CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
2) Indirect Strategies
Indirect strategies are divided into metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies. All these strategies are called as 'indirect' because they support and manage language learning without directly involving the target language. Indirect strategies are useful in virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
a) Metacognitive strategies: strategies that help learners to regulate their own cognitive abilities and to focus, plan, and evaluate their progress as they move toward communicative competence. Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one's own learning style preferences and needs, planning for a target language task, gathering and organizing material, arranging a
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study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process overall.
Table II.4.
The Strategy System Showing All the Metacognitive Strategies Creating your
learning
1. Over viewing and linking with already know material
2. Paying attention
3. Delaying speech production to focus on listening
Arranging and planning your
learning
1. Improving knowledge about language learning
2. Organizing
3. Setting objective of learning
4. Identifying the purpose of a language task include of listening, speaking, reading and writing
5. Planning for a language task 6. Seeking practice opportunities Evaluating your
learning
1. Self-monitoring 2. Self evaluating
b) Affective strategies that help learners‟ self confident. The term of affective refers to emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values.
Affective strategies included anxiety reduction, self-encouragement, emotional self-awareness. It is associated with learners' attention and effort. to control psychological barriers such as feeling shame of using English, afraid of making mistake, nervous.
Table II.5.
The Strategy System Showing All the Affective Strategies Lowering your anxiety 1. Using progressive relaxation,
deep breathing or meditation 2. Using music
3. Using laughter
Encouraging yourself 1. Maxing positive statement 2. Taking risk wisely
3. Rewarding yourself Talking your emotional
temperature
1. Listening to your body 2. Using a checklist
3. Writing a language learning diary
4. Discussing your feeling with someone else
c) Social strategies: strategies that provide increased interaction and more empathetic understanding. She adds that all appropriate language learning strategies contribute to the main goal: becoming communicatively competent. Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language. It is associated with the learners' learning behavior characteristically requiring involvement of other people either peer friends as co-learners or teachers English speakers as reference.
Table II.6.
The Strategy System Showing All the Social Strategies Asking Questions 1. Asking for clarification or
verification
2. Asking for correction Cooperating
Students with Others
1. Cooperating with Others
2. Cooperating with proficient users of the new language
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Empathizing with Others
1. Improving and developing cultural understanding
2. Becoming aware of others thoughts and feelings
According to O‟Malley and Charnot (1990) The metacognitive strategies are organized into seven major groups as follows:
a) Planning: Previewing the organizing concept or principle of an anticipated learning task, proposing strategies for handling an upcoming task, generating a plan for the parts, sequence, main ideas, or language functions to be used in handling a task.
b) Direct intention: Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant distractors, maintaining attention during take execution.
c) Selective attention: Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language input or situational details that assist in performance of a task, attending to specific aspects of language input during that excecution
d) Self-management: Understanding the conditions that help one successfully accomplish language task and arranging for the presence of those conditions, controlling one‟s language maximize use of what is already known.
e) Self-monitoring: Checking, verifying or correcting one‟s comprehension or performance in the course of language task.
f) Problem-identification: Explicitly identifying needing resolution in a task or identifying an aspect of the task that hinders its successful completion.
g) Self-evaluation: Checking the outcomes of one‟s own language performance against an internal measure of completeness and accuracy, checking one‟s language repertoire, strategy use, or ability to perform hand.
Based on Alberta (2009) cognitive language strategies include using different techniques for remembering new words and phrases, deducing grammar rules, applying previously learners rule, guessing at the meaning of unknown words and using a variety of ways to organize new information and link the new information to previously learned language. Operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning. Weinstein and Mayer (1986) suggest that these strategies can be subsumed under three broad groupings: rehearsal, organization, and elaboration processes Cognitive strategies may be limited in application to the specific type of task in the learning activity.
O‟Malley and Chamot (1990) divided cognitive strategies into four sets are practicing, receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for input and output. Practicing is the most important in this group which can be achieved by repeating, working with sounds, and using patterns.
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The tools of receiving and sending messages are used when learners try to find the main idea through skimming and scanning.
The adult‟s learners commonly use analyzing and reasoning strategies. These are used to understand the meaning and expression of the target language. These are also to make new expression.
Line in O‟Malley and Chamot (1990), Brown (2000), divided cognitive strategies into nine categorize:
a) Deduction: Consciously applying rules to produce or understand the second language
b) Recombination: Constructing a meaningful sentence or larger language sequence by combining known elements in a new way
c) Imagery: Relating new information to visual concepts in memory via familiar, easily retrievable visualizations, phrases, or locations
d) Auditory Representation: Retention of the sound or a similar sound for a word, phrase, or longer language sequence
e) Keyword: Remembering a new word in the second language by:
1) Identifying a familiar word in the first language that sounds like or otherwise resembles the new word
2) Generating easily recalled images of some relationship between the new word and the familiar word
f) Contextualization: Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence
g) Elaboration: Relating new information to other concepts in memory
h) Transfer: Using previously acquired linguistic and/or conceptual knowledge to facilitate a new language learning task
i) Inferencing: Available information to guess meanings of new items, predict outcomes, or fill in missing information
The next is Social affective. It Represents a broad grouping that involves either interaction with another person or ideational control over affect. Generally, they are considered applicable to a wide variety of task. Based on Alberta (2009) social affective language learning are actions learners take during or related to interactions with others to assist or enhance their own language learning. These strategies include methods students use to regulate their emotions, motivation and attitude to helps them learn the language.
Social affective strategies are very important in learning a language because language is used in communication and communication occurs between people. O‟ Malley and Chamot divided socio-affective strategies into three sets of strategies
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are; Asking question, Cooperating with others, and Empathizing with others.
Same as O‟ Malley and Chamot (1990) Oxford (1990) lists the following strategies:
1) Social strategies:
a) Asking questions: 1) Asking for clarifications or verification, 2) Asking for correction.
b) Cooperating with others: 1) Cooperating with peers, 2) Cooperating with proficient of the new language.
c) Empathizing with others: 1) Developing cultural understanding, 2) Becoming aware of other‟s thought and feeling.
2) Affective strategies :
a) Lowering your anxiety: 1) Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing or meditation, 2) Using music, 3) Using laughter.
b) Encouraging yourself: 1) Making positive statements, 2) Taking risk wisely, 3) Rewarding yourself.
c) Taking your emotional temperature: 1) Listening to your body, 2) Using checklist, 3) Writing a language learning diary, 4) Discussing your feelings with someone else.
d) From the kinds of learning strategies have been stated, it implies that learning strategies are crucial toward students, and students should be aware of it.
Stern (1992) suggested that there are five main types of language learning strategies, namely management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies, and affective strategies.
1) Management and planning strategies are related to the learner‟s intention to direct his own learning.
2) Cognitive strategies are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials.
3) Communicative-experiential strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrasing or asking for repetition or explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going.
4) Interpersonal strategies are those strategies learners use to monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance.
5) Affective strategies are those strategies used to overcome negative feelings, frustration, anxiety, and self-consciousness when trying to use the language.
c. Factors Influence the Choice of language Learning Strategies