CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Framework
1. Reading Comprehension
There are so many definitions of reading. Linguists give definitions about reading in various ways. They say that reading is the process to get, to understand, to catch the content of the reading. They also add that reading is a process to understand a written text which means extracting the required information from it, as efficiently as possible. Smith defines that reading as seen as a creative and constructive activity having four distinctive and fundamental characteristics –it is purposeful, selective, anticipatory, and based on comprehension, all matters where the reader must clearly exercise control.
Hedgcock (2009) added that reading is a complex interaction of cognitive processes and strategies (used by the reader) and various types of information (contained in the text).
Earlier models of reading instruction have tended to focus primarily either on bottom-up processes (for decoding and comprehending the text) or top-down skills (for activating the background knowledge and prediction strategies of the reader) and according to Brown and Yule, reading involves learning how to make-reasonable interpretations of a written text. Reading covers a lot of things.
It does not simply know the meaning of individual words in a particular text.
In other words, reading can be defined as a process of making reasonable interpretation in apprehending a text which has four characteristics: purpose, selection, anticipation, and comprehension. Talking about comprehension is one of the characteristics of reading.
Mikulecky and Jeffries (2007) stated that comprehension is making sense of what someone reads and connecting the ideas in the text to what he already knows. According to Smith (2004), comprehension may be regarded as relating aspects of the world around us— including what we read—to the knowledge, intentions, and expectations we already have in our head. It is clearly the purpose of reading and of learning to read. Richards and Schmidt (2002) said that comprehension is the identification of the intended meaning of written or spoken communication.
They also add that contemporary theories of comprehension emphasize that it is an active process drawing both on information contained in the message (bottom-up processing) as well as background knowledge, information from the context and from the listener’s and speaker’s purposes or intentions (top-down processing). It is also supported by Smith that readers learn the meaning by making sense of words from their context, using what is known to comprehend and learn the unfamiliar.Making sense of words is basically related to the vocabulary mastery as Smith also continues that vocabulary provides a permanent basis of knowledge for determining the probable meaning and pronunciation of new words. If readers know both the meaning and the
pronunciation, they will have little difficulty in comprehending and saying a new word.
In other words, reading comprehension is a process of relating the readers’
background knowledge with the information in the text to get the message of the text. Reading comprehension is not only the matter of knowing and remembering the meaning of all words in the text, but it is more about how the students build and construct meaning of the text.
Types of Reading Comprehension
Grabe & Stoller (2002) defined comprehension as processing words, forming a representation of general main ideas and integrating it into a new understanding. It suggests that comprehension is achieved when a reader successfully extracts the useful knowledge from a text and constructs it into a new 19 understanding of their own. Furthermore Day and Park (2005) also proposed several types of comprehension. first, Literal comprehension is to have a straightforward understanding meaning of a text, such as vocabularies and facts, which is not explicated in that text. second, Inferential comprehension is to conclude information from a text and build new information which is not explicitly stated in text. Third, Reorganization is rearranging information from various parts of a text in order to get new information.
Fourth, predictive comprehension is integrating reader’s understanding of a text and their own knowledge about that text in order to determine what might happen next or after it is finished. Fifth, evaluative comprehension is like inferential comprehension the difference is that evaluative comprehension
requires readers‟ comprehensive judgment about some aspects in a text and ability to redevelop an understanding by using related issues. The last one, appreciative or personal comprehension is reading in order to gain an emotional or other value response from a text, and it demands reader to respond a text also with their feelings. From the definitions above, reading comprehension refers to the understanding of what has been read. Comprehension is a thinking process that depends not only on the comprehension 20 skills but also on the readers‟
experience and background knowledge.
Different Models of Reading Comprehension
Reading is a cognitive process that consists of a reader, a text, and the interaction between the reader and the text. There are three models of reading process: the bottom-up model, the top-down model, and the interactive model.
a. Bottom-up Model
The bottom-up model begins with decoding the smallest linguistic units, especially phonemes, graphemes, and words, and ultimately constructs meaning from the smallest to the largest units. While doing this, the readers apply their background knowledge to the information they find in the texts.
This bottom-up method is also called datadriven and text-based reading (Carrell, 1989). This reading model focuses on the smaller units of a text such as its
letters, words, phrases and sentences. Then, a syntactic and semantic processing occurs during which reading reaches the final meaning. In this
model, the reader reads all of the words in a phrase, or a sentence before being able to understand.
The bottom-up reading process begins with decoding the smallest linguistic units, especially phonemes, graphemes, and words, and ultimately constructs meaning from the smallest to the largest units. While doing this, the readers apply their background knowledge to the information they find in the texts. This bottom-up method is also called data-driven and text-based reading (Carrell, 1989). The disadvantage of this model is that the readers will only be successful in reading if they accurately decode the linguistic units and recognize the relationship between words. It is impossible for the readers to store in their memory the meaning of every word in a passage. It is also difficult to relate one word to the other words. It can be concluded that there are some arguments against the bottom-up model. In the reading process, the readers understand that what they have read is the result of their own constructions, not the result of the transmission of graphic symbols to their understanding, and that without their background knowledge, they cannot comprehend the texts (Ahmadi & Pourhossein, 2012).
b. Top-down Model
This model was defined as the idea of reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game in which the reader uses his/her background knowledge or textual schemata to connect with a text and to relate these to new or unexpected information found in the text in order to understand it. Top down model focuses on linguistic guesswork rather than graphic textual
information. The readers do not need to read every word of a text, but rather, they concentrate on predicting the next group of words. Readers might start predicting from the title of the reading text, something that allows them to limit the scope of their reading. While reading, they may hypothesize the message the writer wants to convey and modify their hypotheses according to what they read in the text. Comprehension begins with higher levels of processing (making hypotheses), and proceeds to the use of the lower levels.
Top-down and bottom-up are both strategies of information processing and knowledge ordering, used in a variety of fields including software, humanistic and scientific theories, and management and organization. In practice, they can be seen as a style of thinking and teaching(Ahmadi &
Pourhossein, 2012; Nuttall, 1996).
A top-down approach (also known as stepwise design or deductive reasoning, and in many cases used as a synonym of analysis or decomposition is essentially the breaking down of a system to gain insight into its compositional subsystems. In a top-down approach an overview of the system is formulated, specifying but not detailing any first-level subsystems. Each subsystem is then refined in yet greater detail, sometimes in many additional subsystem levels, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is often specified with the assistance of "black boxes", these make it easier to manipulate. However, black boxes may fail to elucidate elementary mechanisms or be detailed enough to realistically validate the model. Top down approach starts with the big
picture. It breaks down from there into smaller segments (Ahmadi &
Pourhossein, 2012; Nuttall, 1996).
c. Interactive Model
Interactive model is based on the interaction between the bottom-up and top-down models. The interactive model is a process based on information from several sources such as orthographic, lexical, syntactic, semantic knowledge, and schemata. While reading, decoding processes can support one another in a compensatory way. If, when reading word by word, readers with good bottom-up skills do not comprehend the texts, they need to use their prior knowledge (schemata) to assist them which is called interactive model (Stanovich, 1980). This model is built on the interaction of the bottom-up and top-down models. Nunan (1990) argued that efficient and effective reading requires both top-down and bottom-up decoding. L2 readers, for example, may use top-down reading to compensate for deficiencies in bottom-up reading. To achieve meaning, they use their schemata to compensate for the lack of bottom-up knowledge. It is the interactive model which is a process based on information from several sources such as orthographic, lexical, syntactic, semantic knowledge, and schemata. While reading, decoding processes can support one another in a compensatory way. If, when reading word by word, readers with good bottom-up skills do not comprehend the texts, they need to use their prior knowledge (schemata) to assist them. Readers who rely on the top-down model use textual clues and guess wildly at the meaning, but they need to
compensate for deficits such as weaknesses in word recognition and lack of effective bottom-up processing. The interactive model, which is the combination of the bottom-up and top-down processes, leads to the most efficient processing of texts. Knowing that the interactive model can help L2 readers in achieving successful reading, teachers should find reading instructions based on this model to promote L2 readers’ abilities. The reciprocal teaching approach is a type of reading instruction that is based on the interactive model. It covers four main reading strategies(Stanovich, 1980).
The Components of Reading Comprehension
There are some components of reading comprehension which should be focused on comprehending reading text. King and Stanley (1989) stated that there are five components that may help the students to read carefully:
1. Finding main idea, the central thought; the topic sentence of a paragraph.
One paragraph just has one main idea. Main idea is always in the beginning or the end of paragraph. Main idea helps the reader to understand not only the ideas but also their relative significance, as expressed by author.
2. Finding factual information that describe from the text. It is the part of the reader must know. We can find the factual information in every paragraph. It requires reader to scan specific details. The type of question can be about the reason, purposes, result, comparison, means,
identities, times, and amount in with most of the answer can be found in the text.
3. Finding meaning of difficult word or unknown vocabulary is the word that difficult to be understood. Because the writer does not always use commonly word. We can find the difficult word in every paragraph or sentence. The important thing is needed in reading is understanding.
4. Finding reference, the word that represents another word. It is used to avoid repeated word. It also makes the reader interest to read. We can find in the beginning, the middle, or the end of sentence. Reference words are usually short and very frequently pronoun such as: it, she, he, they, this, etc.
5. Finding restatement, the way to say something again or to say something in different way but still has the same meaning. The kind of question test, which use to measure the reader’s ability in analyzing the relationship of idea within single sentence.
The Level of Reading Comprehension
The level of reading comprehension involves more of an active role on the part of the reader (Heilman, 1988).
1. Literal comprehension. This level of comprehension represents the minimum of involvement on the part of the reader. It is the simple understanding of the words and ideas of author. The author’s massage is received but not examined, evaluated, or utilized in any way.
2. Interpretive comprehension. At this level, the reader not only knows what the author said but goes beyond that simple knowledge. It involves an effort to grasp relationship, compare facts with personal experiences, understand sequences. see cause and effect relationship, and generally interpret the massage. It requires a more active participation on the part of the reader.
3. Applied comprehension. At this level reader does more than merely receiving and interpreting the massage. The reader evaluates the author’s ideas, either accepting or rejecting them or applying then to some new situation.
4. Critical comprehension. At this level reader analyzing, evaluating, and personally reacting to information presented in a passage. Generally, the emphasis at this level of comprehension is on actively bringing the reader’s general understanding to bear on the ideas and concepts contained in the reading passage. The synthesis is necessary for higher comprehension, especially on difficult material.
Processes of Reading Comprehension
In the discussions about reading and comprehension, experts generally mention about the bottom-up and top-down process. Both are the processes of reading comprehension and according to the recent research, there is one more kind of processing reading comprehension, called interactive reading. They are described as following:
a. Bottom-up processing
In bottom-up processing, readers must first recognize a multiplicity of linguistic signals (letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers) and use their linguistic data processing mechanism to impose some sort of order on these signals. These data-driven operations obviously require knowledge of the language itself.
From among all the perceived data, the reader selects the signals that make some sense to what is called ―meaning.
b. Top-down processing
Top down is a process in which the readers draw their own intelligence and experience to understand a text.
c. Interactive reading
Interactive reading is a combination of top-down and bottom-up processing. It is almost always a primary ingredient in successful teaching methodology because both processes are important.
Strategies in Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension strategy is way of accessing the meaning of texts, which are employed flexibly and selectively while reading. Reading strategies are often divided into three stages: (a) before reading, (b) during reading, and (c) after reading. To be able to read texts, students should have their strategies.
Process of reading is not a merely instant process that occurs without any strategy and sequence. There are some strategies in reading proposed by Brown.
They are 1) identifying the purpose of reading, 2) using graphonic rules and
patterns to aid in bottom-up decoding, 3) using efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension, 4) skimming, 5) scanning, 6) guessing when the reader is not understand, 7) analyzing vocabulary, 8) distinguishing between literal implied meaning, and the last 9) capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationship.
Aside Browns’ strategies, Pearson parted six strategies used by successful readers. The six strategies are 1) using existing knowledge to make sense of new information, 2) drawing inferences from the text, 3) monitoring the reader’s own comprehension, 4) using ―fix-up strategies when meaning breaks down, 5) determining what is important, and 6) synthesizing information to create new thinking (Tovani, 2017). Referred to Brown’s and Pearson’s, strategies in reading help the teacher to assist students into efficient and successful readers.
By applying strategies in reading the teacher and students are expected to be more organized in understanding a text. However, this research focus only on some strategies which are linear to the students’ reading problems in identifying the purpose of reading, guessing meaning from context, analyzing vocabulary, using existing knowledge to make sense of new information, and asking questions about the text before, during, and after reading.
Factors that Influence Reading Comprehension
There are many factors that might affect comprehension of printed materials. According to the U.S. Department of Education (2020), They are:
a. Background Knowledge
Familiarity with concept of a reading material being read, both through experience of knowledge can make a reader easy to comprehend.
Burhanuddin (1997) stated that the low achievement of standing in reading caused by insufficient of basic knowledge had more effect on understanding of implied that an explicit information.
b. Vocabulary
One of the important factors influencing a reader’s comprehension is the familiarity with the vocabulary, where the 21 successful in associating between the printed words with their meaning and their referents depends on the familiarity with the words. Successful reading comprehension is possible when most of the vocabularies in a reading selection are familiar to the readers.
c. Teacher Influence
The teacher may give retention of information contained in printed material and this help students cope successful with reading assignment.
There is some teacher‟s role to the students. That are encourage the students to apply what they have read, have them constantly evaluated the material that they have read, encourage the students to tell something about a book to other students, and encourage students to think of their own ways or reporting on books or stories.
On the other hand, a lot of researchers refer to various kinds of knowledge by the term schemata, “schemata are commonly defined as the previously
acquired background knowledge structures that are stored in the learner’s cognitive domain ( Brantmeier, 2004). As Wei-wei (2009) Explained Text comprehension is a complex cognitive skill in which the reader should construct meaning by using all available resources from both the text and previous knowledge; these resources assist readers in utilizing lexis and syntax, retrieving their meanings from one’s mental lexicon, making inferences, and employing schemata.
Furthermore, knowledge is one of the factors that could cause variation among learners in general and between the two genders in specific. Al-shumaimeri (2011) mentions that “schematic knowledge” is one of the factors that create diversity in reading comprehension between male students and female students since the type of texts that could cause the right activation of schematic knowledge will be better understood and comprehended by its reader.
For the attitude factor, Logan and Johnston (2009) saw that it could affect many aspects of reading. They are regularity of reading, level of involvement in classroom reading, variety and range of reading topics, Enjoyment of reading, and reading achievement.
2. Reading Motivation
Related to reading activity, motivation is key factor in reading activities.
According Mihandoost (2011) Motivation for reading is a crucial entity for successfully engaging in the reading process because it is the element that what activates and maintains students’ engagement throughout the entire reading process.Without motivation students tend to be lazy to read. To be successful in
reading text, motivation is important factor of it. Hermosa (2002) defined reading motivation as the interest or desire to read for different purposes. For example, Gottfried (1990) defined academic motivation as “enjoyment of school learning feathered by a mastery aspect; curiosity; persistence; task- endogeny; and the learning of difficult and new tasks.” In a book “A History of Reading” by Manguel (1997) Grayling mentioned that reading as a flight. Its mean when individual was flight, he/she will view over wide of terrains, human variety, ideas, shared experiences and the fruits of many inquiries. That book also explains that through reading, reader can go anywhere to see other world without being limited by dimension of space and time. Reading really will give opportunities to imagine anything in life Therefore, reading was assuming as a tour of mind, because reading able to provide pleasure and enjoyment of the soul. Those explanations described one reason people sometime can spend more time to do reading activity. However, also not everyone can spend their time to do reading activity.
Everyone has reading motivation in their life because it naturally comes from our self, motivation encourage s someone performance in every skill.
Students have high reading motivation surely willing doing a reading activity or reading assignment because they enjoy it. Based on 8 Shutte (2007) adult reading motivation might more be affected by intrinsic motivation and self-regulation. Desire to learning something new is one of category from reading motivation. The topics in English textbook should be interesting to the reader because it can trigger the desire of learner to read in English (Yuliandari,2017).
Other than that, it seems uneasy to comprehend the content on foreign language books, needs a high level of understanding and also the amount of reading habit influence the reader. Thus, in general, terms if we want to read some text, unconsciously we have an interest in either on the contents of the book or the title, then reading is an activity that needs skill and ability to gain writer’s ideas. Moreover, the amount of what we read can also affect the skill of reading, training critical reading, problemsolving and added new vocabulary.
According to Gambrell & Marinak (2008) and Guthrie, Wigfield, & Stecker (2000), the important role was play in reading is motivation. Motivation is strongly driving that influence individual to engage in specific activity.
Therefore, students who have strong motivation to do reading can spend their time so much in reading activity. Meanwhile, students who lack motivation to do reading will try to avoid reading activity (Guthrie, 2000; Marinak &
Gambrell, 2008).
Motivation is considered as an integral part in the achievement of any goal.
It is an important factor that has a positive influence in any educational learning process especially in learning second language (Abdur, et.al, 2014). Motivation is more than simply arousing interest. It also involves sustaining interest and investing time and energy into putting the necessary effort to achieve certain goals (IGAWA, 2014). Johnstone (2007) considered motivation as a stimulant for achieving a specific target.
Ryan & Deci considers (2000) explained to be motivated means to progress or to be in motion to do something. While Dornyei and Otto regarded motivation