Self-monitoring is one of the most thoroughly researched self-regulation strategies (Reid, 1996). It was originally developed as an assessment procedure designed to allow psychologists to gather information from patients in order to evaluate effectiveness of interventions (Kanfer, 1977). However, much to their surprise the psychologists discov-ered the act of self-monitoring a behavior caused changes in the behavior. This led to the use of self-monitoring as an intervention. Self-monitoring occurs when an individ-ual self-assesses whether or not a target behavior has occurred and then self-records the occurrence, frequency, and duration of the target behavior (Nelson & Hayes, 1981). For example, in one of the earliest self-monitoring studies, researchers taught a student to periodically ask herself whether or not she was working or paying attention in class and to then self-record the results (Broden, Hall, & Mitts, 1971). In contrast to behavior-al approaches, self-monitoring usubehavior-ally does not involve the use of externbehavior-al reinforcers;
however, in some cases, self-monitoring has been effectively combined with external reinforcers (e.g., Barkley, Copeland, & Sivage, 1980).
Self-monitoring can be used with a broad variety of behaviors. For our purposes, we focus on areas that most directly concern strategy instruction: on-task behavior and academic responding. There are two major types of monitoring interventions: self-monitoring of attention (SMA) and self-self-monitoring of performance (SMP). In SMA, stu-dents self-assess whether or not they are paying attention when cued (typically, cuing is performed through the use of randomly presented taped tones) and self-record the results. In SMP, students self-assess some aspect of academic performance (e.g., num-ber of correct practices) and self-record the results (Reid, 1993; Reid & Harris, 1989).
There are many types of SMP. For example, students may self-assess their productivity (e.g., the number of math problems they attempted), accuracy (e.g., the number of math problems completed correctly), or strategy use (e.g., whether or not steps in a strategy were performed). Self-assessments may occur during a work session (sometimes using taped tones as cues) or after a work session (without cueing). SMP also typically involves the use of charting or graphing.
Teaching a student to use self-monitoring is straightforward. Reid (1993) outlined the following steps:
Step 1: Selecting a Target Variable
The teacher must first determine what behavior will be self-monitored. Though the behavior targeted for change and the behavior that is self-monitored are often the same, they are not necessarily always the same. Thus a student might, for example, self-monitor the amount of on-task behavior, even though the teacher was actually con-cerned with increasing the amount of seatwork that was completed. A good target behavior is Specific, Observable, Appropriate, and a Personal Match.
Specific
The teacher must be able to exactly define the target behavior. Because the self-monitoring process begins with self-assessment, students must be able to easily and
accurately determine whether or not a target behavior has occurred. Target behaviors such as “better reading” or “being good” are not appropriate; instead, use behaviors such as “number of math problems correct” or “listening to the teacher,” which are eas-ily understandable and readeas-ily assessed by the student. Note that a number of behav-iors can be targeted (e.g., being in my seat, having my work,) so long as they are all well specified.
Observable
Students must be aware of the occurrence of a target behavior. Students who engage in a behavior impulsively and/or unconsciously may be unaware of the occurrence of the behavior and thus be unable to self-assess the behavior. For example, students who impulsively talk out of turn may be unaware of the behavior. The lack of awareness would preclude effective self-monitoring. In the case of students who talked out of turn the teacher might ask them to self-monitor the number of times they raised their hand to speak as this might be more observable for the student.
Appropriate
When selecting a target behavior, teachers should consider two factors: setting and task. It is important to be sensitive to the environment where self-monitoring will take place. Although self-monitoring has been used effectively in whole-class, small-group, and individualized settings (Reid, 1996), it is advisable to try to visualize possible prob-lems that could arise. Avoid procedures that could cause a student to be embarrassed or that could disturb other students. For example if SMA, which typically uses taped tones to cue students to self-assess, were used in a group setting and resulted in a stu-dent feeling as though she or he were singled out, it would be inappropriate. The fit between self-monitoring procedures and academic tasks should also be closely exam-ined. In some cases, self-monitoring procedures can be intrusive and can detract from successful performance (Reid, 1996). For example, using SMA procedures that require students to self-assess and self-record frequently would probably be inappropriate dur-ing a small-group readdur-ing lesson. There are no established guidelines to help select the most appropriate target behavior for any given combination of environment and task.
One practical method might be to simply expose students to a variety of target behav-iors and allow them to choose the behavior they felt was most appropriate or effective for them to self-monitor. Research has shown (Maag, Reid, & DiGangi, 1993) that stu-dents are capable of selecting the most effective target behavior when given a choice between several alternatives.
Personal Match
Self-monitoring may not appropriate for students who are very young or are immature because students must be able to understand the connection between self-monitoring procedures and the target behavior (Graham et al., 1992). If this connection is not made in the mind of the student, reactivity will not occur. For example, imagine a student who self-monitored the number of arithmetic problems completed and graphed the
results. For self-monitoring to be effective the student must be able to relate the graph to the work completed (i.e., be able to comprehend that the graph represented the amount of work completed). Unless the student can meaningfully connect the work done with the graphic portrayal of results, reactivity (in the form of increased number of problems worked) will probably not occur. Teachers should also be sensitive to developmental factors. Students’ developmental level may affect the perceived value or salience of target behaviors. Although developmental effects on self-monitoring are only beginning to be addressed, there is evidence of differential effectiveness of target variables across age levels (Maag et al., 1993).
Step 2: Collecting Baseline Data
At this stage, baseline data should be gathered and recorded. This should not be a strenuous or time-consuming procedure. The teacher should first define when and where the self-monitoring intervention will take place. Next he or she should deter-mine how to collect data. For example, if the intervention was to be directed at out-of-seat behavior the teacher would simply count the number of times the student was out of his or her seat during the period of time when the intervention occurred. In the case of interventions directed to academic accuracy or productivity, baseline data collection could be as simple as collecting work samples. Collecting baseline data is important for two reasons. First, it provides an objective benchmark to evaluate the success of the intervention. Second, collecting objective data on the extent of the problem may obviate the need for an intervention! Practitioners sometimes find that the problem was not nearly as serious as they believed. Or they may discover that they have targeted the wrong behavior.
Step 3: Obtaining Willing Cooperation
The “self” is the active ingredient in self-monitoring. This means that the teacher will need active and willing cooperation on the part of the student. Teachers should sched-ule a conference with the student and address problem areas frankly. Discuss the bene-fits to the student (e.g., staying in your seat means you don’t lose recess; doing all your arithmetic problems means you’ll do better on the test). Don’t promise the moon; stu-dents are unlikely to respond to inflated or exaggerated claims (Reid & Harris, 1989).
Be optimistic, but realistic; describe self-monitoring as “something that helped a lot of students like you with the same kind problem.” If students are unsure, try using a con-tingency contract. This means that if students commit to trying self-monitoring for a specified period of time they will receive a reinforcer. Typically the improvements will sell themselves very quickly. After you have enlisted cooperation, establish when and where self-monitoring will be used.
Step 4: Instruction in Self-Monitoring Procedures
During this stage teachers are not only teaching skills, they are also “selling” the self-monitoring. It is important to go through each step in succession; however, the time spent at any one step may vary widely depending on the student and the choice of
tar-get variables. Students should master each step in turn before proceeding to the next step. Note that while there are a number of steps, students typically can learn to self-monitor quickly and easily with total training time typically well under one hour.
Defining the Target Behavior
Explain to the student exactly what constitutes the target behavior. For most types of self-monitoring this is quite simple. For example in SMP defining the target variable may involve little more than telling the student to count correct answers. For other types of self-monitoring, defining the target variable may be more complex. For exam-ple in SMA interventions the student must understand what it means to “pay atten-tion.” Here the teacher must teach the student a list of specific behaviors that constitute
“paying attention,” such as: looking at the teacher or your work, writing answers, lis-tening to the teacher, or asking a question. Remember that students must understand the target behavior before proceeding.
Discrimination of Target Behavior
The student should be able to discriminate between the target behavior and other behaviors. One simple way to teach discrimination is for the teacher to model examples and nonexamples of the target behavior and ask the student to determine if they are or are not examples of the target behavior. This whole process may take only a few min-utes, but it provides reinforcement of the knowledge of the target variable gained in the previous stage and also provides evaluative feedback for the teacher. Note that for some types of self-monitoring this would not be necessary (e.g., self-monitoring the number of practice items completed).
Explanation of Self-Monitoring Procedures
In this stage the teacher explains where and when self-monitoring will be used and teaches the actual procedures used in self-monitoring. First, the teacher directly explains the procedures involved in self-assessing and self-recording. Next, the teacher models proper performance while verbalizing the steps. The student is then asked to verbalize the steps as the teacher performs them. Following this, the student is asked to model and verbalize the procedures. It is extremely important that the student attain a high degree of mastery (Mace & Kratochwill, 1988). Self-monitoring procedures should be minimally distracting for the student; thus a high degree of automaticity is neces-sary for effectiveness. After the student is able to demonstrate the procedures correctly, provide a brief period of guided practice. This provides structured experience for the student and also allows the teacher to assess mastery. Again, this entire procedure can be done very quickly.
Independent Performance
At this stage, the student is ready to use monitoring. Before the student begins self-monitoring for the first time, it is wise to prompt the student to use the procedures
and/or to check for knowledge of the target variable. During the first few sessions, make sure that the self-monitoring procedures are used consistently and properly. If any problems are evident, reteach the procedures. Remember that self-monitoring pro-cedures must be used properly and consistently if self-monitoring is to be effective. If a student appears to be having problems there are several options available to the teacher. In some instances, additional training may be indicated. For less serious prob-lems simply providing students with prompts, such as reminders of what constitutes the target behavior or cues to self-assess or self-record, may be all that is required.
However, if students consistently experience problems it may be best to rethink whether self-monitoring is appropriate.