THE USE OF THE INTERNET FOR STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE AT INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING
by
BALOYI NHLAYISI CEDRICK
THESIS
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
MEDIA STUDIES in the
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
(School of Languages and Communication Studies) at the
UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO
SUPERVISOR: PROF NC LESAME
2021
i
DECLARATION
I, Nhlayisi Cedrick Baloyi, declare that this thesis entitled “THE USE OF THE INTERNET FOR STUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE AT INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING” hereby submitted to the University of Limpopo, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Media Studies has not previously been submitted by me for a degree at this or any other university; that it is my work in design and in execution, and that all material contained herein has been duly acknowledged.
Full Names: Nhlayisi Cedrick Baloyi Date: 22/04/2021
Signature:
ii
DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my late grandfather, Mafemani Samuel Mnisi (1933-2011).
He did not live longer to see my achievements. May his soul rest in peace.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To God be the Glory, because He gives me the strength to do all things.
I would also like to send my earnest appreciation and thankfulness to the following people for their respective contributions to this thesis:
From the initial stages to the final copy of this thesis, I owe my enormous gratefulness to my supervisor, Prof. N.C. Lesame, for her rigorous advice and careful guidance;
My parents, Evelyn and Shadrack Baloyi, for their prayers, encouragement and support in everything I do;
My brothers, Languta Ignacious and Dumisani Arnold, for their emotional support and words of encouragement;
My fiancée, Nhlalala Phakula for her words of advice and encouragement, and always giving me hope to work hard;
Genuine appreciation to Pastor R.T Mashamba and Pastor M. Manyisi, for their guidance and spiritual support.
Dr EJ Malatji ‘tatana’, for his encouragement and support. Dr knows which button to press whenever I feel discouraged. He believed in me when I sometimes doubted myself. He has already done so much for me; he is an epitome of a best friend; I could not ask for more;
My colleagues in the School of Languages and Communication Studies at the University of Limpopo, for their support;
The National Institute for the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIHSS), for funding my research project and supporting me with capacity building workshops.
Research assistants, Joseas Mphaga, Tumelo Modiba, Mahlatse Mocheki, Charlotte Mahlangu, Kekana Thabiseng, Desmond Mashao and Thabang Shaku for your diligent and wonderful work during the data collection processes.
Mr. C. Swart, professional English editor who improved this thesis with unsullied language editing. Your assistance in this regard is highly appreciated.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 7.1: Age distribution of the participants 153
Table 7.2: Gender of the participants 153
Table 7.3: University distribution of the participants 154
Table 7.4: Faculty distribution of the participants at UL 154
Table 7.5: School distribution of the participants at UNIVEN 155
Table 7.6: Faculty distribution of the participants at TUT 155
Table 7.7: Level of study of the participants 156
Table 7.8: Participants' access to a computer 156
Table 7.9: Participants' access to the internet 157
Table 7.10: Time spent on the internet for academic purposes 157
Table 7.11: Training on the use of the internet 158
Table 7.12: Use of search engines for information search 158
Table 7.13: Google 159
Table 7.14: Yahoo 159
Table 7.15: Microsoft service network (MSN) 159
Table 7.16: Bing 160
Table 7.17: AltaVista 160
Table 7.18: Other search engines used for information search 160
Table 7.19: Options mostly used when using search engines 161
Table 7.20: Use of online databases for information search 162
Table 7.21: Ebscohost 163
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Table 7.22: Sabinet 163
Table 7.23: Springerlink 164
Table 7.24: Eric 164
Table 7.25: Satisfaction on the use of the internet for academic purposes 165
Table 7.26: Importance of online information for academic purposes 166
Table 7.27: Aspects hindering the use of the internet for academic purposes 167
Table 7.28: Recommendations for effective use of the internet to improve students’ performance 168
Table 7.29: University distribution and access to computer 170
Table 7.30: Chi-square test: University distribution and access to computer 170
Table 7.31: University distribution and access to the internet 171
Table 7.32: Chi-square test - University distribution and access to the internet 172
Table 7.33: Level of study and computer skills of the participants 173
Table 7.34: Chi-square test - Level of study and computer skills of the participants 174
Table 7.35: Level of study and internet skills of the participants 175
Table 7.36: Chi-square test - Level of study and internet skills of the participants 176 Table 7.37: University distribution and use of online databases 177
Table 7.38: Chi-square test - University distribution and use of online databases 177 Table 7.39: Level of study and use of online databases 178
Table 7.40: Chi-square test - Level of study and use of online databases 179
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Table 7.41: Gender and satisfaction on the use of the internet for
academic purposes 180
Table 7.42: Chi-square test - Gender and satisfaction on the use of the internet for academic purposes 180
Table 7.43: University distribution and challenges on the use of the internet for academic purposes 181
Table 7.44: Chi-square test - University distribution and challenges on the use of the internet for academic purposes 182
Table 7.45: Level of study of participants and challenges on the use of the internet for academic purposes 183
Table 7.46: Chi-square test - Level of study of the participants and challenges on the use of the internet for academic purposes 184
Table 7.47: ANOVA test - The influence of gender and duration on the satisfaction on the use of internet 185
Table 7.48: ANOVA test - The influence of gender and level of study on the satisfaction no the use of internet 186
Table 7.49: ANOVA test - The influence of age and gender on the satisfaction on the use of internet 187
Table 7.50: ANOVA test - The influence of university and level of study on the satisfaction on the use of internet 188
Table 7.51: ANOVA test - The influence university and level of study on the challenges on the use of internet 189
TABLE 7.52: Cronbach Alpha - Case Processing Summary 190
TABLE 7.53: Cronbach’s Alpha - Reliability Statistics 190
TABLE 7.54: Cronbach Alpha - Item Statistics 191
TABLE 7.55: Cronbach Alpha - Inter-Item Correlation Matrix 191
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TABLE 7.56: Cronbach Alpha - Item-Total Statistics 191 Table 8.1: A schematic presentation of the merged data 206
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6.1: Age distribution of participants 117
Figure 6.2: Gender of the participants 117
Figure 6.3: Level of study of the participants 118
Figure 7.1: Age distribution of participants 161
Figure 7.2: Gender of the participants 162
Figure 7.3: University distribution of the participants 165
Figure 7.4: Frequency of the use of various search engines 166
Figure 7.5: Frequency of the use of various outline databases 167
Figure 8.1: Mobile Library App model 214
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
4IR – Fourth Industrial Revolution ACS – American Chemical Society
ADSL – Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line ANOVA – Analysis of variance
AOL – America Online
ARPA – Advanced Research Project Agency
Arpanet – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ASE – Academic Self-Efficacy
CATV – Cable Television
CD – Compact Disc
CERN – European Organisation for Nuclear Research
CERT – Centre of Excellence for Applied Research and Training COVID-19 – Coronavirus Pandemic 2019
CSE – Computer Self-Efficacy DVD – Digital Versatile Disc E-book – Electronic books
EBSCO – Elton B. Stephens Company
ECAR – EDUCAUSE Center for Analysis and Research E-journals – Electronic journals
E-learning - Electronic learning E-mail – Electronic mail
Emerald – Environmental Management Exchange and Resource Alliance for Local Development
x E-resources – Electronic resources FTP – File Transfer Protocol Gbps – Gigabytes per second
HCU – Home Computer User
HTML – Hypertext Markup Language HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
IA – Internet Addiction
ICT – Information and Communication Technology
IM – Instant Messaging
Internet – Integrated Network
ISP – Internet Services Provider
ISPA – Internet Service Provider Association
IT – Information Technology
IUIU – Islamic University in Uganda JINX – Johannesburg Internet Exchange
JKUAT – Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology KIU – Kampala International University
LAN – Local Area Network
LCMS – Learning Content Management System LMS – Learning Management System
LOR – Learning Object Repository Los – Learning Objects
MSN – Microsoft Network
MUBS – Makerere University Business School
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MUK – Makerere University of Kampala
NCSA – National Centre for Super Computer Applicant NGO – Nongovernmental organization
NRENs – National Research and Education Networks NSF – National Science Foundation
ODeL – Open Distance and E-learning
OECD – Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OERAfrica – Open Educational Resources Africa Organization
OSS – Open Source Software OUT – Open University of Tanzania PDF – Portable Document Format
RENs – Research and Education Networks
SABINET – South African Bibliographic Information Network SNT – Social Networking Site
SPSS – Statistical Package for the Social Sciences STN – Social Technical Network
SUA – Sokoine University of Agriculture TAM – Technology Acceptance Model
TCP/IP – Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol TPB – Theory of Planned Behaviour
TRA – Theory of Reasoned Action
TUT – Tshwane University of Technology
TVET – Technical and Vocational Education and Training
xii UAE – United Arab Emirates UCT – University of Cape Town UDSM – University of Dar es Salaam UGT – Uses and gratifications theory
UK – United Kingdom
UKZN – University of KwaZulu-Natal
UL – University of Limpopo
UNESCO – United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural UNISA – University of South Africa
UNIVEN – University of Venda
URL – Uniform Resource Locator USA – United States of America
WAN – Wide Area Network
WES – Web Information System WI-FI – Wireless Fidelity
WWW – World Wide Web
xiii ABSTRACT
This study focuses on the use of the internet for students’ academic performance at institutions of higher learning. Various internet applications including search engines, online library resources and social media are evaluated to explore how best they can be used to enhance students’ performance at institutions of higher learning. This is critical to ensure that students maximise the use of technology specifically for academic purposes.
Generally, students are constant users of the internet at institutions of higher learning, hence it is cardinal to examine their internet use patterns for academic purposes.
Institutions of higher learning have invested in advanced technology through the internet to enhance student academic purposes. Therefore, one would expect students to use various internet applications effectively for the betterment of their studies.
In this study, the researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. The researcher also employed exploratory and descriptive designs.
These methodologies and designs are appropriate for this study because they allow data to be collected through focus group interviews and questionnaires. Focus group interviews were employed to collect qualitative data and questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data. The researcher conducted six focus groups from three institutions of higher learning, namely the University of Limpopo, University of Venda and Tshwane University of Technology, Polokwane campus. Three hundred and forty- three (343) questionnaires were analysed for this study.
These data collection tools were pertinent for this study since they assist to determine factors that influence the attitudes, opinions and behavior of the participants. Online library resources play a cardinal role in enhancing the learning process for students by providing online content which could have been difficult to access without the internet. Social media improve and enhance students’ academic performance, but students do not know how best to use it for academic purposes. Proper integration of social media into education is needed.
In contrast, students prefer to use social media purely for socialising and entertainment. Despite their ability to assist students in enhancing and improving learning process, social media are, mostly not used for academic purposes.
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Additionally, students’ use of internet search engines exposes them to an array of information which require critical online information literacy in order to choose the best information. Lastly, the study contributes to the existing body of knowledge by creating a model which will enhance and assist students to easily access academic information through the use of a mobile application. The study also provides significant information which could be used to amend and draft new ICT policies within institutions of higher learning, taking into consideration the adoption of online learning through the use various technologies including social media.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x
ABSTRACT xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION 4
1.2.1 Information and communication technology and education 6
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM 8
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 10
1.4.1 Aim of the Study 10
1.4.2 Objectives of the Study 10
1.4.3 Rationale of the study 11
1.4.4 Scope of the study 12
1.5 ROLE OF THEORY IN THE STUDY 12
1.5.1 Philosophical position: Constructivism 12
1.5.2 Epistemological orientation: Interpretivism 14
1.5.3 Practice Theory 15
1.5.4 The uses and gratifications theory 16
1.6 INTERNET LANDSCAPE IN SOUTH AFRICA 16
1.6.1 Overview 17
1.6.2 Internet use at institutions of higher learning 17
1.6.3 Social media and education 18
1.6.4 Digital divide at institutions of higher learning 20
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 25
1.8 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 1 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 2 26
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CHAPTER 2: OPERATIONALISATION OF THE KEY CONCEPTS AND
CONSTRUCTS 28
2.1 INTRODUCTION 28
2.2 DEFINITIONS AND CONTEXTUALISATION OF CONCEPTS AND
CONSTRUCTS 29
2.2.1 Internet 29
2.2.2 Academic performance 35
2.2.3 Information and Communication Technology 37
2.2.4 Search engines 40
2.2.5 Electronic learning (E-learning) 44
2.2.6 Internet self-efficacy 47
2.2.7 Social Media 49
2.3. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 2 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 3 54 CHAPTER 3: CONTEXTUALISATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN HIGHER
EDUCATION 55
3.1 INTRODUCTION 55
3.2 USES AND APPLICATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND
LEARNING 57
3.2.1 The relationship between the internet and education 58 3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF THE INTERNET FOR
INFORMATION SEARCH 58
3.4 USE AND CONTEXTUALISATION OF SOCIAL MEDIA IN EDUCATION 59 3.5 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
EFFECTIVENESS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING 61
3.5.1 Technologies being used for teaching and learning at the three
universities under study 61
3.5.2 Technologies which could be useful for teaching and learning at the
three universities under study 64
3.6 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 3 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 4 70
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CHAPTER 4: THE USE OF THE INTERNET FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING AT INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING IN VIROUS PARTS OF THE
WORLDPERSPECTIVES 72
4.1 INTRODUCTION 72
4.2 STATUS OF E-LEARNING IN VARIOUS EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES 72
4.3 STATUS OF E-LEARNING AT VARIOUS AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES 74
4.4 STATUS OF E-LEARNING AT SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES 77 4.5 THE INTERNET AND STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE 80 4.6 BENEFITS OF ICT AND THE INTERNET IN HIGHER EDUCATION 81
4.7 CHALLENGES OF ACCESS TO ONLINE INFORMATION RESOURCES 85 4.8 THE CHALLENGES AND BENEFITS OF USING SOCIAL MEDIA IN EDUCATION 88
4.8.1 The use and benefits of Facebook for educational purposes 88
4.8.2 Disadvantages of using Facebook for educational purposes 89
4.8.3 Disadvantages associated with using Facebook for educational purposes 91 4.8.4 The use of YouTube for educational purposes 92
4.9 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 4 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 5 93
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 94
5.1 INTRODUCTION 94 5.2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 94 5.2.1 Research design 96 5.2.2 Population and sampling 96
5.2.3 Data collection methods 104
5.2.4 Data Analysis Methods 106
5.3 QUALITY CRITERIA 110
5.3.1 Quality criteria for qualitative data 110
5.3.2 Quality criteria for quantitative data 111
5.4 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 112
5.5 CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE METHODOLOGY 113
5.6 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 5 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 6 114
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CHAPTER 6: QUALITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 116
6.1 INTRODUCTION 116
6.2 QUALITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS: FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEWS 116
6.2.1 Demographics of the participants 116
6.2.2 Identification of the means by which students at institutions of higher learning uses the internet to enhance their academic performance 118
6.2.3 The opportunities and challenges faced by students when using the internet for academic purposes 129
6.2.4 An analysis of how the students use different internet search platforms for academic purposes 139
6.3. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 6 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 7 151
CHAPTER 7: QUANTITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 152
7.1 INTRODUCTION 152
7.2 DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS 152
7.3 INFERENTIAL STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 168
7.4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 184
7.5 RELIABILITY TESTS 189
7.6 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER 7 AND OUTLINE OF CHAPTER 8 192
CHAPTER 8: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 193
8.1 INTRODUCTION 193
8.2 SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS 193
8.3 THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS 197
8.4 MERGING OF RESULTS 206
8.5 DISCOURSE ON THE OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 207
8.6 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTERS 210
8.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY 212
8.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 216
8.9 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY 217
8.10 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES 220
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8.11 CONCLUSION 221
REFERENCES 223
APPENDICES 271
APPENDIX A: Letter of Invitation to Participate in the Study 271
APPENDIX B: Informed Consent Form for Research Participants 272
APPENDIX C: Interview Guide for focus groups 273
APPENDIX D: Questionnaire 276
APPENDIX E: TREC Ethical Clearance Certificate 283
APPENDIX F: Letter from the Editor 284
1 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The discourse around the role of the internet in education, which is the focus of this study, is prevalent in South African society and literature (Blignaut, Hinostroza, Els &
Brun, 2010; Somro, 2010; Oyedemi, 2014; Meyer & Gent, 2016; Mphidi, 2016;
Chisango, 2017; Hlatshwayo, 2017; Maswanganyi, 2017; Myeni, 2018; Matlala, 2020).
This discourse on the role of the internet to advance the education of South Africans is high on the agenda of the South African government and legislated and promoted through various Laws, old, amended and new (South African Higher Education Act No. 101, 1997; Blignaut et al, 2010; South African Government Department of Education White Paper on e-Education, 2004; Cross & Adam, 2007; Hlatshwayo &
Shama, 2020). This discourse focuses on the promotion and use of technology to improve education. The internet is part of the services offered by technology and it is the focus of this study, in terms of how selected university students make use of it to contribute towards the advancement of their university education.
University students are the focus of this study because technology disparities experienced by students at South African universities continue to exist and indicate that there exists a digital divide between South African universities, a development that affects student access to and use of the internet to advance their education. This situation means that some universities are information haves and other universities are information have nots (Osunkunle, 2010; Wiener, 2021). In this regard, Wiener (2021) states that the digital divide that exists between South African universities haves and have nots is getting worse and more glaring than ever. A social issue that is chronic, such as the digital divide that affects South African students, is worthy of continuous and unending research so that solutions to this challenge can be established by social sciences researchers. The need for this kind of research becomes even more imperative, and critical, if some students have less access to the internet, a deficiency with a potential to negatively affect their education and this state of affairs prompted this researcher to conduct this study, with a view to contribute to
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this discourse and assist in finding solutions to the digital divide challenge experienced by university students.
To interrogate and demonstrate this historical and chronic university digital divide further, in a study, Wright (2003), recorded that there is a huge disparity in the technical levels of the students who attend South African universities. This observation from Wright (ibid.), implies that some universities are information-rich (or technology and information haves) and other universities are information-poor (or technology and information have nots). The term “information-rich”, according to Bornman, Lesame and Schoonraad (2001, 344), refers to those cities, states, regions and countries of the world (but universities in the context of this study), which have, produce and distribute large amounts of information to other states or regions. In the case of universities, therefore, this situation implies that information-poor universities do not have adequate access to advanced technology (and consequently internet services), and could be in a position of producing as well as distributing less information to the reading population as compared to universities with more access to technology (and internet services).
On the other hand, information-rich universities have adequate access to advanced technology (and internet services), and this could mean that they do have the potential to produce and distribute more information to the reading population or scholarship.
For example, in this regard, Osunkunle (2010:381-382, in Soomro, 2010), records that in South Africa, historically white universities (HWUs), including “Wits, Rhodes and Stellenbosch enjoy unlimited access to ICT facilities like computers and the Internet”.
Furthermore, Osunkunle (ibid.) declares that historically black universities (HBUs), including the Universities of Fort Hare, Zululand and Limpopo “have limited access to technology, including computers and the internet”. These findings, from Wright (2003) and Osunkunle (2010), and the glaring facts and conditions of technology and internet challenges faced by South African university students, challenges that still existed as far as the early 2000s (cf. Lesame, 2001), existed in 2017 when this researcher commenced with this study, and still exist in 2021 as recorded by Wiener (2021), motivated this researcher to conduct this study to contribute to this necessary and unending discourse to find solutions to the digital challenges encountered by HBU and other university students.
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Access to the internet is not enough, but information and communication technology (ICT) applications and the intellectual knowledge, expertise and skills to use them to find relevant information and solve socio-economic problems is what is essential in South Africa (Mphidi, 2016; Chisango, 2017; Hlatshwayo, 2017; Myeni, 2018; Matlala, 2020). It is a critical advantage that people who have technology and internet access are in a better position to access education and advance their studies than people who lack access to technology and the internet, which is a disadvantage to them. In this digital era, people (including university students and villagers), who do not have access to the internet are at a disadvantage (Matlala, 2020).
The University of Limpopo (UL), which is one of the universities selected for research in this study, has been researched and recorded before by some Communication and Media Studies scholars and found to be suffering from the digital divide which has negative effects on the education of students (Oyedemi, 2012, 2014; Maswanganyi, 2017). Against that background, this researcher found it necessary to continue the process of investigating access and use of the internet by the UL students because the digital divide issue in that campus continues to exist which means that researchers should continue to conduct research on the issue to find solutions to it. When a social condition such as the digital divide at universities is chronic, that situation demands and requires continued research and focus, in order to find solutions for it. This researcher took that research challenge with the aim of contributing towards the solution of the university digital divide chronic problem to assist students to access and use the internet better to improve their education. The three universities selected for this study were viewed by this researcher as those universities with a potential to have limited technology and internet services, which could benefit from recommendations from a study of this nature in terms of how internet services could be accessed and used to contribute better to students’ education.
To expand on the focus of this study, the researcher also sampled the two other universities, viz., University of Venda and Tshwane University of Technology (Polokwane campus) because of geographical location and convenience to the researcher who resides and works in Limpopo Province (at the UL), and the fact this researcher considered the cost-effectiveness of conducting research on digitally challenged universities nearer to one’s residential and work area, due to financial constraints because aspects such as travel when conducting research can be costly.
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This study is located in Communication and Media Studies because the internet is a communications tool to share information. Retrieval of information is also a part of communication and information sharing, even though that function of the internet is related to the field of Information Studies. The internet, as an educational resource and a communications tool, is used in university libraries for communication and information sharing purposes. However, the use of the internet for various communication purposes remains part of Communication and Media Studies.
The Coronavirus disease, otherwise known as (COVID-19) pandemic which started in 2019 has also necessitated that issues of university student access to the internet be resolved because some students study via online resources and universities such as the UL started teaching and learning using digital platforms such as Blackboard. In this regard, through the use of digital media and education platforms such as Blackboard, the UL offers students “multimodal teaching” (Mokgalong, 2020:1).
Multimodal teaching encompasses the use of offline and online teaching platforms.
According to Green (2020: 1), “the COVID-19 pandemic is having a dramatic impact on all aspects of life and work”. This COVID-19 impact on aspects of work has also influenced the use of the internet for education by university students (Le Grange, 2020; Ramrathan, Ndimande-Hlongwa, Mkhize & Smit, 2020; Shawa, 2020). All these factors make it necessary for Media Studies researchers to continue investigating aspects of how students, especially those who study at HBUs, use the internet for learning. This study is a necessary and valuable contribution to that discourse aimed at finding solutions to the digital divide pertaining to the access and use of the internet by university students.
1.2 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION
The use of the internet is spreading swiftly into aspects of everyday life and directly affects people’s ideas and actions. The internet has an impact on many fields, including higher education. Internet use has become an everyday learning activity for students at almost all institutions of higher learning. The internet is a global collection of networks and these networks connect together in many different ways to form a single entity known as the internet (Lesame, Mbatha & Sindane, 2012). The use of technology and the internet in particular, has changed the way of teaching and learning at institutions of higher learning where education processes take place (Torres-Diaz,
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Duart, Gomez-Alvarado, Marin-Gutierrez & Segarra-Faggioni, 2016). Thus, it is of paramount importance to recognise the impact of the internet on students’ academic performance.
The internet is a channel for scientific resources, and it comprehends a large amount of information for different subjects, purposes, target groups, trustworthiness and other crucial matters. Hence, it is imperative that users are attentive of the extensive variety of data available on the internet, and are trained in the measures by which information content ought to be evaluated. The growth in the field of telecommunications has brought about online services, specialised electronic networks, Web pages, software, electronic mail (e-mail) and global information sources to our households and education (Soegoto & Tjokroadiponto, 2018). The internet affords a setting where billions of people contribute to and engage in the creation and sharing of information.
Agil and Ahmad (2011) describe the internet a vehicle for data kept in archives or documents on a computer, which carries countless data and services, comprises email, online chat, file transfer, the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. In the current world, the internet plays an essential role in teaching and learning, including research at institutions of higher learning (Ivwighreghweta &
Igere, 2014). Thus, the advent of the internet has signified the emergence of a new method of knowledge construction and dissemination. This new form of data resources has, as its utmost advantage, an effectively limitless wealth of information resources which is readily accessible to billions of people at once in several parts of the world (Kumar & Kaur, 2006). The internet is a resourceful tool for searching, retrieving and circulating information, with an important impact on students and academics. The internet can always be consulted as a reference resource because it is extensive and dynamic.
The internet has liberated scholarship from the academic, economic and geographic restrictions related to traditional print media (Kuma & Kaur, 2006). This liberty has had a key influence on academics’ research aptitude and productivity. It has also assisted academics who embark on the field of research by keeping them up to date with developments in research subjects by utilising the internet (Ogedebe, 2012).
The primary functions of the media in general are to inform, educate and entertain the audience in the mass communication process (Fourie, 2007). The internet has
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enhanced and changed the manner in which people and students in particular, search for information in institutions of higher learning. Nowadays, the internet is a very effective and popular tool to be used by students for education as well as variety of other purposes including entertainment. Limaye and Fotwengel (2015) state that the internet has absolutely transformed the information technology, computer and communication in the world. However, (Al-rahmi, Othman & Musa, 2014; Acheaw &
Larson, 2015) have alluded to misuse of the internet by students.
The internet has become a worldwide device to achieve better educational outcome, mostly in developing countries. Tandale and Raman (2016) submit that for Nigerian universities, the use of the internet among students is promptly spreading.
Nonetheless, they are still faced with a challenge of providing impartial, affordable and sustainable access to the internet at various institutions.
The internet offers important opportunities for attaining information in various fields such as economics, health, science and education by sharing and storing information (Mbatha & Lesame, 2013). It has become so crucial higher education advancement in that it provides an entryway to massive information at fingertips (Mbatha, 2015).
1.2.1 Information and communication technology and education
University education is geared towards the production of complete scholarship, proficient of independent learning and research. Before the use of information and communication technology (ICT) for attaining, processing and dissemination of assignments and research information, teaching and learning were limited in information due to inadequate materials available in libraries. However, with the new media and the internet bridging the digital divide, students have improved access to information that is easily accessible regardless of where one is located in the world.
The process of accessing and circulating information for university education is no longer limited to physical available prints, but includes electronic-materials (Bola &
Ogunlade, 2012). A lot of updated and current information is available on the internet through advanced search and the students can only access this information provided they have adequate skills to do so.
Information and communication technology and the internet in particular permits high- level educational cooperation among students, academics and researchers.
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Kinaanath (2013) expounded that this cooperation can take place amongst individuals in extensively dispersed geographical settings. The internet is also useful in the establishment of collaborative learning, where students can work together on common tasks from different locations. Wang (2008) emphasised that it is significant for learning environment to offer pertinent tools so that students can simply communicate and cooperate with each other. By utilizing the various internet applications and services including social media, students can share their philosophies and work collaboratively with fellow students regardless of geographical location (Lai, 2011).
The internet plays a crucial role in the rise of collaboration amongst academics and it affords opportunities for international, cross-cultural and cooperative learning (Kinaanath, (2013). Moreover, Khan, Hasan and Clement (2012) highlighted the significance of international collaboration and networking in academia and professional development through many forms including sharing of knowledge over the internet.
The use of technology such as computers brought about a positive impact on the educational purpose, unlike using traditional chalkboards, textbooks, and traditional media such as radio and television (Aduwa-Ogiegbaen & Iyamu, 2005; Hsu, 2007).
Punie (2007) submits that in a cooperative learning setting, students are more inspired and encouraged, as a result they tend to learn better. According to Wang (2008:418)
“social constructivists advocate collaborative learning where students can learn from each other, resulting in the construction of coherent knowledge”.
Lai (2011) also confirm that using digital technologies including the internet and computers can improve the quality of learning experiences and support partnerships amongst students. ICT-based approaches are making it expedient to create positive attitudes towards a cooperative and productive learning perspective (Sangra &
Gonzalez-Sanmamed, 2010).
Lai (2011) is of the view that digital technology permits more collaborative pedagogy by supporting online learning communities. Libraries can no longer be places for storage of printed materials, and accessing numerous digital libraries is regarded as the new approach to teaching and learning at institutions of higher learning. These digital collections comprise of electronic books (e-book), electronic journals (e- journals), other resources like illustrations, maps, photographs, and audio files
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(Kearney, Schuck, Burden & Aubusson, 2012). These developments and the rise of online libraries leads to an increase in teaching and learning outside the traditional lecture rooms (Hefzallah, 2004). Students and academics use the internet as a significant educational tool for research, assignments and other academic work.
Online and digital publications are more up-to-date when compared to printed books and journals. Due to online publications, students and academics are able to access recent and quality information from all parts of the world for their studies and research (Douglas, 2011). Students can access Web sites through the World Wide Web (WWW) and the internet links, which leads them to online information to use for academic purposes (Godoe & Johansen, 2012).
The next section discusses the research problem.
1.3 RESEARCH PROBLEM
This study examines the use of the internet for students’ performance at selected institutions of higher learning. The internet, which was established to increase communication and ease information exchange, has developed beyond prospects.
Adediran and Kehinde (2014) highlight that the internet is commonly used by students to collect information to conduct research or improve the knowledge of any field of study. However, some users are unable to control their internet use, and thus experience difficulties such as lack of expertise in using the internet for academic purposes (Senormanci, Konkan, Güçlü & Senormanci, 2014).
The primary role of the internet at institutions of higher learning is to enhance the learning process for students. The internet with its range of updated information available, requires skills to be utilised effectively and for students to access updated information, they should have capabilities to use it. For more advanced and specialised information, there are specific search engines (for example, Google Scholar, and Library search engines) which identify scholarly and technical sources.
Button, Harrington and Belan (2014) found that there is little information literacy among students, thus they are unable to manage excessive volumes of information retrieved through electronic databases. Button et al. (ibid.) also state that students are not fully equipped to use the internet for their academic purpose. Durodolu and Mojapelo
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(2020) describe information literacy as the remedy for inspiring problem-solving aptitudes, mostly those difficulties associated to the contemporary use of technology that drives information access. They further indicate that information literacy helps students and academics with critical thinking skills, to pursue solutions to essential questions, to search for information from numerous sources, create knowledgeable sentiments and assess sources of information for cognisant judgment.
Taylor and Dalas (2017) are of the view that although students are considered to be having knowledge on how to use the computer, they, however, lack the skills of evaluating the authenticity of retrieved digital information. Taylor and Dalas (2017) also state that students do not seem to understand the information quality issues regarding internet information sources. Thus, students may lack the information literacy skills to make better choices about the use of these sources. Care should be taken to ensure that good sources of information have been identified, as it can be problematic to distinguish poor from good information, and one cannot always track the individual that has posted the information, what their background is and whether or not they are qualified to write on the topic (Lesame, Mbatha & Sindane, 2012).
Students with enough skills to effectively utilise the internet for academic purposes benefit from this phenomenon. However, some students are not well acquainted with the use of the internet as an academic tool. Despite the massive use of the internet at universities, there is a poor level of using electronic resources such as the electronic journals and online databases which are significant for learning and research.
Onovughe (2012) records that although the majority of students use the internet for academic purposes, most of them spend fewer hours reading relevant accredited journals. This can have little impact on their academic performance. Burton (2006) maintains that students have a tendency to use the internet mostly for entertainment and not for academic purposes. Others still prefer to use the traditional way of using printed textbooks when reading for and writing assignments. This can affect them especially because libraries can only house limited printed resources. Makokha (2016) mentions that regardless of the considerable allocation of ICT resources to education, the sector is facing challenges including the use of new ICT including the internet.
With the ever-changing technology, it is of significance that students at institutions of higher learning possess critical knowledge on how to use ICT in general and the
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internet in particular for educational purposes. Access to recent and updated information is crucial in academia, and the technological revolution including the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) is changing the means of accessing information.
The internet is an important channel for academic information and contain vast quantities of data which differ regarding to content, purpose and trustworthiness. It is, therefore, important that students are aware of the varied information presented on the internet and acquainted in the measures by which the information content should be retrieved (Chapman, 2002). It is worth noting that the extent of utilising these electronic resources differs along tertiary institutions. Hence this study sought to explore how students at the Universities of Limpopo, Venda and Tshwane University of Technology Polokwane campus utilise the internet as an academic tool. Dlamini, Ncube and Muchemwa (2015) indicate that this problem exists in most of the institutions of higher learning; as such, the researcher examined it at the mentioned three universities.
The next section outlines the purpose of the study, objectives, rationale and scope of the study.
1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 1.4.1 Aim of the study
The aim of this study was to examine the use of the internet for students’ performance at the institutions of higher learning.
1.4.2 Objectives of the study
The objectives of this study were, namely, to:
(a) identify the means by which students at institutions of higher learning uses the internet to enhance their academic performance;
(b) establish the opportunities and challenges faced by students when using the internet for academic purposes; and
(c) analyse the manner in which and reasons for which the students use different internet search platforms for academic purposes.
11 1.4.3 Rationale of the study
It is crucial to embark on a study of this nature because the internet is a significant tool for education. If institutions of higher learning want to maintain their importance in creating knowledge and developing solutions for the challenges facing the world, the internet remains vital in accessing updated information. Students in higher education campuses have access to the internet and use it to communicate and share information. Students are the most active group that uses the internet. In the past, traditional media (printed books and journals) were the reliable sources of information for students. The internet and social media in particular, have changed the status quo in terms of searching for and sharing of information among students and academics.
Digital technologies including the internet has provided the means of easy sharing and access for information regardless of where one is located in the world.
Students are expected to possess the knowledge about how to search for academic related content through various internet platforms. The main aim of this study was to examine the use of the internet for students’ academic performance at institutions of higher learning. Previous studies including (Al-Hasib, 2009; Al-Zoube & El-Seoud, 2009; Al-rahmi, Othman & Musa, 2014; Acheaw & Larson, 2015), have been conducted on the use of the internet at universities, but little has been done to address the correlation between the use of the internet and students’ academic performance.
Studies on the use of social media by university students have been conducted in South Africa (Johannes, Michael & Corinne, 2014; Petersen & Johnston, 2015;
Nsizwana, Ige & Tshabalala, 2017; Seedat, Roodt & Mwapwele, 2019; Budree, Fietkiewicz & Lins, 2019), however, not much has been done to examine the integration of the use of social media and access to updated and relevant academic content among students. This study came at a time when facets of life including education has been changed by the arrival of the Coronavirus disease, making it difficult to conduct contact lessons in all level of education. In response to the pandemic, the education sector including higher education has prioritised the online learning. The use of the internet for education has become the key aspect than ever before. Thus, it was of significant for the researcher to embark on the study of this nature to establish how students uses various internet applications to enhance their academic performances.
12 1.4.4 Scope of the study
The internet is a relatively broad concept because internet has various applications which can be utilised for accessing and sharing of information among students. In the interest of this research, the researcher included internet search engines, electronic databases, and social media as internet applications for this study. There are 26 universities in and several Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) colleges in South Africa (Higher Education and Training, 2019). However, for this study, University of Limpopo, University of Venda and Tshwane University of Technology Polokwane campus, all based in Limpopo were purposively selected for this study. These institutions share the same attributes in that they both accommodate mainly black students from rural communities, they share fairly similar infrastructure, and they are the biggest institutions admitting fulltime students in the province.
Students from these institutions were sampled for this study.
The subsequent section focus on the theoretical framework of the study.
1.5 ROLE OF THEORY IN THE STUDY
This section explains the philosophical perspective and epistemological position on which the study is underpinned. The theoretical framework of this study is discussed grounded on two theories, namely, the practice theory and the uses and gratifications theory.
The main focus of these theories is to explain user adoption of information technology.
A consideration of these procedures in mass communication is essential about investigating the use of the internet as an academic tool by students at institutions of higher learning.
1.5.1 Philosophical paradigm: Constructivism
There are many philosophical paradigms in existence today due to the advancement in human ways of thinking and different ways of explaining social phenomena. The centre of this study is on deductive theory, with constructivism as an ontological position and interpretivism as an epistemology. Adom, Yeboah and Ankrah (2016:2) describe constructivism as a “philosophical paradigm as an approach that asserts that
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people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. It is based on the analogy or basis that people form or construct much of what they learn through experience”. Thus, constructivist philosophy depicts the notion that learning does not simply take place from the traditional way of lecturers standing in front of the students and lecturing.
However, learning also take place when students discover the knowledge through experimentation and practicing (Doğru & Kalender, 2007).
The constructivism philosophical paradigm is an efficient tool that can yield many benefits when implemented in the carrying out of research in diverse fields of study as well as in undertaking teaching and learning activities at any educational level (Adom et al, 2016). Hobein (1996) describes the constructivism philosophical paradigm as an approach that asserts that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. Constructivism is based on the analogy or basis that people construct much of what they learn through experience (Hein, 1991; Cashman et al., 2008). Thus, to the constructivist, constructing meaning is learning. Constructivism aims to study an issue from the perspective of the research participants and is subjective in nature (Honebein, 1996;
Adams, 2006; Kalender, 2007; Duckles et al., 2019). According to Kim (2005), there are two main processes involved in the construction of knowledge, accommodation and assimilation. The accommodation process in the construction of knowledge through learning involves the framing of one’s mental representation of the external world to fit the new experiences s/he has experienced. Thus, the learner allows room for new experiences in one’s mind. On the other hand, assimilation is the second process of knowledge construction, which means the learner incorporates the new experience one has learnt into the existing frame of mind one already had. Therefore, the old and new experiences coexist concurrently in the learner’s mind for use in decision making and advancement of learning.
This constructivist philosophical standpoint is used to reinforce studies that pursue to comprehend how subjects being investigated ‘make sense’ of their daily life in their normal settings, it could be at the school or working environment. Furthermore, it is suitable for a researcher who embark on a study with the purpose of comprehending the inspiration and impact of certain behaviour on the attitude of the subjects in a
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specific environment (Adom, Yeboah & Ankrah, 2016). Moreover, constructivism and interpretivism approaches maintain that knowledge is constructed by exploring and understanding the social world of the subjects being studied, focusing on their meaning and interpretations from a specific background (Al-Saadi, 2014).
This philosophical standpoint is suitable for this study, since the research sought to examine the use of the internet in enhancing students’ performance at institutions of higher learning. The researcher understands that certain behaviour towards using the internet could have impacted by several factors within the subjects’ environment.
Again, students possess certain knowledge, meaning and understanding regarding the use of various internet applications for academic purposes. It is with this background that the researcher positioned this study under constructivism philosophical paradigm.
1.5.2 Epistemological position: Interpretivism
Interpretivism integrates human interest into a study (Dudovsky, [Sa]). Interpretive researchers assume that access to reality (given or socially constructed), is only through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meaning and instruments (ibid.). Development of interpretivist epistemology is based on the critique of positivism in social science (positivism is based on the premise that science is the only way to learn about the truth and is associated with quantitative research) (ibid.).
Interpretivism, on the other hand, is associated with qualitative research and is based on the premise that alternatives exist in establishing truth in social science (Goldkuhl, 2012; Dean, 2018; Pulla & Carter, 2018). Therefore, interpretivism is in direct opposition to positivism (Ryan, 2018).
In this study, students registered at the three selected universities has constructed meaning of their experiences with regard to the use of technology for academic activities. The interpretation of the experiences of the students at the institutions of higher learning has been regarded as the reality of the students’ lived experiences at these universities, with specific reference to how they use technology to advance the education.
Assumptions of the practice theory and the relevance of this theory to this study are described next.
15 1.5.3 Practice Theory
The practice theory aims to move beyond the old debates about media effects, political economy, the ideological nature of the media, and active versus passive audiences (Couldry, 2004; Fourie, 2010). Rather, the theory seeks to focus on the media as practised in life, and how the media as a practice anchor and organise other human practices and experiences (Couldry, 2004). The practice theory states that media research should start not with media texts or institutions, but with what people are practically doing with media and what media are practically doing with people across a whole range of institutions and contexts (Fourie, ibid.).
The main questions of this theory are all about the following:
a) What does it mean to live in a media-saturated world?
b) What does the concept mediation really mean?
c) How do the expansion and infiltration of media in Africa and other developing regions affect traditional life and culture?
The practice theory is relevant to this study because it explains the use of media, which, in this study relates to internet use by students. The answers to the above- mentioned questions fulfil the purpose of this study which, amongst others, sought to explore how the internet has changed the behaviour of students with regard to searching for information, and how has it impacted on students’ academic performance.
As outlined by Fourie (2010:181) there are imperative questions which the practice theory tries to answer. These questions are outlined thus:
a) What does it mean, or what is it like, to live in a media-saturated world?
b) What does it mean to live in a society dominated by large-scale media institutions?
c) What are the role and the product of media practices in ordering other practices across the social world?
The basic assumptions of the uses and gratifications theory (UGT) are discussed next.
16 1.5.4 The uses and gratifications theory
Studies on the internet use have been conducted within the framework of the uses and gratifications theory (Kaye & Johnson, 2004; Kaye, 2007; Karimi, Khodabandelou, Ehsani & Ahmad, 2014; Musa, Azmi & Ismail, 2015; Malatji, 2019). The main functions of the media are, namely, to inform, entertain and to educate amongst others (Muhammed, 2013:410; Khalid & Ahmed, 2014:70). The uses and gratifications theory (UGT) explains the media consumption concept that describes why people use certain media and the gratifications derived from usage and access (Luo, Chea & Chen, 2014). This theory proposes that media consumption is purposive, and that users actively seek to fulfil their needs through a variety of uses. Media content is used to explore, challenge, adjust or confirm personal identity. The media fulfil the need for information about the immediate and distant world and circumstances. Media users get information about issues that can affect them directly or indirectly (Fourie, 2007).
Furthermore, Fourie (ibid.) highlights that the main questions of this theory are all about: what do people do with the media and what do they use media for?
The responses to these questions relate to the purpose of this study which sought to uncover what do the students use the internet for? and how do they use it for their academic purposes. Data were collected to get responses to the above-mentioned questions, and the responses were presented during data analysis and presentation in Chapter 6.
The following section describes and records the internet landscape in South Africa, the internet and social media usage and the aspect of the digital divide in higher education.
1.6 INTERNET LANDSCAPE IN SOUTH AFRICA
According to Statistics South Africa (2020) South Africa has an estimated population of about 59.62 million people. The recent population statistics indicate that out of this population, 31.18 million people (54%) are regarded as regular internet users (Digital Dynamite, 2019).
17 1.6.1 Overview
The study by the Digital Dynamite (2019) also reveals that 97% of the regular internet users in South Africa, mostly watch videos online, streaming content and playing streamed games. South Africa has 54% internet penetration with seven per cent growth from the year 2017 (We Are Social, 2018). More than 23 million people are actively using social media. Over 40% of the population are actively engaging in social media (ibid.). Statista (2019) anticipated that these numbers were expected to increase to almost 40% of the South African population, of which 30% of them will be accessing Facebook. We Are Social (2018) indicated that South Africa had a 20%
increase on people who use social media between 2017 and 2018. It is worth noting that majority of these people are youth including students. Digital Dynamite (2019) revealed that Facebook is the most accessed social networking site accessed by 23 million people, followed by LinkedIn (6.9 million), Instagram (4 million), Twitter (1.67 million) and SnapChat (1.35 million).
South Africa is regarded as one of the technologically innovative countries in Africa.
The country was ranked as having the biggest number of Web sites of the Southern African Development Communities (Chisholm, 2004). Nonetheless, even though it is observed as a noticeable player in the area of technology in the region, South Africa is a comparatively minor player when compared to developed countries in the world.
Lack of electronic skills (e-skills) development is prevalent in the country (Merkofer &
Murphy, 2009). Hence, there is a need for key stakeholders including government, the corporate world and academics to cooperate in order to address the lack of e-skills in South Africa, and this public-private partnership will go a long way in turning the country into an ICT ‘powerhouse’ in the world (Merkofer & Murphy, 2009:686).
1.6.2 Internet use at institutions of higher learning
The widespread development of the internet had a great influence on education in general and higher education in particular. Furthermore, Kovačević, Špoljarić and Vuk (2014) indicate that the improvement of the internet-based technology has considerably impacted both the learning process and the role of academics and students in the learning process. These developments assist students to access information and be part of universal audience.
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The acknowledgement of the internet development including social networks at institutions of higher learning become an integral part of academia to meet the needs of the 21st century students. Ahmed, Abdel Almuniem and Almabhouh (2016) highlight that these developments permit new ways of collaboration, communication and interaction over and above creating new possibilities for producing and sharing of information.
Likewise, the internet development demands that users in general and students in particular shift from being passive recipients of information into actively participating in the creation of knowledge. Thus, critical skills and knowledge on the use of the internet to enhance students’ academic performance is of critical importance. Many studies at international level including that of Rogers-Estable (2014) established that inherent elements of a lack of time, resources and training are regarded as the key obstructions in utilising the recent internet development for academic purposes. Thus, it is imperative to examine the usage of the internet by students at institutions of higher learning, in order to address educational challenges.
1.6.3 Social media and education
The usage of social networking sites (SNTs) as part of the learning method is no longer new, and growing numbers of students and lecturers employ them in their everyday academic work (Karal & Kokoc, 2013; Lupton, 2014; Dahlstrom & Bichsel, 2014; Fox
& Bird, 2017). Subsequently, it is crucial to study social media influence on students’
academic performance. Several researchers have underlined the importance of social networking sites in education, their pedagogical prospective (Boyd & Ellison, 2007;
Bosch, 2009; Acheaw & Larson 2015; Durak, 2017), and their active role in societal learning (Santoveña-Casal, 2019).
Social media offer a doorway for entertainment and communication and have become leading platforms for accessing information and news especially for youth. The social media usage of American adults aged between 18 and 29 years, a group which represent the higher percentage of university students increased from 12% in the year 2005 to 90% in 2015 (Perrin, 2018) Likewise, in Africa and other parts of the world, the amount of social media users is increasing (Bosch, 2009; Adediran & Kehinde, 2014; Apuke, 2016). Additionally, Mowafy (2018) stated that social media users in
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Egypt, precisely those with Facebook accounts have surpassed seven million which is close to 10% of the population, and the majority of them are young people.
Moreover, Saied, ElSabagh and El-Afandy (2016) confirmed that this number increased to more than 50% in 2015, and more than 80% of them are young people particularly university students.
Observing how social media became entrenched within the young generation’s way of life, students at institutions of higher learning established a way to use social media as tools of communication between them and lecturers (Junco, 2015). Moreover, the majority of universities these days have an official page or group on one of the social media networks where students, academics and the higher education community at large can share resources and communicate on various issues (Selwyn, 2009).
Additionaly, DeAndrea, Ellison, LaRose, Steinfield and Fiore (2012) point out that many universities, globally, have opened social media accounts in order to help students to socialize and connect with the community comprise of academics and even alumni to establish a sense of connection with the respective institution.
The impact of social media on teaching and learning is gradually getting attention and discussed among higher education researchers. For example, Lynn, Healy, Kilroy, Hunt, Werff, Venkatagiri and Morrison (2015) described social media as the great game-changer of learning and teaching. Furthermore, McLoughlin and Lee (2010) indicated that use of social media networks for educational purposes could assist academics to apply the inquiry-based methodology and embolden the cooperation between lecturers and the students. Also important is the prospect of these technologies for inspiring independent self-directed learning and encouraging students as active knowledge creators (Dumpit & Fernandez, 2017), which is usually considered as a positive affordance for media.
Jones, Blackey, Fitzgibbon and Chew (2010) note that though the majority of students are active users of social media networks, 70% of them are not using social media for academic purposes. Tariq, Mehboob, Asf and Khan (2012) accentuate that the availability of technologies including social media could have some negative consequences on social networks addicts. Tariq et al. (ibid.) are concerned that social networks grasp the complete attention of students and distract them towards non-
