steps correctly.] You’ll keep doing this for the whole 10 minutes. If you get to the end of the list, then you can go back and practice any hard words or just start at the beginning of the list.
“We’ll set a timer for 10 minutes so you’ll know how long to practice.
When the timer goes off you need to check to see how many practices you did.
To help you see how much you’ve practiced, we’ll use this graph [shown in Figure 6.4]. What you do is count up the number of practices and then put them on this graph. [Lets the student examine the graph briefly.] Now let’s practice what you’ll do. Here’s your spelling list. I’ll set the timer for 3 min-utes. Remember to look at the word, say the word, cover the word, and copy it three times. Ready? OK, let’s go.”
He starts the timer. After 3 minutes he cues Karen to count up the number of practices and graph them.
“Good job, Karen. Now tomorrow we’ll start doing this for real. Would you like to decorate your graph now? Maybe you could draw a horse and see how high it could jump? The bars on the graph could be like fences that the horse could jump over.”
Letting the student personalize the graph helps with ownership and makes the process more enjoyable.
Step 5: Independent Performance
Before starting self-monitoring, it’s a good idea to briefly review the procedures. Mr.
Graham reminds Karen how to practice and to count up and graph her words at the end of 10 minutes. After Karen graphs her words he checks to see that she is counting and graphing correctly.
Step 6: Evaluation
To evaluate the effects of SMP, Mr. Graham compares the graphs that Karen made to the baseline data. This technique can be very helpful at increasing effective practices and improving weekly spelling test scores. We used it with one class and raised the average score on weekly spelling tests to 100%.
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Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday
HowmanypracticesdidIdo?
FIGURE 6.4. Example of a self-monitoring graph.
From Robert Reid and Torri Ortiz Lienemann (2006). Copyright by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this figure is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).
help a child use a strategy, focus on important aspects of a problem, or cope with a situ-ation that provokes anxiety, frustrsitu-ation, anger, or other emotions. In this section we provide examples of how self-instruction strategies can be implemented in the class-room.
Example 1: Self-Instructions for Coping with Anxiety
As we noted earlier, motivational aspects of academic performance are very impor-tant for children with LD. This is an imporimpor-tant use for strategy instruction. In the previous chapter we gave the example of the “Little Professor” who used self-instructions to help him deal with frustration. Dealing with frustration is particularly relevant for students with LD as they commonly have problems with negative self-statements and thoughts that impede learning (Harris, 1982; Wong, Harris, & Gra-ham, 1991). In fact, self-instructions were designed in part exactly for situations such as this (Meichanbaum, 1977). In this example, we show how two researchers (Kamann & Wong, 1993) helped students with LD reduce their math anxiety. Note that although math is used in this example the same technique could be used for any situation.
Step 1: Discussing Importance of Verbalizations Here is how a teacher might discuss this with a student.
“I’ve noticed that you really had a lot of problems with the math test last week. You also had some problems finishing your homework. Now we’ve worked together at a lot of the skills you use, like borrowing and math facts, so I don’t think that’s the problem. I was watching you do some math work the other day and I heard you saying things to yourself like ‘I’ll never get this right’ or ‘I’m dumb at math.’ I’d like to talk to you about something we can work on that might make it easier for you to do your math work. It might seem silly, but what you say to yourself can make a difference in what you do.
Do you remember the old story about the little engine that could? Remember how the little engine had to pull a heavy load up a big hill? The engine told himself over and over again, ‘I think I can.’ That helped the engine to keep try-ing and sure enough he was able to make it up the hill. You know I did the same thing when I was in school. I had one course that was really tough. I would say to myself, ‘This isn’t rocket science. I can do this.’ It really helped me. But you know what, if you say negative things it can actually hurt you. If you tell yourself ‘I can’t do this.’ then pretty soon you start believing it and you quit trying.”
Discuss other examples. Try to bring out examples of positive self-statements.
Step 2: Developing Self-Statements
Here the teacher and student need to generate statements to help deal with problems encountered during math work. In this stage, they will work together to generate appropriate self-statements. Table 6.1 presents examples of types of self-statements that might be appropriate for the problem. The first type of statement deals with defining the problem. The second deals with approaching math tasks. The third addresses recognizing negative thoughts. The next involves coping/controlling when feeling stressed and the last is about reinforcing. Note that all types of self-statements may not be appropriate. For example, self-statements dealing with error detection and error cor-rection aren’t necessary for this situation.
Here’s how you might generate self-statements.
“We need to think of some positive things to say to help with math. First we need to think about what to say when we get ready to do math. Let’s think about what we can say to ourselves when we start doing math work. Remem-ber that it needs to be positive to help us get through the work. Sometimes I like to start by asking myself what I need to do or remember about doing prob-lems. I might ask myself, ‘OK, what’s the first thing I need to do?’ or I might say, ‘Pay attention and remember your math facts.’ ”
Discuss possible problem definition and approaching task statements. Then go on to coping.
TABLE 6.1. Examples of Self-Statements for Math Problems Type of statement Examples
Problem definition “OK. What do I need to do now?”
“What’s my next step?”
Approaching task “I can do this.”
“I need to pay attention and remember my math facts.”
“I’ll take my time and be careful and I can do it.”
Recognition “OK, now I’m getting scared.”
“Uh-oh. I’m saying bad things to myself. I need to think positive.”
Coping/
controlling
“It’s all right. I’m doing OK. Just keep on working.”
“Be calm and relax.”
“You can do this. Just keep trying hard.”
Reinforcing “Sweet!!”
“I did it!!”
“Outstanding!”
“You know it is really important not to let yourself get frustrated or scared.
You don’t want to start thinking negative thoughts. I remember what I like to tell myself: ‘This isn’t rocket science.’ That really helps me. If I feel myself getting upset I tell myself something positive too. Sometimes I tell myself
‘Just settle down.’ Here are some examples of things you could say to your-self.”
Present a cue card with examples and brainstorm possible statements with the student.
Write out a list and lets the child choose which ones she likes. It’s fine if she likes one from the list or one that you’ve modeled. It’s best if students generate their own state-ments. These are typically the most meaningful self-statestate-ments. However, it’s not abso-lutely necessary. After this, move to recognizing negative thoughts.
“The first thing to think about is that after we get started we need to be ready if we start thinking negative thoughts. This is like the weather report. We need to look for black clouds that might sneak up on us. That way we’ll know when we’re saying things that can keep us from doing our best.”
Show examples. As before, generate self-statements and discuss them.
“After we know that we’re thinking negative thoughts, then we need to be ready to have good things to say to ourselves. These good things are like umbrellas. They keep off the bad thoughts. And they help us keep going. If we tell ourselves we can do it, then lots of the time we really can. We just keep say-ing we can do it, and then we do it! We talk ourselves through. Here are some things some kids have used.”
Again show examples and generate and discuss self-statements for the student. If stu-dents bring out specific problems they encounter (e.g., while working on one problem worrying about other math problems, feeling panicky, feeling rushed), then work on statements that address the problems. Finally work on developing a reinforcing state-ment.
“After we get done with our math and we did our best job then we need to say something nice to ourselves. We kept telling ourselves we could do it and we did, so we deserve to feel good about it. Here are some things you might say.”
Again show the cue card. Next give the student a sheet to write down the statements (see Figure 6.5). The student can use this to help remember the self-statements and for practice. Exactly how many and what types of self-self-statements are generated should be decided by the student and teacher (Harris & Graham, 1996). Too many self-statements may be confusing to the student. And, the student should decide what type (e.g., coping) should be used initially.
Before I start I say . . .
When I see rain clouds I say . . .
To help me keep going I say . . .
When I’m done I say . . .
FIGURE 6.5. Example of a self-instruction sheet.
From Robert Reid and Torri Ortiz Lienemann (2006). Copyright by The Guilford Press. Permission to photocopy this figure is granted to purchasers of this book for personal use only (see copyright page for details).
Step 3: Modeling Self-Statements and Discussing When They Would Be Used
During this stage the teacher and the student model the self-statements and discuss when and how they might be used. For example, the teacher might model coping in this manner.
“Man, this problem is hard. Ohhh. I don’t think I can do this. OK. That’s a black cloud. OK, I need to stop and take a deep breath. Now, just keep cool. If I keep cool I can do this problem.”
Step 4: Collaborative Practice
The final step is to work together collaboratively with the student to practice using the self-instructions. For example, the teacher might model a math task using the previ-ously generated self-statements during the task. The student could prompt the teacher to use the self-instructions. Then the student would model the use of the instructions.
Remember that one of the keys to using self-instruction successfully is to make sure that the student understands why the statements are useful, and that the self-statements used are developmentally appropriate and meaningful to the student (Gra-ham, Harris, & Reid, 1992).
Example 2: Self-Instructions for Number Writing
In the previous example we saw how self-instructions could help with coping. Self-instructions can also help to guide students through a task. This can be done is several ways. For example, self-instructions can step them through a task (i.e., the students lit-erally talk their way through a task). Or, self-instructions can help students call up and store information in memory to aid them with a task. Here’s an example of how self-instructions could be used to help students perform a task. The task is writing numbers correctly. Self-instructions are used for two purposes. The first purpose is to provide a structure for students (i.e., to help step them through the task). The self-instruction actually functions as a simple strategy. The second purpose is to help them remember how to correctly write a number (i.e., call up information from memory to aid them with a task). The strategy is called STAR (Boom & Fine, 1995).
S = Stop. Stop and ask myself what I am expected to do (for example, write the number that the teacher is saying).
T = Think. Think of using a saying to help in forming the number.
A = Ask. Ask myself which saying should be used for this number.
R = Recite. Recite the saying while I write the number.
The letters in STAR are a mnemonic to help students remember self-instructions. The first letter, S, serves to orient the student to the task (i.e., writing a number). The last three letters remind students to identify the appropriate self-instructions (see Figure
6.6) and retrieve information to help them with the task. Here’s how it might work in practice.
Step 1: Discussing the Importance of Verbalizations
The teacher would meet with the student and explain exactly how the strategy works (i.e., it helps you remember what to do) and what the student would use it for (helping to write numbers).
Step 2: Developing Self-Statements
In this case there is no need to generate self-statements, because they have already been developed. The teacher would go over the self-instructions in Figure 6.6. During this process, the teacher should be sensitive to the match between the student and the self-statements. If the student does not understand a self-statement, then it would need to be explained or modified.
Step 3: Modeling Self-Statements and Discussing When They Would Be Used
Next the teacher would model the strategy. For example:
“OK, I have to write a seven. I get mad when I write it backwards. I want to do it right. I’m going to use my new STAR strategy. The first thing I have to do is Stop and ask myself what I have to do. OK, I have to write a good seven on this line. Now I have to Think. Let’s see, to remember which way the seven FIGURE 6.6. Self-instructions for forming numerals. From Boom, S. E., & Fine, E. (1995). STAR:
A number-writing strategy. Teaching Exceptional Children, 27(2), 42–45. Copyright 1995 by The Council for Exceptional Children. Reprinted by permission.
To make 0: The woman went around in a circle until she got home.
To make 1: The man went straight down, like a stick.
To make 2: The woman went right and around, slid down the hill to the left, then made a line across the ground.
To make 3: The man went right and around, then around again.
To make 4: The woman went down the street, turned to the right, then back to the top for a straight ride down.
To make 5: The man went down the street, around the corner, and his hat blew off.
To make 6: The woman made a curve and then a circle at the bottom
To make 7: The man made a line across the top, then slid down the hill to the left.
To make 8: The woman made a half circle to the left, another to the right, and then she found her way back up to the top again.
To make 9: The man made a small circle and then a straight line down.
goes, I can use one of the sayings. Now I have to Ask myself which saying to use. Which one is it? I know. Seven is the one with the man who made a line at the top. Now I have to Recite the saying while I do it. Here’s my pencil. The man made a line across the top, and then he slid down the hill to the left.
That’s a good seven. I know it’s facing the right way. I’ll check it with the card to make sure.”
Step 4: Collaborative Practice
The teacher should model other numerals, this time stopping after the varying STAR steps to ask the students, “What should I tell myself to do next?”—thus giving the stu-dents practice in using the self-statements. Next the student would memorize the steps in STAR, and the self-instructions for each number. Note that teachers would probably work most closely on the numbers that students had difficulty with. Next the teacher would practice using controlled materials. Some good ways to do this would be to practice one number at a time through dictating numbers, doing simple math, or ask-ing questions that require a given number as the question. The teacher should provide immediate feedback on the elements of the strategy that are being done correctly and point out any steps that are done improperly. Again note that if a child changes a self-instruction (e.g., changes the saying for 9 to “a balloon on a stick”) this is fine. Self-instruction must be meaningful to the child to be effective.