Early suggestions that ultrasound could enhance bonding have been embraced by many authors Campbell (2006). However, empirical evidence overall is scant, though many women and their partners report that the baby feels more real and like a member of the family after a scan (Molan-der et al. 2010). Roberts (2012) reports the duality of the scan experience: the sonographer’s task to view and measure the fetus from a clinical perspective; and the parents, who perceive the scan as an opportunity to ‘see the baby’. She reports that behavioural, personality and physical char-acteristics are projected onto the fetus with imaginative interpretations of the features of the scan to create a fetal identity. However, the quality of the scan’s bonding experience is dependent on the sonographer’s sensitivity and feedback (Roberts 2012). There is some evidence that having seen the fetus on a scan can make loss more difficult for some women (Black 1992). More recently the commercial introduction of non-diagnostic 3D and 4D scans to promote bonding has encour-aged parents to ‘meet’ with and engage with the fetus pre-birth. Early speculation regarding the
•
Self-reliant•
Self-confident•
High self-esteem•
Resilience•
Flexible•
Curious and exploring•
Able to regulate behaviour•
Able to form relationships•
Persistence•
Socially competent•
Empathic•
Socially assuredBox 4.3 Secure attachment behaviour
81 potential psychological effects of 3/4D scans was based on emotional reactions to these scans (Campbell 2002). Some studies have reported a positive bonding impact (Roberts 2012; de Jong-Pleij et al. 2013), whilst others have shown no effect (Lapaire et al. 2007). The evidence to support the psychological benefits of scanning and bonding remains tenuous; the scan is here to stay and it is important that sonographers approach their description of the fetus thoughtfully and that the midwife appreciates the importance of the scan in terms of its impact on the mother, whether negative, positive or ambivalent.
Maternal psychosocial status
Factors within the family, for example, maternal depression, low income, domestic violence or lack of social support can impact on the bonding process. When the mother feels insecure in her social setting this insecurity may result in an insecure attachment for the infant. Furthermore where a disjunct exists between the antenatal representation of the infant by the mother, which may emerge in part from the scan and the ‘real’ infant, there is potential for discordant bonding (Huth-Bocks et al. 2011). Whilst the promotion and support of bonding is important, bonding is not always instantaneous and practitioners should be mindful not to create standards for women which are both unrealistic and unattainable, within the context of their lives and the continuum of motherhood transition.
Neuroscience research has revealed interesting developments in the physiological impact on bonding and attachment. Studies have found that particular areas of the brain and discrete hormones are stimulated during the maternal–infant interaction. However, maternal depression and substance abuse can inhibit these activities and hence bonding (Swain et al. 2007; Strath-earn 2011).
Summary
The relationship between the mother and the baby is the foundation for all future relationships. It is essential for survival of the infant who will instinctively attach to its caregiver and is a powerful, instinctive, emotional and biological activity in women which occurs in the antenatal and postna-tal period. Donald Winnicott coined the term ‘good enough’ mother whom he defined as the ordi-nary devoted mother, arguably a mother who had bonded with her child (Winnicott 1953).
Bonding and attachment theory are clearly defined and discussed in the literature and the mid-wife’s role is to navigate through pregnancy and the postnatal period with the woman, promoting every opportunity for the mother to develop a deep, meaningful relationship with her infant. This may require an interprofessional approach and referral to additional services, to ensure mothers have the support they need to determine a secure base for themselves and their infant.
Key points
•
The perinatal period is a period of physical and social change and is therefore inevitably char-acterised by emotional lability.•
Psychological health and wellbeing is not merely the absence of mental illness or psychological distress.•
Psychological understanding enables midwives to consider what is normative and how women cope with the challenges of pregnancy.•
Psychological theory can inform health professionals about factors that influence people’s life-styles and what motivates certain health-related behaviours.•
An understanding of the psychology of communication enables ways of optimising the midwife–mother relationship.
82
Conclusion
Childbearing presents women with challenges and sometimes adversities. Women will experi-ence fluctuating mood states, negative and positive emotions affected by a multitude of factors;
women’s responses will inevitably be as individual as women’s experiences. Midwives are ideally placed to support women through the normative emotional adjustment that embodies this period in women’s lives but are equally well placed to identify the triggers that may signal psychological distress.
End of chapter activities
Crossword
1 2
3 4
5 6
7
8
9 10
11 12 13
14 15
16
3. Coined the term ‘good enough mother’
6. Of control sounds like a flying insect?
10. A connection between the midwife and woman
11. One of the Freudian structures of personality
15. A woman who has had more than one child 16. Talkative Communication
Across
83 Down
1. A UK organisation which sets guidelines for the childbearing continuum
2. The first stage of change 4. Fear of Childbirth
5. Scientific study of behaviour and mental processes
7. A cause of low birth weight
8. One of the senses. Non-verbal?
9. One of the humanistic psychologists 12. End of love without a vowel creates a
sali-vating dog
13. Key public health issue in maternity 14. Colour relating to postnatal baby
experience?
Find out more
Activity Background reading
Look at NICE guidelines to develop your understanding of the midwife’s role in caring for a woman’s psychological needs.
Consider how a woman’s psychological needs may differ in pregnancy, labour and in the postnatal period.
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) Antenatal and Postnatal Mental Health Guideline. London: NICE.
Reflect on your experience of midwives in practice – what have you seen to underpin your understanding of the midwife-mother relationship?
Kirkham, M. (2010) The Midwife–Mother Relationship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
McCrea, H., Crute, V. (1991) Midwife/client relationship: Midwives perspectives.
Midwifery 7(4), pp. 183–192.
Tinkler, A., Quinney, D. (2001) Team midwifery: the influence of the midwife–
woman relationship on women’s experiences and perceptions of maternity care. Journal of Advanced Nursing 28(1), pp. 30–35.
Winnicott coined the term ‘good enough mother’ What is your understanding of a ‘good enough mother’?
Alhusen, J.L. (2008) A literature update on maternal–fetal attachment. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing 37(3), pp. 315–328.
Bowlby, J. (1988) A Secure Base. Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory.
London: Routledge.
Winnicott, D. (1953) The theory of the parent–infant relationship. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 41, pp. 585–595.
How can you develop your understanding of healthy and unhealthy behaviours based on theoretical models discussed in the text?
Becker, M.H., Rosenstock, I.M. (1987) Comparing social learning and the health belief model. In: Ward, W.B. (ed.) Advances in Health Education and Promotion.
Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Hewstone, M., Fincham, F.D., Foster, J. (2005) Psychology. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.
Rogers, R.W. (1985) Attitude change and information integration in fear appeals. Psychological Reports 56, pp. 179–182.
Wallston, K.A., Wallston, B.S. (1982) Who is responsible for your health? The construct of health locus of control. In: Sanders G.S., Suls, J. (eds) Social Psychology of Health and Illness. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
Weinstein, N.D. (1983) Reducing unrealistic optimism about illness susceptibility. Health Psychology 2, pp. 11–20.
84
Glossary of terms
Antepartum haemorrhage A blood loss from the genital tract of 500 mL or more during pregnancy.
Attribution theory A theory based on how individuals perceive and attach meaning to self or others behaviour.
Congruence The ability to be authentic and genuine in relationships, acknowledging the other person.
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale A measure that can be used to determine risk of post-natal depression.
Egocentrism Self-centred, focus on self
Empathy The ability to recognise and understand another’s emotions.
Hyperemesis Nausea and vomiting, especially noted in early pregnancy.
Meta-analysis An analysis of research from several studies on the same subject comparing and contrasting results.
Morbidity The unhealthy or diseased state of the individual.
Mortality The demise (death) of an individual or death rates within a population.
Multiparous A woman who has given birth more than once.
Neurological Relating to nerves or the nervous system.
Oxytocin A hormone produced in the posterior pituitary gland which stimulates breast milk ejection and uterine contractions.
Parous A woman who has given birth one or more times.
Perinatal The period surrounding birth – from 24 weeks gestation and the first month post-birth.
Post partum haemorrhage A significant blood loss from the genital tract of 500 mL or more post-birth.
Primiparous A woman experiencing her first pregnancy.
Psychoanalytic psychology A psychological theory based on Freudian psychology which focuses on analysing behaviour retrieved from the unconscious mind via dreams or association.
Qualitative Research studying the ‘lived experience’ within its natural setting to make sense of and understand the lived phenomena and the meanings that people attribute to their experience.
Quantitive Research based on statistical analysis of data.
References
Ajzen, I. (1985) From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In: J. Kuhl, J. Beckman (eds) Action-Control: From Cognition to Behaviour. Heidelberg: Springer.
Ajzen, I. (2002a) Perceived behavioural control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 32, pp. 665–683.
85
Ajzen, I. (2002b) Residual effects of past on later behaviour: Habituation and reasoned action perspectives.
Personality and Social Psychology Review 6, pp. 107–122.
Alderdice, F., Ayers, S., Darwin, Z., Green, J., et al. (2013) Measuring psychological health in the perinatal period: workshop consensus statement. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology 31 (5), pp.
431–438.
Alhusen, J.L. (2008) A literature update on maternal-fetal attachment. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic &
Neonatal Nursing 37 (3), pp. 315–328.
Altaweli, R., Roberts, J. (2010) Maternal infant bonding: a concept analysis. British Journal of Midwifery 18 (9), pp. 552–559.
Bharj, K.K., Chesney, M. (2010) Pakistani Muslim women-midwives relationships: what are the essential attributes. In Kirkham, M. (ed.) The Midwife-Mother Relationship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bandura, A. (1997) Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bateman, L., Bharj, K. (2009) The impact of the birth of the first child on a couple’s relationship. Evidence Based Midwifery 7 (1), pp. 16–23.
Beck, C.T. (2001) Predictors of postpartum depression: an update. Nursing Research 50, pp. 275–285 Becker, M.H., Maiman, L.A., Kirscht, J.P., Haefner, D.P., Drachman, R.H. (1977) The health belief model and
prediction of dietary compliance: a field experiment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 18 (4), pp.
348–366.
Becker, M.H., Rosenstock, I.M. (1987) Comparing social learning and the health belief model. In Ward, W.B.
(ed.) Advances in Health Education and Promotion. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Black, R.B. (1992) Seeing the baby: the impact of ultrasound technology. Journal of Genetic Counselling 1 (1), pp. 45–54.
Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment, Separation and Loss. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1988) A secure Base. Clinical Applications of Attachment Theory. London: Routledge.
Byrt, R., Hart, L., James-Sow, L. (2008) Patient Empowerment and Participation: Barriers and the Way Forward. In: Kettles, A.M., Woods, P., Byrt, R. (eds) Forensic Mental Health Nursing: Competencies, Roles, Responsibilities. London: Quay Books.
Buultjens, M. and Liamputtong, P. (2007) When giving life starts to take the life out of you: women’s experi-ences of depression after childbirth. Midwifery 23, pp. 77–91.
Bystrova, K., Ivanova V., Edhborg, M., et al. (2009) Early contact versus separation: effects on mother–infant interaction one year later. BIRTH 36 (2), pp. 97–109.
Canadian Paediatric Society Position Statement (2004) Maternal depression and child development [avail-able online] http://www.cps.ca/documents/position/maternal-depression-child-development.
Campbell, S. (2002) 4D, or not 4D: that is the question. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology 19, pp. 1–4.
Campbell, S. (2006) 4D and prenatal bonding: still more questions than answers. Ultrasound in Obstetrics
& Gynecology 27 (3), pp. 243–244.
Cannella, B.L. (2005) Maternal-fetal attachment: an integrative review. Journal of Advanced Nursing 50 (1), pp. 60–68.
Clement, S. (1998) Psychological Perspectives on Pregnancy and Childbirth. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.
Crombie, J. and Nightingale, D.J. (1999) Social Constructionist Psychology. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Czarnocka, A.J. & Slade, P. (2000) Prevalence and predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms following childbirth. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 39, pp. 35–51.
Darvill, T., Skirton, H., Farrand, P. (2010) Psychological factors that impact on women’s experiences of first-time motherhood: a qualitative study of the transition. Midwifery 26, pp. 357–366.
Deery, R., Kirkham, M. (2006) Supporting midwives to support women. In: Page, L.A., McCandlish, R. (eds) The New Midwifery: Science and Sensitivity in Practice. London: Elsevier Health Sciences.
Deery, R., Kirkham, M. (2007) Drained and dumped on: the generation and accumulation of emotional toxic waste in community midwifery. In: Kirkham, M. (ed.) Exploring the Dirty Side of Women’s Health.
London: Routledge.
Deery, R., Hunter, B. (2010) Emotion work and relationships in midwifery. In: Kirkham, M. (ed.) The Midwife–
Mother Relationship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
de Jong-Pleij, E.A.P., Ribbert, L.S.M., Pistorius, L.R., Tromp, E., Mulder, E.J.H., Bilardo, C.M. (2013) Three-dimensional ultrasound and maternal bonding, a third trimester study and a review. Prenatal Diag-nosis 33 (1), pp. 81–88.
86
Della Vedova, A.M., Dabrassi, F., Imbasciati, A. (2008) Assessing prenatal attachment in a sample of Italian women. Journal of Reproductive & Infant Psychology 26 (2), pp. 86–98.
DiMatteo, M.R., Khan, K.L. (1997) In: S.J. Gallant, K.G. Puryear & R. Royal Schaler (eds) Health Care for Women: Psychological, Social and Behavioural Influence. Washington: American Psychological Association.
D’Souza, R. (2012) Caesarean section on maternal request for non-medical reasons: Putting the UK National Institute of Health and Clinical Excellence guidelines in perspective. Obstetrics and Gynaecology 27 (2), pp. 165–177.
Dykes, F. (2009) ‘No time to care’: Midwifery work on postnatal wards. In: Hunter, B., Deery, R. (eds) Emotions in Midwifery and Reproduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Earle, S., Komaromy, C., Foley, P., Lloyd, C. (2007) Understanding reproductive loss: Part 2: the moment of death. The Practising Midwife 10 (7), pp. 27–30.
Edwards, N.P. (2004) Why can’t women just so say? And does it really matter? In: Kirkham, M. (ed.) Informed Choice in Maternity Care. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Edwards, N.P. (2009) Women’s emotion work in the context of current maternity services. In: Hunter, B., Deery, R. (eds) Emotions in Midwifery and Reproduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Eyer, D.E. (1994) Mother–infant bonding: a scientific fiction. Human Nature 5 (1), pp. 69–94.
Fearon, R.P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Van IJzendoorn, M.H., Lapsley, A., Roisman, G.I. (2010) The sig-nificance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children’s externalizing behavior: a meta-analytic study. Child development. 81 (2), pp. 435–456.
Field, T., Diego, M., Hernandez-Reif, M., et al. (2010) Comorbid depression and anxiety effects on pregnancy and neonatal outcome. Infant Behaviour Development 33 (1), pp. 23–29.
Figueiredo, B., Costa, R. (2009) Mother’s stress, mood and emotional involvement with the infant: 3 months before and 3 months after childbirth. Archives of Women’s Mental Health 12 (3), pp. 143–153.
Fransson, E., Ortenstrand, A., Hjelmstedt, A. (2011) Antenatal depressive symptoms and preterm birth: a prospective study of a Swedish national sample. BIRTH 38 (1), pp. 10–16.
Gibbins, J., Thomson, A.M. (2001) Women’s expectations and experiences of childbirth. Midwifery 17 (4), pp. 302–313.
Goodin, M., Griffiths, M. (2012) Caesarean section on demand. Obstetrics, Gynaecology & Reproductive Medicine 22 (12) pp. 368–370.
Goodman, J.H. (2004) Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. Journal of Advanced Nursing 45 (1), pp. 26–35.
Green, J.M. (2012) Integrating women’s views into maternity care research and practice. BIRTH 39 (4), pp.
291–295.
Hayes, L.J., Goodman, S.H., Carlson, E. (2013) Maternal antenatal depression and infant disorganized attach-ment at 12 months. Attachattach-ment & Human Developattach-ment 15 (2), pp. 133–153.
Hjelmstedt, A., Widström, A.M., Collins, A. (2006) Psychological correlates of prenatal attachment in women who conceived after in vitro fertilization and women who conceived naturally. Birth 33 (4), pp.
303–310.
Hewstone, M., Fincham, F.D., Foster, J. (2005) Psychology. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.
Hernandez-Martinez, C., Val, V.A., Murphy, M., Busquets, P.C., Sans, J.C. (2011) relation between positive and negative maternal emotional states and obstetrical outcomes. Women & Health 51 (2), pp.
124–135.
Hofberg, K., Ward, M.R. (2003) Fear of pregnancy and childbirth. Postgraduate Medical Journal. 79, pp.
505–510.
Hunter, B. (2004) Conflicting ideologies as a source of emotion work in midwifery. Midwifery 22 (4), pp.
308–322.
Hunter, B. (2006) The importance of reciprocity in relationships between community based midwives and mothers. Midwifery 22 (4), pp. 308–322.
Hunter, B., Berg, M., Lundgren, I., Olafsdottir, O.A., Kirkham, M. (2008) Relationships: The hidden threads in the tapestry of maternity care. Midwifery 24 (2), pp. 132–137.
Huth-Bocks, A.C., Theran, S.A., Levendosky,A.A., Bogat, G.A. (2011) A social-contextual understanding of concordance and discordance between maternal prenatal representations of the infant and infant–
mother attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal.32 (4), pp. 405–426.
Jomeen, J. (2004) The importance of assessing psychological status during pregnancy, childbirth and the postnatal period as a multidimensional construct: A literature review. Clinical Effectiveness in Nursing 8 (3/4), pp. 143–155.
87
Jomeen, J. (2010) Choice and Control in Contemporary Childbirth: Understanding through Women’s Experi-ences. London: Radcliffe.
Jomeen, J., Martin, C.R. (2008a) The impact of choice of maternity care on psychological health outcomes for women during pregnancy and the postnatal period. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 14 (3), pp. 391–398.
Jomeen, J., Martin, C.R. (2008b) Reflections on the notion of post-natal depression following examination of the scoring pattern of the women on the EPDS during pregnancy and in the post-natal period.
Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing 15, pp. 645–648.
Jomeen, J., Redshaw, M. (2012) Ethnic minority women’s experience of maternity services in England.
Ethnicity and Health [available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2012.730608]
Keeling, J., Mason, T. (2011) Postnatal disclosure of domestic violence: comparison with disclosure in the first trimester of pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Nursing 20 (1/2), pp. 103–110.
Kennell, J.H., Jerauld, R., Wolfe, H., Chester, D., Kreger, N.C., McAlpine, W., Steffa, M., Klaus, M.H. (1974) Maternal behavior one year after early and extended post-partum contact. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 16 (2), pp. 172–179.
Kirkham, M. (2010) The Midwife–Mother Relationship. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kitzinger, S. (2006) Birth Crisis. Abingdon: Routledge.
Kitzinger, S. (2012) Rediscovering the social model of childbirth. BIRTH. 39 (4), pp. 301–304.
Lapaire, O., Alder, J., Peukert, R., Holzgreve, W. and Tercanli, S. (2007) Two- versus three-dimensional ultrasound in the second and third trimester of pregnancy: impact on recognition and maternal–
fetal bonding. A prospective pilot study. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 276 (5), pp.
475–479.
Laxton-Kane, M., Slade, P. (2002) The role of maternal prenatal attachment in a woman’s experience of pregnancy and implications for the process of care. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology. 20 (4), pp. 253–266.
Maier, B. (2010) Women’s worries about childbirth: making safe choices. British Journal of Midwifery 18(5), pp. 293–299.
Marks, D.E., Murray, M., Evans, B., Willig, C., Woodall, C., Sykes, C.M. (2005) Health Psychology: Theory, Research and Practice. London: Sage.
Marshall, J.L., Godfrey M., Renfrew, M.J. (2007) Being a ‘good mother’: Managing breastfeeding and merging identities. Social Science and Medicine 65, pp. 2147–2159.
Martin, C.R., Jomeen, J. (2004) The impact of clinical management type on maternal locus of control in pregnant women with pre-labour rupture of membranes at term. Health Psychology Update 13, pp.
3–13.
McCourt, C., Stevens, T. (2009) Relationships and reciprocity in caseload midwifery. In: Hunter, B., Deery, R.
(eds) Emotions in Midwifery and Reproduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
McCrea, H., Crute, V. (1991) Midwife/client relationship: Midwives perspectives. Midwifery 7 (4), pp.
183–192.
McKenzie, S.K., Carter, K. (2013) Does transition into parenthood lead to changes in mental health? Findings from three waves of a population based panel study. Journal of Epidemiology Community Health 67, pp. 339–345.
Mercer, J., Green-Jervis, C., Brannigan, C. (2012) The legacy of a self-reported negative birth experience.
British Journal of Midwifery 20 (10), pp. 717–723.
Miller, T. (2011) Transition to first-time motherhood. The Practising Midwife 14 (2), pp. 12–15.
Misri, S., Kendrick, K., Oberlander, T.F., Norris, S., Tomfohr, L., Zhang, H., Grunau, R.E. (2010) Antenatal depres-sion and anxiety affect postpartum parenting stress: a longitudinal, prospective study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 55 (4), pp. 222–228.
Mitchell, L.M. (2001) Baby’s First Picture. Ultrasound and the Politics of Fetal Subjects. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Molander, E., Alehagen, S., Berterö, C.M. (2010) Routine ultrasound during pregnancy: a world of possibili-ties. Midwifery 26 (1), 18–26.
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2006) Postnatal care. Routine postnatal care of women and their babies. [Available online] http://nice.org.uk.
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (2007) Antenatal and Postnatal Mental Health Guideline.
London: NICE.
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). (2006) The NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. [Available online] https://www.nichd.nih.gov.
88
Nicholls, L., Webb, C. (2006) What makes a good midwife? An integrative review of methodologically diverse research. Journal of Advanced Nursing 56 (4), pp. 414–429.
Nicholson, P., Fox, R., Heffernan, K. (2010) Constructions of pregnant and postnatal embodiment across three generations: mothers’, daughters’ and others’ experiences of the transition to motherhood.
Journal of Health Psychology 15, pp. 575–585.
Nilsson, C., Lundgren, I. (2009) Women’s lived experience of fear of childbirth. Midwifery, 25 (2), pp. e1–e9.
[Available online] http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-61749088458&origin=inwar d&txGid=54DFCDB0CF81AA536BA232DA8FD1DD9B.zQKnzAySRvJOZYcdfIziQ%3a2
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC). (2012) Midwives Rules and Standards. London: NMC.
O’Hare, J., Fallon, A. (2011) Women’s experience of control in labour and childbirth. British Journal of Mid-wifery 19 (3), pp. 164–169.
Peeler, S., Chung, M.C., Stedmon, J., Skirton, H. (2013) A review assessing the current treatment strategies for postnatal psychological morbidity with a focus on post-traumatic stress disorder. Midwifery 29 (4), pp. 377–188.
Pinel, J.P.J. (2011) Biopsychology (8th edn). Boston: Pearson.
Ramchandani, P., Stein, A., Evans, J., O’Connor, T.G. (2005) Paternal depression in the postnatal period and child development: a prospective population study. Lancet 365 (9478), pp. 2201–2205.
Raynor, M. (2006) Social and psychological context of childbearing. Women’s Health Medicine 3 (2), pp.
64–67.
Raynor, M., England, C. (2010) Psychology for Midwives: Pregnancy, Childbirth and Puerperium. Maidenhead:
Open University Press.
Redshaw, M., Martin, C.R. (2013) Babies, ‘bonding’ and ideas about parental ‘attachment’. Journal of Repro-ductive and Infant Psychology 31 (3), pp. 219–221.
Roberts, J. (2012) ‘Wakey wakey baby’: narrating four-dimensional (4D) bonding scans. Sociology of Health
& Illness 34 (2), pp. 299–314.
Rogers, C. (1961) On Becoming a Person: A Therapist View of Psychotherapy. New York: Mariner Books.
Rogers, R.W. (1975) A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. Journal of Psychol-ogy 91, pp. 93–114.
Rogers, R.W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. In: Cacioppo, J., Petty R. (eds) Social Psychophysiology. New York:
Guilford Press.
Rogers, R.W. (1985) Attitude change and information integration in fear appeals. Psychological Reports 56, pp. 179–182.
Rosenstock, I.M. (1966) Why people use health services. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 44 (3), pp.
94–127.
Royal College of Psychiatrists (2014) Postnatal Depression [Available online] http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/
healthadvice/problemsdisorders/pnd-keyfacts.aspx
Salomonsson, B., Berterö, C., Alehagen, S. (2013) Self-efficacy in pregnant women with severe fear of childbirth. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing 42 (2), pp. 191–202.
Salonen, A.H., Kaunonen, M., Astedt-Kurki, P., Järvenpää, A., Isoaho, H., Tarkka, M. (2009) Parenting self-efficacy after childbirth. Journal of Advanced Nursing 65 (11) pp. 2324–2336.
Shah, P.S., Shah, J. (2010) Maternal exposure to domestic violence and pregnancy and birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Journal of Women’s Health 19 (11), pp. 2017–2031.
Skinner, B.F. (1976) About Behaviourism. New York: Vintage Books.
Slade, P., MacPherson, S., Hume, A., Maresh, M. (1993) Expectations, experiences and satisfaction with labour. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 32, pp. 469–483.
Sroufe, L.A. (2005) Attachment and development: A prospective, longitudinal study from birth to adult-hood. Attachment & Human Development 7 (4), pp. 349–367.
Stevens, R. (2008) Sigmund Freud: Examining the Essence of his Contribution. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Strathearn, L. (2011) Maternal neglect: oxytocin, dopamine and the neurobiology of attachment. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 23, pp. 1054–1065.
Stringhini, S, Dugravot, A., Shipley, M., Goldberg, M., Zins, M., Kivimäki,M., Marmot, M., Sabia, S., Singh-Manoux, A. (2011). Health Behaviours, Socioeconomic Status, and Mortality: Further Analyses of the British Whitehall II and the French GAZEL Prospective Cohorts. Plos Medicine [Available online]
http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000419. DOI: 10 .1371/journal.pmed.1000419
89
Swain, J.E., Lorberbaum, J.P., Kose, S., Strathearn, L. (2007) Brain basis of early parent–infant interactions:
psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48 (3–4), pp. 262–287.
Talbot, R. (2012) Self-efficacy: women’s experiences of pain in labour. British Journal of Midwifery 20 (5), pp.
317–321.
Taylor, J. and Johnson, M. (2010) How women manage fatigue after childbirth. Midwifery 26, pp.
367–375.
Teixeira, C., Figueiredo, B., Conde, A., Pacheco, A., Costa, R. (2009) Anxiety and depression during pregnancy in women and men. Journal of Affective Disorders 119 (3), pp. 142–148.
Tinkler, A., Quinney, D. (2001) Team midwifery: the influence of the midwife-woman relationship on women’s experiences and perceptions of maternity care. Journal of Advanced Nursing 28 (1), pp.
30–35.
Waldenström, U., Hildingsson, I., Rubertsson, C., Rådestad, I. (2004) A negative birth experience: prevalence and risk factors in a national sample. Birth, 31 (1), pp. 17–27.
Wallston, K.A., Wallston, B.S. (1982) Who is responsible for your health? The construct of health locus of control. In: Sanders G.S., Suls, J. (eds) Social Psychology of Health and Illness. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum and Associates.
Weinstein, N.D. (1983) Reducing unrealistic optimism about illness susceptibility. Health Psychology 2, pp.
11–20.
Weinstein, N.D. (1984) Why it won’t happen to me: perceptions of risk factors and susceptibility. Health Psychology 3, pp. 431–457.
White, G. (2005) Postnatal Moods: Emotional Changes Following Childbirth. Auckland: Random House.
Winnicott, D. (1953) The theory of the parent–infant relationship. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 41, pp. 585–595. [Available online] http://nonoedipal.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/transitional -objects-and-transitional-phenomenae28094a-study-of-the-first-not-me-possession.pdf
Zachariah, R. (2009) Social support, life stress, and anxiety as predictors of pregnancy complications in low-income women. Research in Nursing & Health 32 (4) pp. 391–404.
Chapter 5
Parenthood
Olanma Ogbuehi Jacqui Powell
Women and Children’s Hospital, Hull, UK
By the end of this chapter the reader will be able to:
•
explain different definitions of mother and father and describe different family structures•
define the role of the midwife in support of mothers and fathers•
explain key health and social considerations in childbearing across the lifespan of women•
describe major contributing factors to the health of the population of childbearing women and their babies•
recognise and respond to different parenting styles using sound evidence.Learning outcomes
Introduction
This chapter offers a brief overview of parenthood and its centrality to midwifery practice. The scope of midwifery practice as it relates to motherhood and parenthood in general is explained.
The focus is on motherhood, with some consideration of fatherhood. Definitions of parenthood and the boundaries of parenthood are discussed, in terms of biology capability and assisted reproduction. Different family structures are described, into which babies are born, in the United Kingdom. Challenges faced by younger mothers, older mothers and disabled parents are con-sidered. Different parenting styles are also described. The role of the midwife in supporting parents through the childbearing period is discussed throughout, in relation to the main areas of content.
Midwifery, by definition, focuses on the role of women at that stage in life when they embark on motherhood. A midwife is:
. . . a responsible and accountable professional who works in partnership with women to give the necessary support, care and advice during pregnancy, labour and the postpartum period, University of Hull, Hull, UK
Fundamentals of Midwifery: A Textbook for Students, First Edition. Edited by Louise Lewis.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Companion website: www.wileyfundamentalseries.com/midwifery
91 to conduct births on the midwife’s own responsibility and to provide care for the newborn
and the infant . . .
(International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) 2011) The United Kingdom’s (UK) Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2012, p. 15) determines that midwives should ensure the primacy of the ‘needs of the woman and her baby’, and work in:
. . . partnership with the woman and her family providing safe, responsive, compassionate care in an appropriate environment to facilitate her physical and emotional care throughout childbirth . . .
‘Childbirth’ covers the antenatal, intrapartum and postnatal periods (NMC 2012) encompass-ing the care of the baby. Midwives use their ‘ . . . skills to refer to and coordinate between any specialist services that may be required . . . ’ (Department of Health/Partnerships for Children, Families and Maternity 2007, p. 15). Furthermore, the midwife’s scope of practice incorporates
‘preparation for parenthood’ (ICM 2011). Therefore, parenthood and more specifically, mother-hood is the core focus of midwifery and fundamental to midwifery practice.