I wish to thank Hilmar Bading (Heidelberg), Jean-Francois Brunet (Marseille), and Gerald Thiel (Homburg) for their critical reading and helpful suggestions on parts of the manuscript.
References
Alberini, C. M., Ghirardi, M., Metz, R., and Kandel, E. R. (1994) C/EBP is an immediate-early gene required for the consolidation of long-term facilitation in Aplysia. Cell, 76, 1099–114.
Andres, M. E., Burger, C., Peral-Rubio, M. J., Battaglioli, E., Anderson, M. E., Grimes, J., et al. (1999) CoREST: a functional corepressor required for regulation of neural-specific gene expression. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 9873–7.
Appel, B., Korzh, V., Glasgow, E., Thor, S., Edlund, T., Dawid, I. B., et al. (1995) Motoneuron fate specification revealed by patterned LIM homeobox gene expression in embryonic zebrafish.
Development, 121, 4117–25.
Badenhorst, P. (2001) Tramtrack controls glial number and identity in the Drosophila embryonic CNS. Development, 128, 4093–101.
Badenhorst, P., Harrison, S., and Travers, A. (1996) End of the line? Tramtrack and cell fate determination in Drosophila. Genes Cells, 1, 707–16
Bading, H., Ginty, D. D., and Greenberg, M. E. (1993) Regulation of gene expression in hippocampal neurons by distinct calcium signaling pathways. Science, 260, 181–6.
Bading, H., Segal, M. M., Sucher, N. J., Dudek, H., Lipton, S. A., and Greenberg, M. E. (1995) N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors are critical for mediating the effects of glutamate on intracellular calcium concentration and immediate early gene expression in cultured hippocampal neurons.
Neuroscience, 64, 653–64.
Bailey, C. H., Montarolo, P., Chen, M., Kandel, E. R., and Schacher, S. (1992) Inhibitors of protein and RNA synthesis block structural changes that accompany long-term heterosynaptic plasticity in Aplysia. Neuron, 9, 749–58.
Bailey, C. H., Bartsch, D., and Kandel, E. R. (1996) Toward a molecular definition of long-term memory storage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 13445–52.
Ballas, N., Battaglioli, E., Atouf, F., Andres, M. E., Chenoweth, J., Anderson, M. E., et al. (2001) Regulation of neuronal traits by a novel transcriptional complex. Neuron, 31, 353–65.
Bannister, A. J. and Kouzaridis, T. (1996) The CBP co-activator is a histone acetyltransferase. Nature, 384, 641–3.
Bartsch, D., Casadio, A., Karl, K. A., Serodio, P., and Kandel, E. R. (1998) CREB1 encodes a nuclear activator, a repressor, and a cytoplasmic modulator that form a regulatory unit critical for long-term facilitation. Cell, 95, 211–23.
Belmont, A. S., Dietzel, S., Nye, A. C., Strukov, Y. G., and Tumbar, T. (1999) Large-scale chromatin structure and function. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 11, 307–11.
Ben-Arie, N., Lancet, D., Taylor, C., Khen, M., Walker, N., Ledbetter, D. H., et al. (1994) Olfactory receptor gene cluster on human chromosome 17: possible duplication of an ancestral receptor repertoire. Hum. Mol. Genet., 3, 229–35.
Bessis, A., Champtiaux, N., Chatelin, L., and Changeux, J. P. (1997) The neuron-restrictive silencer element: a dual enhancer/silencer crucial for patterned expression of a nicotinic receptor gene in the brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 5906–11.
Bito, H., Deisseroth, K., and Tsien, R. W. (1996) CREB phosphorylation and dephosphorylation: a Ca(2+)- and stimulus duration-dependent switch for hippocampal gene expression. Cell, 87, 1203–14.
Bodner, M., Castrillo, J. L., Theill, L. E., Deerinck, T., Ellisman, M., and Karin, M. (1988) The pituitary-specific transcription factor GHF-1 is a homeobox-containing protein. Cell, 55, 505–18.
Bonni, A. and Greeneberg, M. E. (1997) Neurotrophin regulation of gene expression. Can. J. Neurol.
Sci., 24, 272–83
Bonni, A., Ginty, D. D., Dudek, H., and Greenberg, M. E. (1995) Serine 133-phosphorylated CREB induces transcription via a cooperative mechanism that may confer specificity to neurotrophin signals. Mol. Cell Neurosci., 6, 168–83.
Bonni, A., Brunet, A., West, A. E., Datta, S. R., Takasu, M. A., and Greenberg, M. E. (1999) Cell survival promoted by the Ras-MAPK signaling pathway by transcription-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Science, 286, 1358–62.
Boulter, J., O’Shea-Greenfield, A., Duvoisin, R. M., Conolly, J. G., Wada, E., Jensen, A., et al. (1990) Alpha 3, alpha 5, and beta 4: three members of the rat neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-related gene family form a gene cluster. J. Biol. Chem., 265, 4472–82.
Bourtchuladze, R., Frenguelli, B., Blendy, J., Cioffi, D., Schutz, G., and Silva, A. J. (1994) Deficient long-term memory in mice with a targeted mutation of the cAMP-responsive element binding protein. Cell, 79, 59–68.
Brené, S., Messer, C., Okado, H., Hartley, M., Heinemann, S. F., and Nestler, E. J. (2000) Regulation of GluR2 promoter activity by neurotrophic factors via a neuron-restrictive silencer element.
Eur. J. Neurosci., 12, 1525–33.
Briscoe, J. and Ericson, J. (2001) Specification of neuronal fates in the ventral neural tube. Curr. Opin.
Neurobiol., 11, 43–9.
Briscoe, J., Sussel, L., Serup, P., Hartigan-O’Connor, D., Jessell, T. M., Rubenstein, J. L., et al. (1999) Homeobox gene Nkx2.2 and specification of neuronal identity by graded sonic hedgehog signalling. Nature, 398, 622– 7.
Briscoe, J., Pierani, A., Jessell, T. M., and Ericson, J. (2000) A homeodomain protein code specifies progenitor cell identity and neuronal fate in the ventral neural tube. Cell, 101, 435–45.
Bromberg, J. and Chen, X. (2001) STAT proteins: signal transducers and activators of transcription.
Meth. Enzymol., 333, 138–51
Brown, N. L., Patel, S., Brzezinski, J., and Glaser, T. (2001) Math5 is required for retinal ganglion cell and optic nerve formation. Development, 128, 2497–508.
Brunet, J. F. and Ghysen, A. (1999) Deconstructing cell determination: proneural genes and neuronal identity. Bioessays, 21, 313–8.
Buck, L. B. (1992) The olfactory multigene family. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 2, 282–8.
Buck, L. and Axel, R. (1991) A novel multigene family may encode odorant receptors: a molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell, 65, 175–87.
Bulger, M., van Doorninck, J. H., Saitoh, N., Telling, A., Farrell, C., Bender, M. A., et al. (1999) Conservation of sequence and structure flanking the mouse and human beta-globin loci: the beta-globin genes are embedded within an array of odorant receptor genes.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 96, 5129–34.
Bulger, M., Bender, M. A., van Doorninck, J. H., Wertman, B., Farrell, C. M., Felsenfeld, G., et al.
(2000) Comparative structural and functional analysis of the olfactory receptor genes
flanking the human and mouse beta-globin gene clusters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97, 14560–5.
Carew, T. J. and Sutton, M. A. (2001) Molecular stepping stones in memory consolidation. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 769–71.
Cavallaro, S., Meiri, N., Yi, C. L., Musco, S., Ma, W., Goldberg, J., and Alkon, D. L. (1997) Late memory-related genes in the hippocampus revealed by RNA fingerprinting. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA, 94, 9669–73.
Cavallaro, S., Schreurs, B. G., Zhao, W., D’Agata, V., et al. (2001) Gene expression profiles during long-term memory consolidation. European J. Neurosci., 13, 1809–15.
Chawla, S., Hardingham, G. E., Quinn, D. R., and Bading, H. (1998) CBP: a signal-regulated tran-scriptional coactivator controlled by nuclear calcium and CaM kinase IV. Science, 281, 1505–9.
Chen, Z. F., Paquette, A. J., and Anderson, D. J. (1998) NRSF/REST is required in vivo for repression of multiple neuronal target genes during embryogenesis. Nat. Genet., 20, 136–42.
Chien, C. T., Hsiao, C. D., Jan, L. Y., and Jan. Y. N. (1996) Neuronal type information encoded in the basic-helix-loop-helix domain of proneural genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 13239–44.
Chong, J. A., Tapia-Ramirez, J., Kim, S., Toledo-Aral, J. J., Zheng, Y., Boutros, M. C., et al. (1995) REST: a mammalian silencer protein that restricts sodium channel gene expression to neurons.
Cell, 80, 949–57.
Chrivia, J. C., Kwok, R. P., Lamb, N., Hagiwara, M., Montminy, M. R., and Goodman, R. H. (1993) Phosphorylated CREB binds specifically to the nuclear protein CBP. Nature, 365, 855–9.
Cockell, M. and Gasser, S. M (1999) Nuclear compartments and gene regulation. Curr. Opin. Genet.
Dev., 9, 199–205.
Dasen, J. S. and Rosenfeld, M. G. (1999) Signaling mechanisms in pituitary morphogenesis and cell fate determination. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 11, 669–77.
Dasen, J. S. and Rosenfeld, M. G. (2001) Signaling and transcriptional mechanisms in pituitary devel-opment. Annu. Rev. in Neurosci., 24, 327–55.
Dash, P. K., Hochner, B., and Kandel, E. R. (1990) Injection of the cAMP-responsive element into the nucleus of Aplysia sensory neurons blocks long-term facilitation. Nature, 345, 718–21.
Davis, H. P. and Squire, L. R. (1984) Protein synthesis and memory: a review. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 518–59.
De Gois, S., Houhou, L., Oda, Y., Corbex, M., Pajak, F., Thévenot, E., et al. (2000) Is RE1/NRSE a common cis-regulatory sequence for ChAT and VAChT genes? J. Biol. Chem., 275,
36683–90.
Deisseroth, K., Bito, H., and Tsien, R. W. (1996) Signaling from synapse to nucleus: postsynaptic CREB phosphorylation during multiple forms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Neuron, 16, 89–101.
Deisseroth, K., Heist, E. K., and Tsien, R. W. (1998) Translocation of calmodulin to the nucleus supports CREB phosphorylation in hippocampal neurons. Nature, 392, 198–202.
Dillon, N. and Sabbattini, P. (2000) Functional gene expression domains: defining the functional unit of eukaryotic gene regulation. BioEssays, 22, 657–65.
DiMattia, G. E., Rhodes, S. J., Krones, A., Carrière, C., O’Connell, S., Kalla, K., et al. (1997) The Pit-1 gene is regulated by distinct early and late pituitary-specific enhancers. Developmental Biology, 182, 180–90.
Dollé, P., Castrillo, J. L., Theill, L. E., Deerinck, T., Ellisman, M., and Karin, M. (1990) Expression of GHF-1 protein in mouse pituitaries correlates both temporally and spatially with the onset of growth hormone gene activity. Cell, 60, 809–20.
Dubreuil, V., Hirsch, M. R., Pattyn, A., Brunet, J. F., and Goridis, G. (2000) The Phox2b transcription factor coordinately regulates neuronal cell cycle exit and identity. Development, 127, 5191–201.
Duggan, A., Ma, C., and Chalfie, M. (1998) Regulation of touch receptor differentiation by the Caenorhabditis elegans mec-3 and unc-86 genes. Development, 125, 4107–19.
Eastman, C., Horvitz, H. R., and Jin, Y. (1999) Coordinated transcriptional regulation of the unc-25 glutamic acid decarboxylase and the unc-47 GABA vesicular transporter by the Caenorhabditis elegans UNC-30 homeodomain protein. J. Neurosci., 19, 6225–34.
Eiden, L. E. (1998) The cholinergic gene locus. J. Neurochem., 70, 2227–40.
Eggen, B. J. and Mandel, G. (1997) Regulation of sodium channel gene expression by transcriptional silencing. Dev. Neurosci., 19, 25–6.
Eng, S. R., Gratwick, K., Rhee, J. M., Fedtsova, N., Gan, L., and Turner, E. E. (2001) Defects in sensory axon growth precede neuronal death in Brn3a-deficient mice. J. Neurosci., 21, 541–9.
Erkman, L., Yates, P. A., McLaughlin, T., McEvilly, R. J., Whisenhunt, T., O’Connell, S. M., et al. (2000) A POU domain transcription factor-dependent program regulates axon pathfinding in the vertebrate visual system. Neuron, 28, 779–92.
Ernsberger, U. (2000) Evidence for an evolutionary conserved role of BMP growth factors and Phox2 transcription factors during noradrenergic differentiation of sympathetic neurons: induction of a putative synexpression group of neurotransmitter-synthesizing enzymes. Eur. J. Biochem., 267, 6976–81.
Ernsberger, U. (2001) The development of postganglionic sympathetic neurons: coordinating neuronal differentiation and diversification. Auton. Neurosci., 94, 1–13.
Ernsberger, U. and Rohrer, H. (1999) Development of the cholinergic neurotransmitter phenotype in postganglionic sympathetic neurons. Cell and Tissue Research, 297, 339–61.
Ernsberger, U., Patzke, H., Tissier-Seta, J. P., Reh, T., Goridis, C., and Rohrer, H. (1995) The expres-sion of tyrosine hydroxylase and the transcription factors cPhox–2 and Cash-1: evidence for distinct inductive steps in the differentiation of chick sympathetic precursor cells. Mech. Dev., 52, 125–36.
Ernsberger, U., Reissmann, E., Mason, I., and Rohrer, H. (2000) The expression of dopamine β-hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, and Phox2 transcription factors in sympathetic neurons:
evidence for common regulation during noradrenergic induction and diverging regulation later in development. Mech. Dev., 92, 169–77.
Felsenfeld, G. (1996) Chromatin unfolds. Cell, 86, 13–19.
Fields, R. D., Eshete, F., Stevens, B., and Itoh, K. (1997) Action potential-dependent regulation of gene expression: temporal specificity in Ca2+, cAMP-responsive element binding proteins, and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling. J. Neurosci., 17, 7252–66.
Finkbeiner, S. (2000) CREB couples neurotrophin signals to survival messages. Neuron, 25, 11–14.
Finkbeiner, S. and Greenberg, M. E. (1998) Ca2+ channel-regulated neuronal gene expression.
J. Neurobiol., 37, 171–89.
Finkbeiner, S., Tavazoie, S. F., Maloratsky, A., Jacobs, K. M., Harris, K. M., and Greenberg, M. E.
(1997) CREB: a major mediator of neuronal neurotrophin responses. Neuron, 19, 1031–47.
Finney, M., Ruvkun, G., and Horvitz, H. R. (1988) The C. elegans cell lineage and differentiation gene unc-86 encodes a protein with a homeodomain and extended similarity to transcription factors.
Cell, 55, 757–69.
Fode, C., Gradwohl, G., Morin, X., Dierich, A., LeMeur, M., Goridis, C., et al. (1998) The bHLH protein NEUROGENIN 2 is a determination factor for epibranchial placode-derived sensory neurons. Neuron, 20, 483–94.
Gan, L., Wang, S. W., Huang, Z., and Klein, W. H. (1999) POU domain factor Brn-3b is essential for retinal ganglion cell differentiation and survival but not for initial cell fate specification. Dev.
Biol., 210, 469–80.
Garel, S., Marin, F., Mattei, M. G., Vesque, C., Vincent, A., and Charnay, P. (1997) Family of Ebf/Olf-1-related genes potentially involved in neuronal differentiation and regional specification in the central nervous system. Dev. Dyn., 210, 191–205.
Geschwind, D. H. ( 2000) Mice, microarrays, and the genetic diversity of the brain. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, 97, 10676–8.
Geschwind, D. H., Ou, J., Easterday, M. C., Dougherty, J. D., Jackson, R. L., Chen, Z., et al. (2001) A genetic analysis of neural progenitor differentiation. Neuron, 29, 325–39.
Ghysen, A. and Dambly-Chaudiere, C. (1988) From DNA to form: the achaete-scute complex. Genes Dev., 2, 495–501.
Ginty, D. D., Bonni, A., and Greenberg, M. E. (1994) Nerve growth factor activates a Ras-dependent protein kinase that stimulates c-fos transcription via phosphorylation of CREB. Cell, 77, 713–25.
Giraldo, P. and Montoliu, L. (2001) Size matters: use of YACs, BACs and PACs in transgenic animals.
Transgenic Res., 10, 83–103.
Gowan, K., Helms, A. W., Hunsaker, T. L., Collisson, T., Ebert, P. J., Odom, R., et al. (2001) Crossinhibitory activities of ngn1 and math1 allow specification of distinct dorsal interneurons.
Neuron, 31, 219–32.
Grant, A. L. and Wisden, W. (1997) Neuron-specific gene expression. In R. W. Davies and B. J. Morris, ed. Molecular Biology of the Gene, pp 67–93. Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford.
Greene, L. A., Burstein, D. E., and Black, M. M. (1982) The role of transcription-dependent priming in nerve growth factor promoted neurite outgrowth. Dev. Biol., 91, 305–16.
Greenberg, M. E., Greene, L. A., and Ziff, E. B. (1985) Nerve growth factor and epidermal growth factor induce rapid transient changes in proto-oncogene transcription in PC12 cells. J. Biol.
Chem., 260, 14101–10.
Greenberg, M. E., Hermanowski, A. L., and Ziff, E. B. (1986a) Effect of protein synthesis inhibitors on growth factor activation of c-fos, c-myc, and actin gene transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol., 6, 1050–7.
Greenberg, M. E., Ziff, E. B., and Greene, L. A. (1986b) Stimulation of neuronal acetylcholine receptors induces rapid gene transcription. Science, 234, 80–3
Griffith, E. C., Cowan, C. W., and Greenberg, M. E. (2001) REST acts through multiple deacetylase complexes. Neuron, 31, 339–44.
Groves, A. K., George, K. M., Tissier-Seta, J. P., Engel, J. D., Brunet, J. F., and Anderson, D. J. (1995) Differential regulation of transcription factor gene expression and phenotypic markers in developing sympathetic neurons. Development, 121, 887–901.
Guillemot, F., Lo, L. C., Johnson, J. E., Auerbach, A., Anderson, D. J., and Joyner, A. L. (1993) Mammalian achaete-scute homologue 1 is required for the early development of olfactory and autonomic neurons. Cell, 75, 463–76.
Guo, S., Brush, J., Teraoka, H., Goddard, A., Wilson, S. W., Mullins, M. C., et al. (1999) Development of noradrenergic neurons in the zebrafish hindbrain requires BMP, FGF8, and the homeodomain protein soulless/Phox2a. Neuron, 24, 555–66.
Guzowski, J. F. and McGaugh, J. L. (1997) Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide-mediated disruption of hippocampal cAMP response element binding protein levels impairs consolidation of memory for water maze training. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94, 2693–8.
Hardingham, G. E., Chawla, S., Johnson, C. M., and Bading, H. (1997) Distinct functions of nuclear and cytoplasmic calcium in the control of gene expression. Nature, 385, 260–5.
Hardingham, G. E., Chawla, S., Cruzalegui, F. H., and Bading, H. (1999) Control of recruitment and transcription-activating function of CBP determines gene regulation by NMDA receptors and
L-type calcium channels. Neuron, 22, 789–98.
Hardingham, G. E., Arnold F. J., and Bading, H. (2001) Nuclear calcium signaling controls CREB-mediated gene expression triggered by synaptic activity. Nat. Neurosci., 4, 261–7.
Hatakeyama, J., Tomita, K., Inoue T., and Kageyama, R. (2001) Roles of homeobox and bHLH genes in specification of a retinal cell type. Development, 128, 1313–22.
He, X., Treacy, M. N., Simmons, D. M., Ingraham, H. A., Swanson, L.W., and Rosenfeld, M. G. (1989) Expression of a large family of POU-domain regulatory genes in mammalian brain development.
Nature, 340, 35–41.
Heintz, N. (2000) Analysis of mammalian central nervous system gene expression and function using bacterial artificial chromosome-mediated transgenesis. Hum. Mol. Genet., 9, 937–43.
Hendricks, T., Francis, N., Fyodorov D., and Deneris, E. S. (1999) The ETS domain factor Pet-1 is an early and precise marker of central serotonin neurons and interacts with a conserved element in serotonergic genes. J. Neurosci., 19, 10348–56.
Hill, J. A. Jr, Zoli, M., Bourgeois, J. P., and Changeux, J. P. (1993) Immunocytochemical localization of a neuronal nicotinic receptor: the beta-2 subunit. J. Neurosci., 13, 1551–68.
Howard, M. J., Stanke, M., Schneider, C., Wu X., and Rohrer, H. (2000) The transcription factor dHAND is a downstream effector of BMPs in sympathetic neuron specification. Development, 127, 4073–81.
Hoyle, G. W., Mercer, E. H., Palmiter, R. D., and Brinster, R. L. (1994) Cell-specific expression from the human dopamine β-hydroxylase promoter in transgenic mice is controlled via a combination of positive and negative regulatory elements. J. Neurosci., 14, 2455–63.
Huang, Y., Myers, S. J., and Dingledine, R. (1999a) Transcriptional repression by REST: recruitment of Sin3A and histone deacetylase to neuronal genes. Nat. Neurosci., 2, 867–72.
Huang, E. J., Zang, K., Schmidt, A., Saulys, A., Xiang, M., and Reichardt, L. F. (1999b) POU domain factor Brn-3a controls the differentiation and survival of trigeminal neurons by regulating trk receptor expression. Development, 126, 2869–82.
Ihle, J. N. (2001) The Stat family in cytokine signaling. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 13, 211–17.
Impey, S., Smith, D. M., Obrietan, K., Donahue, R., Wade C., and Storm, D. R. (1998) Stimulation of cAMP response element (CRE)-mediated transcription during contextual learning. Nat.
Neurosci., 1, 595–601.
Ingraham, H. A., Chen, R. P., Mangalam, H. J., Elsholtz, H. P., Flynn, S. E., Lin, C. R., et al. (1988) A tissue-specific transcription factor containing a homeodomain specifies a pituitary phenotype.
Cell, 55, 519–29.
Itoh, K., Ozaki, M., Stevens, B., and Fields, R. D. (1997) Activity-dependent regulation of N-cadherin in DRG neurons: differential regulation of N-cadherin, NCAM, and L1 by distinct patterns of action potentials. J. Neurobiol., 33, 735–48.
Itoh, S., Itoh, F., Goumans, M. J., and Ten Dijke, P. (2000) Signaling of transforming growth factor-beta family members through Smad proteins. Eur. J. Biochem., 267, 6954–67.
Jarman, A. P., Grau, Y., Jan, L. Y., and Jan, Y. N. (1993) Atonal is a proneural gene that directs chordotonal organ formation in the Drosophila peripheral nervous system. Cell, 73, 1307–21.
Jarman, A. P., Grell, E. H., Ackerman, L., Jan, L. Y., and Jan, Y. N. (1994) Atonal is the proneural gene for Drosophila photoreceptors. Nature, 369, 398–400.
Jenuwein, T. and Allis, C. D. (2001) Translating the histone code. Science, 293, 1074–80.
Jin, Y., Hoskins, R., and Horvitz, H. R. (1994) Control of type-D GABAergic neuron differentiation by C. elegans unc-30 homeodomain protein. Nature, 372, 780–3.
Johnson, C. M., Hill, C. S., Chawla, S., Treisman, R., and Bading, H. (1997) Calcium controls gene expression via three distinct pathways that can function independently of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinases (ERKs) signaling cascade. J. Neurosci., 17, 6189–202.
Jurata, L. W., Thomas., J. B., and Pfaff, S. L. (2000) Transcriptional mechanisms in the development of motor control. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 10, 72–9.
Kallunki, P., Edelman, G. M., and Jones, F. S. (1997) Tissue-specific expression of the L1 adhesion molecule is modulated by the neural restrictive silencer element. J. Cell Biol., 138, 1343–54.
Kandel, E. R. (2001) The molecular biology of memory storage: a dialogue between genes and synapses. Science, 294, 1030–8.
Kapur, R. P., Hoyle, G. W., Mercer, E. H., Brinster, R. L., and Palmiter, R. D. (1991) Some neuronal cell populations express human dopamine β-hydroxylase-lacZ transgenes transiently during embryonic development. Neuron, 7, 717–27.
Kay, J. N., Finger-Baier, K. C., Roeser, T., Staub, W., and Baier, H. (2001) Retinal ganglion cell genesis requires lakritz, a zebrafish atonal homologue. Neuron, 30, 725–36.
Kee, B. L., Arias, J., and Montminy, M. R. (1996) Adaptor-mediated recruitment of RNA polymerase II to a signal-dependent activator. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 2373–5.
Kim, H. S., Seo, H., Yang, C., Brunet, J. F., and Kim, K. S. (1998) Noradrenergic-specific transcription of the dopamine beta-hydroxylase gene requires synergy of multiple cis-acting elements including at least two Phox2a-binding sites. J. Neurosci., 18, 8247–60.
Kraner, S. D., Chong, J. A., Tsay, H. J., and Mandel, G. (1992) Silencing the type II sodium channel gene: a model for neural-specific gene regulation. Neuron, 9, 37–44.
Kudrycki, K., Stein-Izsak, C., Behn, C., Grillo, M., Akeson, R., and Margolis, F. L. (1993) Olf-1-binding site: characterization of an olfactory neuron-specific promoter motif. Mol. Cell. Biol., 13, 3002–14.
Kudrycki, K. E., Buiakova, O., Tarozzo, G., Grillo, M., Walters, E., and Margolis, F. L. (1998) Effects of mutation of the Olf-1 motif on transgene expression in olfactory receptor neurons. J. Neurosci.
Res., 52, 159–72.
Lakin, N. D., Morris, P. J., Theil, T., Sato, T. N., Moroy, T., Wilson, M. C., et al. (1995) Regulation of neurite outgrowth and SNAP-25 gene expression by the Brn-3a transcription factor. J. Biol.
Chem., 270, 15858–63.
Landis, S. C. (1990) Target regulation of neurotransmitter phenotype. Trends Neurosci., 13, 344–50.
Lee, J. E. (1997) Basic helix-loop-helix genes in neural development. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol., 7, 13–20.
Lee, J. H., Shimojo, M., Chai, Y. G., and Hersh, L. B. (2000) Studies on the interaction of REST4 with the cholinergic repressor element-1/neuron restrictive silencer element. Mol. Brain Res., 80, 88–98.
Lemon, B. and Tjian, R. (2000) Orchestrated response: a symphony of transcription factors for gene control. Genes Dev., 14, 2551–69.
Lerea, L. S., Butler. L. S., and McNamara, J. O. (1992) NMDA and non-NMDA receptor-mediated increase of c-fos mRNA in dentate gyrus neurons involves calcium influx via different routes.
J. Neurosci., 12, 2973–81.
Li, S., Crenshaw III, E. B., Rawson, E. J., Simmons, D. M., Swanson, L. W., and Rosenfeld, M. G.
(1990) Dwarf locus mutants lacking three pituitary cell types result from mutations in the POU-domain gene pit-1. Nature, 347, 528–33.
Li, Y. P., Baskin, F., Davis, R., and Hersh, L. B. (1993) Cholinergic neuron-specific expression of the human choline acetyltransferase gene is controlled by silencer elements. J. Neurochem., 61, 748–51.
Li, Y. P., Baskin, F., Davis, R., Wu, D., and Hersh, L. B. (1995) A cell type-specific silencer in the human choline acetyltransferase gene requiring two distinct and interactive E boxes. Mol. Brain Res., 30, 106–14.
Lietz, M., Bach, K., and Thiel, G. (2001) Biological activity of RE-1 silencing transcription factor (REST) towards distinct transcriptional activators. Eur. J. Neurosci., 14, 1303–12.
Lillicrop, K. A., Budrahan, V. S., Lakin, N. D., Terrenghi, G., Wood, J. N., Polak, J. M., et al. (1992) A novel POU family transcription factor is closely related to brn-3 but has a distinct expression pattern in neuronal cells. Nucleic Acids Res., 20, 5093–6.
Liu, F. C. and Graybiel, A. M. (1996) Spatiotemporal dynamics of CREB phosphorylation: transient versus sustained phosphorylation in the developing striatum. Neuron, 17, 1133–44.
Liu, W., Mo, Z., and Xiang, M. (2001) The ath5 proneural genes function upstream of Brn3 POU domain transcription factor genes to promote retinal ganglion cell development. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, 98, 1649–54.
Lo, L. C., Johnson, J. E., Wuenschell, C. W., Saito, T., and Anderson, D. J. (1991) Mammalian achaete scute homologue I is transiently expressed by spatially restricted subsets of early neuroepithelial and neural crest cells. Genes Dev., 5, 1524–37.
Lönnerberg, P., Lehndahl, U., Funakoshi, H., Ärhlund-Richter, L., Persson, H., and Ibánez, C. F.
(1995) Regulatory region in choline acetyltransferase gene directs developmental and tissue-specific expression in transgenic mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92, 4046–50.
Lönnerberg, P., Schoenherr, C. J., Anderson, D. J., and Ibánez, C. F. (1996) Cell type-specific regulation of choline acetyltransferase gene expression. J. Biol. Chem., 271, 33358–65.
Lopez-Coviella, I., Berse, B., Krauss, R., Thies, R. S., and Blusztajn, J. K. (2000) Induction and main-tenance of the neuronal cholinergic phenotype in the central nervous system by BMP-9. Science, 289, 313–16.
Luo, Z. and Geschwind, D. H. (2001) Microarray applications in neuroscience. Neurobiol. Dis., 8, 183–93.
Lumsden, A. (1995) A ‘LIM code’ for motor neurons? Curr. Biol., 5, 491–5.
Ma, Q., Chen, Z., del Barco Barrantes I., de la Pompa, J. L., and Anderson, D. J. (1998) Neurogenin1 is essential for the determination of neuronal precursors for proximal cranial sensory ganglia.
Neuron, 20, 469–82.
Ma, L., Merenmies J., and Parada, L. F. (2000) Molecular characterization of the TrkA/NGF receptor minimal enhancer reveals regulation by multiple cis elements to drive embryonic neuron expres-sion. Development, 127, 3777–88.
Magin, A., Lietz, M., Cibelli, G., and Thiel, G. (2002) RE-1 silencing transcription factor-4 (REST4) is neither a transcriptional repressor nor a de-repressor. Neurochem. Int., 40, 195–2002.
Malgaretti, N., Pozzoli, O., Bosetti, A., Corradi, A., Ciarmatori, S., Panigada, M., et al. (1997) Mmot1, a new helix-loop-helix transcription factor gene displaying a sharp expression boundary in the embryonic mous brain. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 17632–9.
Mallet, J., Houhou, L., Pajak, F., Oda, Y., Cervini, R., Bejanin, S., and Berrard, S. (1998) The cholinergic locus: ChAT and VAChT genes. Journal de Physiologie (Paris), 92, 145–7.
Mandel G. and McKinnon, D. (1993) Molecular basis of neural-specific gene expression. Annu. Rev.
Neurosci., 16, 323–45.
Mangalam, H. J., Albert, V. R., Ingraham, H. A., Kapiloff, M., Wilson, L., Nelson, C., et al. (1989) A pituitary POU domain protein, Pit-1, activates both growth hormone and prolactin promoters transcriptionally. Genes Dev., 3, 946–58.
Marquardt, T., and Pfaff, S. L. (2001) Cracking the transcriptional code for cell specification in the neural tube. Cell, 106, 651–4.
Massague, J. and Wotton, D. (2000) Transcriptional control by the TGF-beta/Smad signaling system.
EMBO J., 19, 1745–54
Maue, R. A., Kraner, S. D., Goodman, R. H., and Mandel, G. (1990) Neuron-specific expression of the rat brain type II sodium channel gene is directed by upstream regulatory elements. Neuron, 4, 223–31.
McEvilly, R. J. and Rosenfeld, M. G. (1999) The role of POU domain proteins in the regulation of mammalian pituitary and nervous system development. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol., 63, 223–55.
Mercer, E. H., Hoyle, G. W., Kapur, R. P., Brinster, R. L., and Palmiter, R. D. (1991) The dopamine β-hydroxylase gene promoter directs expression of E. coli lacZ to sympathetic and other neurons in adult transgenic mice. Neuron, 7, 703–16.
Miki, R., Kadota, K., Bono, H., Mizuno, Y., Tomaru, Y., Carninci, P., et al. (2001) Delineating developmental and metabolic pathways in vivo by expression profiling using the RIKEN set of 18,816 full-length enriched mouse cDNA arrays. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 2199–204.
Milner, B., Squire, L. R., and Kandel, E. R. (1998) Cognitive neuroscience and the study of memory.
Neuron, 20, 445–68.
Misawa, H., Ishii, K., and Deguchi, T. (1992) Gene expression of mouse choline acetyltransferase:
Alternative splicing and identification of a highly active promoter region. J. Biol. Chem., 267, 20392–9.
Misawa, H., Takahashi, R., and Deguchi, T. (1995) Coordinate expression of vesicular acetylcholine transporter and choline acetyltransferase in sympathetic superior cervical neurons. Neuroreport, 6, 965–8.
Mizuguchi, R., Sugimori, M., Takebayashi, H., Kosako, H., Nagao, M., Yoshida, S., et al. (2001) Combinatorial roles of olig2 and neurogenin2 in the coordinated induction of pan-neuronal and subtype-specific properties of motoneurons. Neuron, 31, 757–71.
Mody, M., Cao, Y., Cui, Z., Tay, K. Y., Shyong, A., Shimizu, E., et al. (2001) Genome-wide gene expression profiles of the developing mouse hippocampus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 8862– 7.
Montarolo, P. G., Goelet, P., Castellucci, V. F., Morgan, J., Kandel, E. R., and Schacher, S. (1986) A critical period for macromolecular synthesis in long-term heterosynaptic facilitation in Aplysia.
Science, 234, 1249–54.
Morgan, J. I. and Curran, T. (1986) Role of ion flux in the control of c-fos expression. Nature, 322, 552–5.
Mori, N., Schoenherr, C., Vandenbergh, D. J., and Anderson, D. J. (1992) A common silencer element in the SCG10 and type II Na+ channel genes binds a factor present in nonneuronal cells but not in neuronal cells. Neuron, 9, 45–54.
Morin, X., Cremer, H., Hirsch, M. R., Kapur, R. P., Goridis, C., and Brunet, J. F. (1997) Defects in sensory and autonomic ganglia and absence of locus coeruleus in mice deficient for the homeobox gene Phox2a. Neuron, 18, 411–23.
Morris, P. J., Lakin, N. D., Dawson, S. J., Ryabinin, A. E., Kilimann, M. W., Wilson, M. C., et al. (1996) Differential regulation of genes encoding synaptic proteins by members of the Brn-3 subfamily of POU transcription factors. Mol. Brain Res., 43, 279–85.
Mu, X., Zhao, S., Pershad, R., Hsieh, T. F., Scarpa, A., Wang, S. W., et al. (2001) Gene expression in the developing mouse retina by EST sequencing and microarray analysis. Nucleic Acids Res., 29, 4983–93.
Murphy, T. H., Worley, P. F., and Baraban, J. M. (1991) L-type voltage-sensitive calcium channels mediate synaptic activation of immediate early genes. Neuron, 7, 625–35.
Myers, S. J., Dingledine, R., and Borges, K. (1999) Genetic regulation of glutamate receptor ion channels. Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 39, 221–41.
Näär, A. M., Lemon, B. D., and Tjian, R. (2001) Transcriptional coactivator complexes. Annu. Rev.
Biochem., 70, 475–501.
Naciff, J. M., Behbehani, M. M., Misawa, H., and Dedman, J. R. (1999) Identification and transgenic analysis of a murine promoter that targets cholinergic neuron expression. J. Neurochem., 72, 17–28.
Naruse, Y., Aoki, T., Kojima, T., and Mori, N. (1999) Neural restrictive silencer factor recruits mSin3 and histone deacetylase complex to repress neuron-specific target genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA, 96, 13691–6.