CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW
C. Factors Influence the Choice of language Learning Strategies …
3. Students’ Self Efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to individuals‟ beliefs in their capabilities to manage something and do some actions in order to achieve certain accomplishment (Bandura, 1997). Bandura also (1986) states that self-efficacy is a major component of social cognitive theory. Social cognitive theory explains psychosocial functioning in terms of triadic reciprocal causation. The triad consists of behavior, cognitive and other personal factors, and the external environment.
In addition, Bandura and Wood (1989) stated that self-efficacy has principal role in arrangement process through individual
50
motivation and work achievement determined. A person can feel free to do tasks which they like, responsibility for their behavior, and be polite with interacted in order. Thus, individual can accept and appreciate in order, have a support to be achieved and know their strength and weakness.
Self-efficacy is a belief about individual capabilities of performing a certain task rather than the real capabilities the individual have. Gulten Grenc (2016) Self-efficacy is predictive for subsequent performance as the beliefs of individuals‟ capabilities for performing certain tasks, which were formed from the previous performance outcomes, influence individuals‟ behaviors.
Bruno (2002) mentioned that self-efficacy is the belief that says
“I can perform the behavior that produces the outcome. According to Pajares‟s (1996) self-efficacy theory, self-efficacy is defined as
“beliefs in one‟s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. The concept of self-efficacy firstly is theory of Social Cognitive by Bandura (1977 in Dasmo, 2014) said “self-efficacy proved to be an accurate predictor of performance in the enactive mode of treatment although subjects engaged in no overt behavior”.
From the explanations above, it can be concluded that self-efficacy is an individual‟s belief and confidence in his or her own capabilities to perform or complete tasks and difficulties they face in order to overcome obstacles and achieve the expected goals. It is not
expected to measure one‟s actual capabilities but, rather the confidence of individual holds in regards to particular abilities in spite of the fact that is found in the following sections, self-efficacy beliefs can directly influence individual‟s efforts and activities and therefore, serve as an excellent predictor of one‟s future performance and ability.
Self-efficacy is an ability which has people to show their responsibility in given task. Besides, self-efficacy is as a big motivation for individual to make sure themselves that they can reach the goal and give good impact for their ability. Additionally, self-efficacy is belief on individual‟s ability to do specific task or action.
People who have high self-efficacy are deposed to be success.
Otherwise, people who have low self-efficacy disposed to be fail.
b. The Nature of Self Efficacy
People often do not perform optimally in accomplishing performances even though they know well what to do. Some people consider that it is enough to only have knowledge and skills for attaining expected achievement. In fact, besides having knowledge and skills, it is necessary for people to have belief of their capabilities which is well known as self-efficacy. According to Wortman & Loftus, as cited in Murtiningsih (2011) individuals have different beliefs in their capabilities which make them respond differently in the same situation.
Self-efficacy refers to individuals‟ beliefs in their capabilities to manage something and do some actions in order to achieve certain
52
accomplishment (Pajares, 1996). Self-efficacy is concerned not with the number of skills people have, but with what people believe they can do with what they have under particular situation. It means that self-efficacy is not a measure of the skills one has but it is a belief in what one can do under certain conditions with whatever skills one possesses
People believe that they can perform better in some tasks, therefore they motivate themselves and work hard to get a good result.
Their beliefs are called efficacy beliefs. “Efficacy beliefs influence how people feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave” (Bandura 1993). Self-efficacy is a belief of person‟s capabilities to acquire or do behaviors at some designated levels (Bandura, 1997). Self-efficacy may measure a person‟s thoughts, feelings, and actions and influence our actions. Some researchers have conducted the research about self-efficacy in some areas. The researcher investigate the mathematics self-efficacy can influence people‟s interest (Lent, Lopez, & Bieschke, 1993; Pajares & Miller 1994). On the other hand, there is a study on science (Lent, Brown, & Larkin, 1984). The result showed that high self efficacy influence the academic achievement.
Perceived self-efficacy in academic is about someone‟s judgment on their capability to organize and execute courses of action to achieve designated types of educational performance. On educational development, perceived self efficacy is about how efficacy affect student‟s motivation to learn, to effort in execute task and
student‟s achievement. Thus, it can be concluded that perceived self-efficacy is about someone‟ belief in execute subjects to gain their educational performance and it also effect on their learning motivation, effort and their education‟s achievement.
c. The Principles of Self Efficacy
Bandura (1997) states that there are four factors that influenced self- efficacy. These components help individuals determine if they believe they have the capability to accomplish specific tasks. They are as follows:
1) Performance Outcomes
Performance outcomes are also called mastery experience, enactive mastery. According to Bandura, performance outcomes or past experience is the most important source of self-efficacy.
Positive and negative experiences can influence the ability of an individual to perform a given task. If one has performed well at a task previously, he or she is more likely to feel competent and perform well at a similarly associated task. For example a positive experience, if an individual performed well in a previous job assignment, they are more likely to feel confident and have high self-efficacy in performing the task when their manager assigns them a similar task. The individual‟s self-efficacy will be high in that particular area, and since he or she has a high self-efficacy, he or she is more likely to try harder and complete then task with much better results. Mastery experiences are the most influential
54
source of efficacy information because they provide the most authentic evidence of whether one can muster whatever it takes to succeed. Success builds a robust belief in one‟s personal efficacy.
Failure undermines it, especially if failures occur before a sense of efficacy is firmly established. So, if the students' success on his experience, it will increase students‟ self- efficacy.
2) Vicarious Experiences
Vicarious experience known also as modeling, it affects self-efficacy through a social comparison process where people judge their capabilities in relation to the capability of others (Bandura, 1997). It is believed to be the second most effective to develop their efficacy; People can develop high or low self-efficacy vicariously through other people‟s performance. A person can watch some in a similar position perform, and then compare his own competence with the other individual‟s competence. If a person sees someone similar to them succeed, it can increase their self-efficacy, and vice versa; seeing someone on a similar fail can decrease their self-efficacy.
3) Verbal Persuasion
Verbal persuasion is also known as social persuasion; Wise and Trunell (2001) also state that verbal persuasion is the most effective when following a performance accomplishment.
Redmond (2010) states self- efficacy is also influenced by the encouragement and discouragement pertaining to an individual‟s
performance or ability to perform. For instance, such in positive example, a manager telling an employee; “you can do it. I have confidence in you.” Using verbal persuasion in positive light generally leads individuals to put forth more effort; therefore, they have a greater chance at succeeding. The level of credibility directly influences the effectiveness of verbal persuasion; where there is more credibility; there will be a greater influence.
4) Physiological Feedback (Emotional arousal)
Physiological arousal is the fourth determinant of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1998), physiological is also called affective arousal (Smith, 2002). People experience sensations of their body and how they perceive this emotional arousal influence their beliefs of efficacy. Some examples of physiological feedback are: giving a speech in front of a large group of people, making a presentation to an important client and taking an exam. Although this source is the least influential of the four, it is important to note that if one is more at ease with the task at hand they will feel more capable and have higher beliefs of efficacy. Students with poor self-efficacy do not feel in control and believe they do not have capabilities for success. Students‟ perception about their abilities influences how they behave, their thought pattern, and their emotional reactions in difficult situations.
56
d. Types of Self Efficacy
According to Baron in Desi Safitri (2016) there are three types of self- efficacy, they are:
1) Self-Regulatory Self Efficacy
It means that ability to resist peer pressure, avoid high risk activities. Self-efficacy for self-regulated learning is a subset of self-regulation. Self-regulation is defined as “a systematic process of human behavior that involves setting personal goals and steering behavior toward the achievement of established goals” (Zeidner et.al: 2000).
Besides, Zimmerman (1989: 29) believed that for students to be self-regulated, their learning must involve the use of specified strategies to achieve academic goals on the basis of self-efficacy perceptions. This statement marks the importance of three elements necessary for academic success that includes: students' self-regulated learning strategies, self- efficacy perceptions of performance skill, and commitment to academic goals. Students‟
self-regulated learning strategies are specific processes (like rehearsal and memory aids) that direct the organization and transformation of knowledge and information. Perception of performance skills refers to students‟ beliefs of their capabilities to follow through with the actions necessary to successfully complete a task or obtain skills to succeed. A commitment to academic goals
is the desire needed to obtain academic goals, such as grades, social esteem, or post-graduation employment.
2) Social Self-Efficacy
It means that ability to form and maintain relationships, be assertive, engage in leisure time activities. Social self-efficacy can be defined as the extent of confidence in one‟s ability to conduct the social interactions needed to establish and sustain interpersonal relations. As a construct, there are many definitions provided for social self-efficacy in the literature based on Bandura‟s (1997) theory which can be applied to specific situations. Another definition of social efficacy can be built on one‟s self-expectation in relation to performance in interpersonal relationships. This expectation is an important determiner of success in social relationships. Social self-efficacy is not only important for the effectiveness of social behavior, but also for psychological adjustment and mental health.
As indicated, social problem solving skills and social self-efficacy beliefs are crucial factors in an individual‟s life. When one considers a stressful situation caused by interpersonal problems, and there is doubt about one‟s personal ability to solve problems successfully as well as low self-efficacy, the determination of the relationship between social problem solving skills and social self-efficacy can be important. Figuring out social problem solving skills and social self-efficacy can help prepare training programs in
58
guidance psychological counseling and related areas. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between social problem solving skills and social self-efficacy.
3) Academic Self-Efficacy
It means that ability to do the course work, regulate learning activities, and meet expectations. Since Bandura‟s seminar article on self- efficacy, there has been an accumulation of research evidence supporting the positive links between students‟ academic efficacy and their achievement. Specifically, the evidence has shown that students with high self-efficacy in various academic domains choose to engage in tasks that foster the development of their knowledge, skills, and abilities in those areas; exert effort in the face of difficulty; and persist longer at challenging tasks.
Furthermore, besides the positive influence that self-efficacy appears to have on the quantity of effort, there is evidence that students high in academic efficacy differ in terms of the quality of their effort, using more deep cognitive and metacognitive processing strategies than their counterparts with weaker efficacy beliefs.
While educators are understandably concerned about teaching students‟ knowledge and skills, results from more than 30 years of self- efficacy research have made it clear that simply possessing knowledge and skills does not ensure that learners will be motivated to apply them. Instead, students need both „the skill
and the will‟ to successfully function within different domains and under a variety of circumstances. In fact, much of the research suggests that students‟ perceptions of confidence (i.e., their self-efficacy beliefs) may more accurately predict their motivation and future academic choices than actual competence. Therefore, Bandura and others have suggested that teachers would do well to implement instructional practices that not only foster knowledge and skill attainment, but also promote the development of the necessary accompanying confidence.
At the same time, efficacy scholars caution that attempting to build positive efficacy beliefs through programmers that overemphasize verbal persuasion methods is unlikely to be successful (Bandura: 1998). Instead, educators should focus their efforts primarily on providing students with authentic mastery experiences. Clearly, instructional strategies focused on providing students with opportunities for performance success, align well with Bandura‟s emphasis on effective attainment as the most influential source of self-efficacy information.
e. Classification of Self Efficacy
In general, self-efficacy can be divided into two categories;
high self efficacy and low self efficacy. In performing a particular task, people with high self-efficacy tend to be more involved in the situation, while those who have low self-efficacy prefer to avoid and stay away from the task.
60
People who have low self-efficacy was try to avoid difficult tasks. Such individuals have low commitment in achieving the goals they set. When they faced difficult tasks, they are busy thinking about the shortcomings they have, the distractions they face, and all the results that can be detrimental to them. They do not increase their efforts and give up very easily. They are too slow in correcting their own mistake and regaining their self-efficacy when facing a failure.
On the contrary, individuals who have high self-efficacy tend to be more motivated to do a particular task, even a difficult one. They do not view the task as a threat they should avoid. They are not afraid to fail in performing the task. Instead, they increase their efforts to prevent a failure that might occur. Those who fail in their work, they usually regain their self-efficacy as quickly after experiencing failures.
f. Characteristics of Self Efficacy 1. Characteristic of High self Efficacy
a. Self-confidence; this is the most obvious characteristics of high self-efficacy. They approach tasks or situations with a sense of their ability to be successful. This self-confidence tends to lead to more experience which increases their ability which leads to greater self-confidence. This positive cycle lends itself to increasing self-efficacy even further.
b. Accurate self-evaluation; individuals with high self-efficacy tend to be able to accurately evaluate their performance. They are neither overly-critical nor overly positive but are able to
examine themselves realistically in order to pursue self-improvement.
c. Willingness to take risks; individual with high self-efficacy are willing to take risks because they understand that taking calculated risks increases the chances of success. As they are not fearful of failure or mistakes, reasonable risks can only increase self-efficacy.
d. Sense of accomplishment; generally individual with high self- efficacy feel a sense of accomplishment because they are often more successful due to the willingness to take risks and to pursue interests. Even if they fail or make mistakes they feel a sense of accomplishment because they view mistakes as opportunities to improve themselves.
2. Characteristics of Low Self Efficacy
a) Fear of risk; individual with low self-efficacy will think themselves as unable to be successful. Finally, they are often unwilling to take a risk or try new thing because they are convinced that the result will be failure. This is particularly unfortunate because the main way to increase self-efficacy is through practice and experience.
b) Fear of uncertainty; a person with low self-efficacy is related to self-doubt and uncertainty. The individual doesn‟t want to try without a guarantee of success. As the result, they may never try the new thing.
62
c) Feeling of failure; usually, people who have low self-efficacy have feelings of failure. The individual is indicated they might avoid or not try new things due to the risk involved. As a result, they are less likely to experience success and more likely to see themselves as a failure.
d) Impression management; is the attempt to control how others might perceive you in order to be seen more positively. People with low self-efficacy feel they are not capable, but may try to present a successful and competent image to others. They may put a great deal of energy into behaving in a way to obtain approval from others and experience a great deal of worry about being found out to be a fraud. For instance, they may try to hide mistakes from others rather than learn from them, which prevent them from increasing their sense of self-efficacy (Monica A. Frank, Ph.D)
g. Dimension of Self Efficacy
Pajares (1996) states that there are several dimension of self-efficacy which affect individuals‟ performance, namely level, strength and generality.
1) Level
Level refers to the degree of task difficulty an individual believes he or she is able to deal with. Individuals‟ self-efficacy of a certain task level determines the expectation of being able to perform at the level. When they perform something in easy level,
they will believe that they can do that because that is easy. The level of difficulty causes the individuals to choose tasks which they think can be performed or they will avoid the tasks because they doubt their capability.
2) Strength
Strength refers to the degree of confidence individuals have about their beliefs in capabilities. This confidence will determine their effort and persistence. Individuals who have high confidence put more effort and not easily give up when facing obstacles.
However, individuals who have low confidence easily give up and lose their spirit to keep trying when facing obstacles because they have doubt about their capabilities to perform something.
Moreover, the strength of individuals‟ belief in their capabilities will determine the degree of relationship between self-efficacy and performance.
3) Generality
Generality is the idea in which individuals‟ self-efficacy is not limited to a certain situation. It refers to various situations to which the self-efficacy beliefs can apply. Individuals may belief that he or she is able to produce the intended result only in certain area or in various activities and situations.
64
h. The Impact of Self efficacy on Human Functioning
Bandura (1994) tells that self –efficacy affects human functioning through the four major psychological processes. These are cognitive, motivation, affect and selection processes. Each process will be described as below:
1. Self Efficacy and Cognitive Process
Self-efficacy, impact the cognitive process by influencing the anticipatory scenarios humans construct and rehearse (Bandura, 1994). For instance, those with high self-efficacy beliefs tends to anticipate success scenarios while those with low self-efficacy beliefs tend to dwell on pitfalls and anticipate failure. In short, self-efficacy impacts analytic thinking.
2. Self Efficacy and Motivation
Self-efficacy impacts motivation by determining the goal level, preference and resilience to failures (Bandura, 1994). Those with a high sense of self-efficacy tend to set higher goal levels than those with low self-efficacy and, consequently, tend to exert more effort. Accordingly, those with low self-efficacy tend to give up in difficult situations and limit their future involvement in similar endeavors. Conversely, those with high self-efficacy persevere in difficult circumstances and are resilient in light of failure.
(Bandura, 1997).