Serangkaian percobaan yang diulas dalam disertasi ini adalah menggambarkan model pembuatan marka berdasarkan putatif SNP dari gen-gen yang berperanan dalam mekanisme ketahanan dan pertahanan tanaman pisang terhadap patogen. Percobaan dimulai dengan uji ketahanan beberapa kultivar pisang terhadap penyakit layu FOC untuk memilih kultivar tahan. Hasil pengujian mendapatkan 2 kultivar tahan, yaitu Calcuta-4 (introduksi) dan Klutuk Wulung (asli Indonesia). Kedua kultivar tersebut ditambah Rejang digunakan sebagai materi untuk isolasi dan karaterisasi resistance gene analogue (RGA) dan berhasil diisolasi sebanyak 17 sekuen RGA yang mengandung domain terkonservasi NBS-LRR dan terbagi dalam 4 kelompok, yaitu kelompok I beranggotakan 14 sekuen (MNBS1-MNBS14), dan 3 kelompok lainnya beranggotakan satu sekuen yaitu MNBS15, MNBS16 dan MNBS17.
Pada saat yang hampir bersamaan dilakukan isolasi dan karakterisasi gen
chitinase yang berasal dari 5 kultivar pisang asli Indonesia, yaitu Rejang, Klutuk
Wulung, Kepok, Ambon Hijau dan Barangan, dan diperoleh 8 sekuen putatif gen
chitinase (MaChi) yang berukuran 596 pb yang menyandi 148 residu asam
amino. Fragmen MaChi mengandung 2 intron (158 pb) dan 3 ekson (438 pb). Hasil analisis sekuen menunjukkan fragmen MaChi mempunyai kemiripan 90 % dengan gen chitinase kelas II asal pisang. Selain gen chitinase, juga dilakukan isolasi dan karakterisasi gen β-1,3-glucanase yang berasal dari 4 kultivar, yaitu Rejang, Klutuk Wulung, Ambon Hijau dan Barangan dan didapatkan 4 sekuen putatif gen β-1,3-glucanase (MaGlu) yang berukuran 788 pb yang menyandi 261 residu asam amino. Hasil analisis sekuen menunjukkan fragmen MaGlu
mempunyai kemiripan sebesar 99 % dengan gen β-1,3-glucanase yang berasal dari pisang.
Identifikasi situs SNP pada 14 fragmen RGA (MNBS1-MNBS14), 8 fragmen gen chitinase (MaChi), dan 4 fragmen gen β-1,3-glucanase (MaGlu) diperoleh hasil sebagai berikut: dari 4 fragmen RGA yang berasal dari kultivar Rejang (MNBS2-MNBS5) diidentifikasi sebanyak 16 putatif SNP dan mempunyai 4 haplotipe, sedangkan dari 8 fragmen RGA yang berasal dari kultivar Calcuta-4
(MNBS6-MNBS14) diidentifikasi sebanyak 9 putatif SNP dan mempunyai 7
haplotipe. Sementara itu, dari 8 fragmen gen chitinase diidentifikasi sebanyak 22 putatif SNP dan mempunyai 8 haplotipe, sedangkan dari 4 putatif SNP fragmen
gen β-1,3-glucanase berhasil diidentifikasi 8 putatif SNP dan mempunyai 4
haplotipe.
Implementasi dari serangkaian percobaan-percobaan sebelumnya adalah pengembangan marka SNAP berbasis RGA dan DGA untuk marka ketahanan terhadap penyakit layu FOC, dan dari hasil evaluasi menggunakan pendekatan teknik PCR dan analisis filogenetik dipilih beberapa lokus yang dapat digunakan sebagai marka ketahanan terhadap layu FOC dan bisa mengelompokkan kultivar referensi berdasarkan karakter ketahanan terhadap layu FOC. Lokus-lokus tersebut adalah SNP4_MNBS yang bertautan dengan RGA (gen MNBS), lokus
138
SNP2_MChi, SNP6_MChi, SNP8_MChi, SNP10_MChi, SNP11_MChi yang
bertautan dengan gen chitinase (MaChi). Selain itu, dari penelitian ini dapat diketahui bahwa terdapat perbedaan susunan basa nukleotida antara kultivar pisang yang rentan dan tahan terhadap penyakit layu FOC, dan perbedaan nukleotida tersebut bisa merubah residu asam amino.
Berdasarkan hasil temuan 17 fragmen putatif RGA (MNBS), diperlukan penelitian lanjutan untuk mengetahui apakah RGA yang berhasil diamplifikasi merupakan gen fungsional melalui pengujian ekspresi (cDNA) pada tanaman yang diinfeksi oleh cendawan patogen FOC ras 4 tropika.
Agar marka SNAP berbasis RGA dan DGA dapat digunakan sebagai marka ketahanan, maka perlu dilakukan validasi dengan mengevaluasi menggunakan cakupan kultivar pisang yang lebih banyak dan menguji pada populasi bersegregasi.
Adams DJ. 2004. Fungal cell wall chitinases and glucanases. Microbiology
150:2029–2035
Adesoye A, Mmeka E, Vroh B. 2012. Single nucleotide polymorphism markers discovery in Musa spp. (plantain landraces, AAB genome) and its potentials for use in gibberellic acid and parthenocarpy trait mapping. J
Plant Mol Biol Biotechnol 3(1):9-21.
Aert R, Volckaert G, Sagi L. 2004. Gene content and density in banana (Musa
acuminata) as revealed by genomic sequencing of BAC clones. Theor
Appl Genet 109:129–139.
Agarwal M, Shrivastava N, Padh H. 2008. Advances in molecular marker techniques and their applications in plant sciences. Plant Cell Rep 27:617–631.
Agrios GN. 2005. Plant Pathology. Ed ke-5. Burlington: Elsevier Academic Pr. hlm 125-174.
Akiyama T, Pillai MA. 2001. Molecular cloning, characterization and in vitro expression of a novel endo-1,3-β-glucanase up-regulated by ABA and drought stress in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Sci 161:1089–1098.
Alonso E, Niebel FC, Obregon P, Gheysen G, Inze D, Van Montagu M, Castresana C. 1995. Differential in vitro DNA binding activity to a promoter element of the gn1 β-1,3-glucanase gene in hyper sensitively reacting tobacco plants. Plant J 7:309-320.
Altschul SF, Madden TL, Schaffer AA, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Miller W, Lipman DJ. 1997. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nuc Acids Res 25:3389-3402.
Amorim EP, Silva PH, Ferreira CF, Amorim VBO, Santos VJ, Vilarinhos AD, Santos CMR, Souza Júnior MT, Miller RNG. 2012. New microsatellite markers for bananas (Musa spp). Genet Mol Res 11(2):1093-1098.
Amorim EP, Vilarinhos AD, Cohen KO, Amorim VBO, dos Santos-Serejo JA, e Silva SO, Pestana KN, dos Santos VJ, Paes NS, Monte DC, dos Reis RV. 2009. Genetic diversity of carotenoid-rich bananas evaluated by Diversity Arrays Technology (DArT). Genet Mol Biol 32(1):96-103.
Anderson PA, Lawrence GJ, Morrish BC, Ayliffe MA, Finnegan EJ, Ellis JG 1997. Inactivation of the flax rust resistance gene M associated with loss of a repeated unit within the leucine-rich repeat coding region. Plant Cell 9:641-651.
Antoniw JF, Ritter CE, Pierpoint WS, Loon C Van. 1980. Comparison o f Three Pathogenesis-related Proteins from Plants of Two Cultivars of Tobacco Infected with TMV. J Gen Virol 47:79-87.
Assani A, Haicour R, Wenzel G, Côte F, Bakry F, Foroughi-Wehr B, Ducreux G, Aguillar ME, Grapin A. 2001. Plant regeneration from protoplasts of dessert banana cv. Grande Naine (Musa spp., Cavendish sub-group AAA) via somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell Rep 20:482-488.
Azhar M, Heslop-Harrison JS. 2008. Genomes, diversity and resistance gene analogues in Musa species. CytogenetGenom Res 121(1):59-66.
Baek DE, Choi C. 2013. Identification of resistance gene analogs in Korean wild apple germplasm collections. Genet Mol Res 12(1):483-493.
140
Bai J, Pennill LA, Ning J, Lee SW, Ramalingam J, Webb CA, Zhao B, Sun Q, Nelson JC, Leach JE, Hulbert SH. 2002. Diversity in nucleotide binding site--leucine-rich repeat genes in cereals. Genome Res 12:1871-1884. Baker CJ, Mock N, Glazener J, Orlandi E. 1993. Recognitian responses in
pathogen/non-host and race/cultivar interactions involving soybean
(Glycine max) and Pseudomonas syringae pathovars. Physiol Mol Plant
Pathol 43:81-94.
Balint-Kurti PJ, Clendennen SK, Dolezelova M, Valarik M, Dolezel J, Beetham PR, May GD. 2000. Identification and chromosomal localization of the monkey retrotransposon in Musa spp. Mol Gen Genet 263:908–915.
Bandelt HJ, Forster P, Röhl A. 1999. Median-joining networks for inferring intraspecific phylogenies. Mol Biol Evol 6:37–48.
Barbazuk WB, Emrich SJ, Chen HD, Li L, Schnable PS. 2007. SNP discovery via 454 transcriptome sequencing. Plant J 51:910–918.
Barret LG, Thrall PH, Dodds PN, Merwe M van der, Linde CC, Lawrence GJ, Burdon JJ. 2009. Diversity and Evolution of Effector Loci in Natural Populations of the Plant Pathogen Melampsora lini. Mol Biol Evol
26(11):2499–2513.
Beaty TH, Fallin MD, Hetmanski JB, McIntosh I, Chong SS, Ingersoll R, Sheng X, Chakraborty XR, Scott AF. 2005. Haplotype Diversity in 11 Candidate Genes Across Four Populations. Genetics 171: 259–267.
Becker DK, Dugdale B, Smith MK, Harding RM, Dale, JL. 2000. Genetic transformation of Cavendish banana (Musa spp. AAA group) cv. Grand Nain via microprojectile bombardment. Plant Cell Rep 19:229–234.
Beffa RS, Neuhaust JM, Meins F Jr. 1993. Physiological compensation in antisense transformants: Specific induction of an "ersatz" glucan
endo-1,3-β-glucosidase in plants infected with necrotizing viruses. Proc Natl Acad
Sci USA 90:8792-8796.
Benovoy D, Drouin G. 2006. Processed pseudogenes, processed genes, and spontaneous mutations in the Arabidopsis genome. J Mol Evol 62(5):511-522
Bent AF, Kunkel BN, Dahlbeck D, Brown KL, Schmidt R, Giraudat J, Leung J, Staskawicz BJ. 1994. RPS2 of Arabidopsis thaliana: a leucine-rich repeat class of plant disease resistance genes. Science 265:1856-1860.
Bentley DR. 2006. Whole-genome resequencing. Curr Opin Genet Dev 16:545–52 Berglund L., J. Brunstedt, K.K Nielsen, Z, Chen, JD, Mikkelsen KA. Marcker. 1995.
A proline-rich chitianse from Beta vulgaris. Plant Mol Biol 27:211-216. Bhat KV, Bhat SR, Chandel KPS. 1992a. Survey of isozyme polymorphism for
clonal identifi cation in Musa. II. Peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, shikimate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase. J Hort Sci 67:737–743.
Bhat KV, Bhat SR, Chandel KPS. 1992b. Survey of isozyme polymorphism for clonal identification in Musa. I. Esterase, acid phosphatase and catalase. J
Hort Sci 61:507–507.
Bhat KV, Jarret RL, Liu ZW. 1994. RFLP characterization of Indian Musa
germplasm for clonal identification and classification Euphytica 80:95–103. Bhat KV, Jarret RL. 1995. Random amplified polymorphic DNA and genetic
diversity in Indian Musa germplasm. Genet Resour Crop Evol 42:107–118. Bhuiyan NH, Selvaraj G, Wei Y, King J. 2009. Role of lignification in plant
defense. Plant Signal Behav 4(2):158-159.
Blench R. 2009. Bananas and Plantains in Africa: Re-interpreting the linguistic evidence. Ethnobot Res Appl 7:363-380.
Borth W, Perez E, Cheah K, Chen Y, Xie WS, Gaskill D, Khalil S, Sether D, Melzer M, Wang M, Manshardt R, Gonzaled D, Hu JS. 2011. Transgenic banana plants resistance to banana bunchy top virus infection. Acta Hort
897:449-457.
Bowell GP. 1999. Role of active oxygen species and NO in plant defence response. Curr Opin Plant Biol 2(4):287-294.
Bowles, D.J. 1990. Defense-related proteins in higher plants. Ann Rev Biochem. 59:873-907
Brake VM, Pegg KG, Irwin JAG, Chaseling J. 1995. The influence of temperature, inoculum level and race of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense on the disease of banana cv Cavendish. Aust J Agric Res 46:673-685
Brameld KA, Goddard WA III. 1998. The role of enzyme distortion in the single displacement mechanism of family 19 chitinases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
95:4276–4281,.
Brosius J. 1991. Retroposons – seeds of evolution. Science 251(4995):753.
Brownie J, Shawcross S, Theaker J, Whitcombe D, Ferrie R, Newton C, Little S. 1997. The elimination of primer-dimer accumulation in PCR. Nuc Acids Res 25(6):3235–3241.
Bru D, Martin-Laurent F, Philippot L. 2008. Quantification of the detrimental effect of a single primer-template mismatch by Real-Time PCR using the 16s rrna gene as an example. App Env Microbiol 74(5):1660-1663.
Brueggeman R, Rostoks N, Kudrna D, Kilian A, Han F, Chen J, Druka A, Steffenson B, Kleinhofs A. 2002. The barley stem rust- resistance gene Rpg1 is a novel disease-resistance gene with homology to receptor kinases. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:9328-9333.
Bucciaglia PA, Smith AG. 1994. Cloning and characterization of Tag1, a tobacco anther β-1,3-glucanase expressed during tetrad dissolution. Plant Mol Biol
24:03-914.
Buddenhagen, I. 2009. Blood bacterial wilt of banana: history, field biology and solution. Acta Hort 828:57-68.
Cannon SB, Zhu H, Baumgarten AM, Spangler R, May G, Cook DR, Young ND. 2002. Diversity, distribution, and ancient taxonomic relationships within the TIR and non-TIR NBS-LRR resistance gene subfamilies. J Mol Evol
54:548-562.
Cao LX, Qiu ZQ, Dai X, Tan HM, Lin YC, Zhou SN. 2004. Isolation of endophytic actinomycetes from roots and leaves of banana (Musa
acuminata) plants and their activities against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.
cubense. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 20: 501–504.
Caplan J, Padmanabhan M, Dinesh-Kumar SP. 2008. Plant NB-LRR immune receptors: From recognition to transcriptional reprogramming. Cell Host
Microbe 3:126-135.
Carlin JL. 2011. Mutations are the raw materials of evolution. Nat Edu
Knowl 3(10):10.
Carlson CS, Thomas DJ, Eberle MA, Swanson JE, Livingston RJ, Rieder MJ, Nickerson DA. 2005. Genomic regions exhibiting positive selection
142
identified from dense genotype data. Genome Res. 15(11):1553-1565. Carreel F, de Leon DG, Lagoda P, Lanaud C, Jenny C. 2002. Ascertaining
maternal and paternal lineage within Musa by chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA RFLP analyses. Genome 45:679–692.
Carter C, Thombur RW. 1999. Germin-like proteins: structure, phylogeny, and function. JPlant Biol 42(2):97-108.
Castillo R, Gómez-Gómez L, Fernández JA. 2007. SafchiA is a new class of defence chitinase from saffron (Crocus sativus l.). Acta Hort 739:195-202. Castresana C, Gheysen GCF, Habets M, Inze D, van Montagu M. 1990. Tissue-specific and pathogen-induced regulation of a Nicotiana plumbaginifolia
β-1,3-glucanase gene. Plant Cell 2:1131-1144.
Chai M, Ho YW, Liew KW, Asif MJ. 2004. Biotechnology and in vitro mutagenesis for banana improvement. http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ ae216e/ae216e08.htm#bm08. Download 26/08/13
Chand R, Sen D, Prasad KD, Singh AK, Bashyal BM, Prasad LC, Joshi K. 2008. Screening for disease resistance in barley cultivars against Bipolar
sorokiniana using callus culture method. Indian J Exp Biol 46:249-253.
Chang MM, Culley DE, Hadwiger LA. 1993. Nucleotide Sequence of a Pea
(Pisum sativum L.) β-1,3-Glucanase Gene. Plant Physiol 101:1121-1122.
Chang MM, Hadwiger LA, Horovitz D. 1992. Molecular characterization of a pea
β-1,3-glucanase induced by Fusarium solani and chitosan challenge. Plant
Mol Biol 20(4):609-618.
Cheng X, Jiang H, Zhao Y, Qian Y, Zhu S, Cheng B. 2010. A genomic analysis of disease-resistance genes encoding nucleotide binding sites in Sorghum
bicolor. Genet Mol Biol 33(2):292-297.
Cheong YH, Kim CY, Chun HJ, Moon BC, Park HC, Kim JK, Lee SH, Han CD, Lee SY, Cho MJ. 2000. Molecular cloning of a soybean class III β -1,3-glucanase gene that is regulated both developmentally and in response to pathogen infection. Plant Sci 154:71–81.
Ching A, Caldwell KS, Jung M, Dolan M, Smith OS, Tingey S, Morgante M, Rafalski AJ. 2002. SNP frequency, haplotype structure and linkage disequilibrium in elite maize inbred lines. BMC Genet 3:19.
Christelová P, Valárik M, Hřibová E, van den Houwe I, Channelière S, Roux N, Doležel J. 2011. A platform for efficient genotyping in Musa using microsatellite markers. AoB PLANTS plr024 doi:10.1093/aobpla/ plr024 Christie AW, Sands DPA, Yarrow WHT. 1989. A new threat - the banana skipper.
Qld Agric J 115(2):80-81.
Chye ML, Cheung KY. 1995. β-1, 3-Glucanase is highly-expressed in laticifers of
Hevea brasiliensis. Plant Mol Biol 29:397-402.
Clancy S. 2008 Genetic mutation. Nat Educ 1(1):187.
Cleaver JE. 1994. It was a very good year for DNA repair. Cell 76:1-4.
Clement X, Posada D, Crandall K. 2000. TCS: a computer program to estimate gene genealogies. Mol Ecol 9:1657-1659.
Clendennen SK, May CD. 1997. Differential gene expression in ripening banana fruit. Plant Physiol 11(5):463-469
Cohen S, Chang A, Boyer H, Helling R. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 70(11): 3240–3244.
Cohen-Kupiec R, Chet I. 1998. The molecular biology of chitin digestion. Curr
Opin Biotechnol 9:270-277.
Collinge DB, Kragh KM, Mikkelsen JD, Nielsen KK, Rasmussen U, Vad K. 1993. Plant chitinases. Plant J 3:31-40.
Collins DW, Jukes TH, 1994 Rates of transition and transversion in coding sequences since the human-rodent divergence. Genomics 20:386–396. Coundhury SR, Roy S, Sengupta DN. 2009. Characterization of cultivar
differences in β-1,3-glucanase gene expression, glucanase activity and fruit pulp softening rates during fruit ripening in three naturally occuring banana cultivars. Plant Cell Rep 28:1641-1653.
Crouch HK, Crouch JH, Jarret RL, Cregan PB, Ortiz R. 1998. Segregation at microsatellite loci in haploid and diploid gametes of Musa. Crop Sci
38:211-217.
Crouch JH, Crouch HK, Constand H, van Gysel A, Breyne P, van Montagu M, Jarret RL, Ortiz R. 1999b. Comparison of PCR-based molecular marker analysis of Musa Breeding populations. Mol Breed 5:233–244.
Crouch JH, Crouch HK, Tenkouano A, Ortiz R. 1999a. VNTR-based analysis of 2x and 4x full-sib Musa hybrids. Elect J Biotechnol 2:99–108.
Crouch JH, Ortiz R, Crouch HK. 2000. Utilization of molecular genetic techniques in support of plantain and banana improvement. Acta Hort
540:185–191.
CTB Trade for Development. 2011. La Banane, un Fruit en Sursis, Agence Belge
de Développement, Bruxelles.
Dahal G, Hughes J, Gauhl F, Pasberg-Gauhl C. 2000. Symtomatology and development of banana streak, a disease caused by banana streak badnavirus, under natural condition in Ibadan, Nigeria. Acta Hort 540:361-375.
Dahiya N, Tewari R, Tiwari RP, Hoondal GS. 2006. Biochemical aspects of chitinolytic enzymes: A review. App Microbiol Biotech 71:773–782. Daly MJ, Rioux JD, Schaffner SF, Hudson TJ, Lander ES. 2001. High-resolution
haplotype structure in the human genome. Nat Genet 29:229–232.
Dangl L, Jones J. 2001. Plant pathogens and integrated defence responses to infection. Nature 411:826-833.
Daniells JW, Jenny C, Karamura DA, Tomekpe K, Arnaud E, Sharrock S. 2001. Musalogue: A catalogue of Musa germplasm. Diversity in the genus Musa. INIBAP, Montpellier, France.
Das BK, Jena RC, Samal KC. 2009. Optimization of DNA isolation and PCR protocol for RAPD analysis of banana/plantain (Musa spp.). Int J Agricul Sci 1(2):21-25.
Davies G, Henrissat B. 1995. Structures and mechanisms of glycosyl hydrolases.
Structure 3:853-859.
Dereeper A, Nicolas S, Cunff LL, Bacilieri R, Doligez A, Peros J-P, Ruiz M, This P. 2011. SNiPlay: a web-based tool for detection, management and analysis of SNPs. Application to grapevine diversity projects. BMC
Bioinforma. 12:134 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2105/12/134.
Deslandes L, Olivier J, Theulieres F, Hirsch J, Feng DX, Bittner-Eddy P, Beynon J & Marco Y. 2002. Resistance to Ralstonia solanacearum in Arabidopsis
thaliana is conferred by the recessive RRS1-R gene, a member of a novel
144
Dhanya MK, Rajagopalan B, Umamaheswaran K, Ayisha R. 2006. Isozyme variation in banana (Musa sp.) in response tobract mosaic virus infection.
Indian J Crop Sci 1:140–141.
D'Hont A, Denoeud F, Aury JM, Baurens FC, Carreel F, Garsmeur O, Noel B, Bocs S, Droc G, Rouard M et al. 2012. The banana (Musa acuminata) genome and the evolution of monocotyledonous plants. Nature
488(7410):213-217
Doll J, Hause B, Demchenko K, Pawlowski K, Krajinski F. 2003. A member of the germin-like protein family is a highly conserved mycorrhiza-specific induced gene. Plant Cell Physiol 44(11):1208–1214
Domingo C, Conejero V, Vera P. 1994. Genes encoding acidic and basis class III ß-1,3-glucanases are expressed in tomato plants upon viroid infection.
Plant Mol Biol 24(5):725-732.
Dong JZ, Dunstan DI. 1997. Endochitinase and ß-1,3-glucanase genes are developmentally regulated during somatic embryogenesis in Picea glauca. Planta 201(2):189-194.
Doyle JJ, Doyle JL. 1987. A rapid DNA isolation procedure for small quantities of fresh leaf tissue. Phytochem Bull 19:11-15.
Drenkard E, Richter BG, Rozen S, Stutius LM, Angell NA, Mindrinos M, Cho RJ, Oefner PJ, Davis RW, Ausubel FM. 2000. A simple procedure for the analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms facilitates map-based cloning
in Arabidopsis.Am Soc Plant Physiol 124(4):1483-1492.
Ebrahim S, Usha K, Singh B. 2011. Pathogenesis Related (PR) Proteins in Plant Defense Mechanism. Di dalam: Méndez-Vilas AA, editor. Science against microbial pathogens: communicating current research and technological
advances. Spanyol: Formatex Research Centre. 2:1043-1054.\
Edison HS, Sutanto A, Prasetyo BW, Harahap D. 2001. Karakterisasi Beberapa Sifat Genotipe Plasma Nutfah Pisang. Buletin Plasma Nutfah Vol.7 No.2. Edreva A. 2005. Pathogenesis-related proteins: research progress in the last 15
years. Gen Appl Plant Physiol 31:105-124.
Englberger L. 2003. Carotenoid-rich bananas in Micronesia. InfoMusa 12(2): 2-5. Engle LJ, Simpson CL, Landers JE. 2006. Using high-throughput SNP
technologies to study cancer. Oncogene 25:1594–1601.
Escalant JV, Jain SM. 2004. Banana improvement with cellular and molecular biology, and induced mutations: Future and perspectives. http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae216e/ae216e0w.htm#bm32. Download 26/08/13
Escalante AA, Lal AA, Ayala FJ. 1998. Genetic Polymorphism and Natural Selection in the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Genetics
149:189–202.
Espino RRC, Pimentel RB. 1990. Electrophoretic analysis of selected isozymes in BB cultivars of Philippine bananas. Di dalam: RL Jarret, editor. Identifi
cation of Genetic Diversity in the Genus Musa.Los Banos: INIBAP.
Faure S, Noyer JL, Horry JP, Bakry F, Lanaud C, de Leon Gonzales D. 1993. A molecular marker-based linkage map of diploid bananas (Musa
acuminata).Theor Appl Gen. 87:517-526.
Fishal EMM, Meon S, Yun WM. 2010. Induction of tolerance to fusarium wilt and defense-related mechanisms in the plantlets of susceptible berangan
banana pre-inoculated with Pseudomonas sp. (UPMP3) and Burkholderia
sp. (UPMB3). Agric Sci China 9(8):1140-1149
Flach J, Pilet PE, Jollés P. 1992. What’s new in chitinase research? Experientia, 48:701-716.
Flor HH. 1947. Current status of the gene-for-gene concept. Annu Rev
Phytopathol 9:275-296.
Friedman AR, Baker BJ. 2007. The evolution of resistance genes in multiprotein plant resistance systems. Curr Opin Genet Dev 17:493–499.
Friedman AR, Baker BJ. 2007. The evolution of resistance genes in multiprotein plant resistance systems. Curr Opin Genet Dev 17:493–499.
Fulcher RG, Mc Cully ME, Setterfield G, Sutherland J. 1976. ß-1,3-Glucans may be associated with cell plate formation during cytokinesis. Can J Bot 54:459-542. Galtier N, Depaulis F, Barton NH. 2000. Detecting bottlenecks and selective
sweeps from DNA sequence polymorphism.Genetics 155:981–987.
Ganapathi TR, Higgs NS, Balint-Kurti PJ, Arntzen CJ, May GD, van Eck JM. 2001.
Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of embryogenic cell suspensions of
the banana cultivar Rasthali (AAB), Plant Cell Rep 20:157-162.
Gawel NJ, Jarret RL, Whittemore AP. 1992. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)-based phylogenetic analysis of Musa. Theor Appl
Genet 84:286–290.
Gawel NJ, Jarret RL. 1991. Chloroplast DNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in Musa species. Theor Appl Genet 81:783–786. Gerhardt LBA de, Sachetto–Martins G, Contarini MG, Sandorini M, de Ferreira
RP, de Lima VM, Cordeiro MC, de Oliveira DE, Margis-Pinheiro M. 1997. Arabidopsis thaliana class IV chitinase is early induced during the interaction with Xanthomonas campestris. FEBS Lett., 419: 69-75.
Gerlach KS, Bentley S, Moore NY, Pegg KG, Aitken AB. 2000. Characterisation of Australian isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense by DNA fingerprinting analysis. Aust J Agric Res 51:945–953.
Gibbs RA. 1991. Polymerase chain reaction techniques. Curr Opin Biotechnol
2:69-75.
Gojobori T, Li W-H, Graur D. 1982. Patterns of nucleotide substitution in pseudogenes and functional genes. J Mol Evol 18:360–369.
Gomez L, Allona I, Casado R, Aragoncillo C. 2002. Seed chitinases. Seed Sci Res
12:217-230. doi:10.1079/SSR2002113.
Graham LS, Sticklen MB. 1994. Plant Chitinases. Can J Bot 72:1057–1083. Grant MR, Godiard L, Straube E, Ashfield T, Lewald J, Sattler A, Innes RW,
Dangl JL. 1995. Structure of the Arabidopsis RPM1 gene enabling dual specificity disease resistance. Science 269:843-846.
GuoY, Jamison DC. 2005. The distribution of SNPs in human gene regulatory regions. BMC Genomics 6:140 doi:10.1186/1471-2164-6-140
Gupta PK, Roy JK, Prasad M. 2001. Single nucleotide polymorphisms: A new paradigm for molecular marker technology and DNA polymorphism detection with emphasis on their use in plants. Current Sci 80:524–535. Gurr SJ, Rushton PJ. 2005. Engineering plants with increased disease resistance:
What are going to express? Trends Biotechnol 23(6):275-282
Gururani MA, Venkatesh J, Upadhyaya CP, Nookaraju A, Pandey SK, Park SW. 2012. Plant disease resistance genes: Current status and future directions.
