
- Ability to insist on condom use
- Participants` confidence that they can insist on condom use
- Motivation to protect from HIV infection
Two percent (2%) of students chose category four, seven percent (7%) of students chose category five, and sixty-four percent (64%) of students chose category six. While fifty-six percent (56%) of men chose category six (because they were sure they could insist on condom use), sixty-nine percent (69%) of women chose category six.
Stigma and social perceptions
Fear levels and perceptions of risk
Eighty-two percent (82%) of the respondents chose the fourth, fifth, and sixth categories, and twelve percent (12%) of the respondents chose the fourth and fifth categories. Nineteen percent (19%) chose the third category, twelve percent (12%) the fourth category, and seven percent (7%) the fifth category.
Perception of immunity
Three percent of participants chose category four, four percent (4%) chose category five, and eighty-one percent (81%) chose category six. Five percent (5%) of the participants chose category 0, indicating that they consider it very unlikely that people who engage in unprotected sex are at high risk of becoming infected with HIV.
Stigmatization and voluntary counselling and HIV testing (VCT)
- Quantity of participants who have received VCT
- Gender and VCT
- Stigmatizing attitudes
- Perceived risk and Voluntary Counselling and Testing
- The counselling process
I am being put off going for HIV testing because of what I have heard about the counseling process. The results show that fifty-two percent (52%) of the respondents felt that the counseling process was impersonal.
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Twenty-one percent (21%) of the sample disagreed with the statement indicating that they felt the counseling process was not impersonal.
Introduction
Discussion of Quantitative Results of the study .1 Risk-taking behaviour (Gender)
- Rating risk behaviour
- Fear
- Gender and intention
- Choice of partner
- Attitudes towards condom use
This supports the assumption that female students are more likely to feel that they are at risk of contracting HIV and AIDS. However, more men and twenty-three percent (23%) of all respondents are unlikely to avoid having sex with a stranger.
Stigmatization and Voluntary Counselling and HIV Testing
Students who attended VCT
Stigmatizing attitudes
The VCT process
Qualitative results of the study
This concern is probably related to something else and because counselors feel uncomfortable having to meet people who may turn out to be HIV positive. This again is most likely related to other illness and anxiety related to fear of the illness.
Conclusion
It should be noted that there is a portion of the respondents who believe that they belong to the high-risk group, but still believe that using a condom can prevent HIV infection. This would explain the still higher prevalence of infection in the area and among individuals of the age demographic of the respondents.
STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS
Implications of the research and Recommendations The following recommendations are made
It is recommended that further research through a follow-up KAPB survey in approximately two to three years to see if there is a change in the trends. Another alternative would be for universities to conduct smaller KAPB surveys more frequently to receive updated information on a more frequent basis, for example a three-question mini-survey on condom use next to condom containers.
Methodological Limitations of the study The following methodological limitations were found
Methodological strengths of the study The following methodological strengths were found
Ethical issues
Perceptions and attitudes towards HIV/Aids among young people at the University of Cape Town. A study of students' knowledge, behavior and resultant attitudes towards HIV/Aids at the University of Zululand Campus.
Attitudes
HIV Status
Risky behaviour
Government
Stigma/Social Perceptions
Other topics to be discussed 1 Prevention/Campaigns
Ja: How does it feel to participate in such a discussion about HIV/AIDS? Jo: The workshops are done; we have Love Life in South Africa which has been educating everyone on HIV/AIDS issues.
Questionnaire HIV/Aids
Which age group do you fall under?
Are you male or female?
What is your social (actual) year of study (how long have you been studying)?
What is your academic year of study?
Which racial category do you belong to?
Which faculty are you in?
What is your sexual orientation?
Where do you live in Empangeni?
Do you drink alcohol?
Do you take drugs?
Do you know the possible consequences of practicing unsafe sex?
How many people do you know with HIV/Aids?
If you know someone with HIV/Aids, has this influenced your perception of HIV/Aids?
The incidence rate of HIV/Aids on this campus is very low 1) Strongly agree
Fear of stigma results in people not admitting to having an HIV/Aids positive status
HIV/Aids can be avoided 1) Strongly agree
How do you view the disease/ virus?
Fear of stigma leads to people not admitting that they have an HIV/Aids positive status. If you found out you were HIV positive, how scared would you feel if 0 was nothing, and 6 was paralyzing fear.
Risky sexual behaviour (in terms of contracting HIV) is connected to the abuse of alcohol
Peer pressure is an important factor in perpetuating risk behaviors in terms of HIV/AIDS. I feel like I'm going to get HIV/AIDS anyway, so I feel like what's the point of wearing a condom.
I feel as though I will contract HIV/Aids anyway, so I feel what’s the point of wearing a condom?
If there were a cure, people would engaged in HIV risk behaviour more readily
It is important to know one’s status 1) Strongly agree
If you answered Strongly Agree or Agree to the question above, please answer question 31 below.
I am put off going for HIV testing because of what I have heard about the counselling process
I found the counselling process to be impersonal 1) Strongly agree
People who sleep around are more likely to go for HIV/Aids tests 1) Totally agree.
Near the beginning of a relationship I am able to suggest to my partner that we go for an Aids test
If you are homosexual, you are more likely to be infected with HIV than if you are heterosexual.
If you are homosexual you are more likely to be HIV infected than if you are heterosexual
I think that people who are having unsafe sex have a high risk of being infected with HIV (very unlikely (0)…..very likely (6))
When I want to, I know that I can insist on using a condom (very unlikely (0)…..very likely (6))
If you know someone with HIV/AIDS, has this affected your perception of HIV/AIDS? If you feel scared, it means you are doing bad things behind your partner Theme: risk behaviour, HIV/Aids awareness.
