CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
B. Theory of Perception
1. Definition of perception
Ahen, JA (2009), mentioned that perception is a process where one will from an impression about someone or something. Perception is a constructed as a result of individual observation towards certain things or events occur around them which will produce certainly perception.
Perception involved more process of thinking as a result of the information received from the sensory system regards certainly things or events. It output process where the judgments of beliefs were produced by an individual and it influenced the way they think and feel.
Perception is someone thought about something that they learn to measure how their attitude toward using something, whether they agree
or not about that method or about something that they learn (Hong, K.-S.
2003).
Angell (2015:122) states that perception is the consciousness of particular material things to present to sense. So, the perception can be defined as the process of receipt of stimuli through the sense, which is preceded by the attention or awareness that individual is able to determine, interpret, and appreciate about what is observed, how a person sees, views or defines something.
2. Visual Perception Theory
In order to receive information from the environment we are equipped with sense organs e.g. eye, ear, nose. Each sense organ is part of a sensory system which receives sensory inputs and transmits sensory information to the brain.
A particular problem for psychologists is to explain the process by which the physical energy received by sense organs forms the basis of perceptual experience. Sensory inputs are somehow converted into perceptions of desks and computers, flowers and buildings, cars and planes; into sights, sounds, smells, taste and touch experiences.
A major theoretical issue on which psychologists are divided is the extent to which perception relies directly on the information present in the stimulus. Some argue that perceptual processes are not direct, but depend on the perceiver's expectations and previous knowledge as well as the information available in the stimulus itself (Leoad, 2007).
Psychologists distinguish between two types of processes in perception:
bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing also known as data-driven processing, because perception begins with the stimulus itself. Processing is carried out in one direction from the retina to the visual cortex, with each successive stage in the visual pathway carrying out ever more complex analysis of the input.
Top-down processing refers to the use of contextual information in pattern recognition. For example, understanding difficult handwriting is easier when reading complete sentences than when reading single and isolated words. This is because the meaning of the surrounding words provides a context to aid understanding.
Psychologist Richard Gregory argued that perception is a constructive process which relies on top-down processing. For Gregory perception is a hypothesis.
Gregory (1970) stated that perception involves making inferences about what we see and trying to make a best guess. Prior knowledge and past experience, he argued, are crucial in perception. When we look at something, we develop a perceptual hypothesis, which is based on prior knowledge. The hypotheses we develop are nearly always correct.
However, on rare occasions, perceptual hypotheses can be disconfirmed by the data we perceive.
3. Changes of Perception
Perception is not something static, but can change. The first change process affected by the psychological processes of the nervous system in the human senses. If a stumulus not change, adaptation and habituation that will occur affect response to a stimulus is increasingly weak.
Habituation tended phsycology from receptor that be less sensitive after receiving a lot of stimulus. While adaptation is reduced concern if the stimulus appeared many times. Stimuli that appear regularly are more easily adapted than the appearance of irregular stimulus.
The second change is apsychological processes. The change in psychology of perception, among others encountered in the formation and change of attitudes. Attitude is a response. Attitude formation and change in psychology is usually described as a learning process or as a process of consciousness (cognition). In the learning process, the focus was on the presence of external stimuli (stimulus), while in the process of cognition is the main push or the will of the individual itself.
Something that is perceived by a person with another person can differ in meaning. This is because what is around captured by the five senses are not directly synonymous with reality. The understanding in people who perceive objects and situations presented around them.
Based on the perception or giving meaning to what is captured by the five senses, the person doing the activity or perform certain behaviors.
The purpose of perception has shifted meaning. As cited in Marr (1982) beliefs that the purpose of perception is to define information
from outside world. Shifted purpose of perception comes from an evolutionary perspective who stated that perception is the way for creatures to enhance the chance of survival.
A creature has to be able to feel and react spontaneously and accurately. In fact, the way of creatures respond to the stimuli is different and will interpret the stimuli into something meaningful to each creatures based on their experiences. They will detect and give response if the stimulus is “positive” or “negative”.
4. Positive and Negative Perception
According to Robbins (2002: 14) that positive perception is an assessment individual to an object or information with a positive view or as expected from the object that is perceived or from existing rules.
Meanwhile, negative perceptions are individual perceptions to certain objects or information with negative views, contrary to what is expected from the object that is perceived or from existing rules. The cause of the emergence of a negative perception can be arises because of individual dissatisfaction with the object being source of perception, the existence of individual ignorance and absence individual experience of the object being perceived and vice versa, the cause of the emergence of a person's positive perception because of satisfaction are individuals to objects that are the source of their perceptions, the existence of individual knowledge, and the existence of individual experiences of objects that are perceived.
Rahmat (2005) states that perception is divided into two forms, positive and negative. If the perceived object is in accordance with appreciation and can be accepted rationally and emotionally, then humans will perceive positively or tend to like and respond according to the perceived object. If it is not in accordance with appreciation, the perception is negative or tends to reject and respond in the opposite direction to the object of perception. Robbins (2002) adds that positive perception is an individual's assessment of an object or information with a positive view or in accordance with what is expected from the object perceived or from the existing rules. Meanwhile, negative perceptions are individual perceptions of certain objects or information with negative views, contrary to what is expected from the object perceived or from existing rules.
The emergence of a person's negative perception can arise because of individual dissatisfaction with the object that is the source of their perception, the existence of ignorance of the individual and the absence of individual experience of the object being perceived and vice versa. the cause of the emergence of positive perceptions of a person because of the individual satisfaction of the object that is the source of perception, the existence of individual knowledge, and the existence of individual experiences of perceived objects.
5. Types of Perception
There are many types of perception according to Zaden (1984:109) there are person perception, social perception, and situation perception.
a. Person Perception
Person perception refers to those process by which we comes to know and think about other, their characteristic, qualities, and inner state. We construct image of others in ways that serve stabilize, make predictable, and render our manageable view of social word to the extent to which we attribute stable straits and enduring disposition to others people.
b. Social perception
Social perception means that trying to understand people whether they are professional athletes, political, criminal, leader, entertainer, or loved and closer to home is not essay task. Knowing that other people have thoughts, beliefs, emotions, and desire being able to read other people‟s inner state based on their words, behavior, and facial expression.
c. Situation perception
Social psycholinguistics views a situation as all the social factors that influence a persons‟ experience or behavior at a given time, and given a place. It is an interaction of time and spaces within which we act in specify ways.
6. Student Perception
Below are some finding by Campbell et al. (2001) related to students perception about teaching and learning.
Sidhu (2003) stated that students‟ perceptions are students‟ point of view toward something that happened in learning process class and produced it with suggestion or argument for teacher or classmate to improve their learning process. The observation process can be so challenging and interesting experience for students‟ perception that can increase their awareness of a whole process of teaching as well as their own learning. From the definition above, students‟ perception is how students‟ thought to response about what they have done or about what they learned.
In terms of teaching, students with deep approaches to learning tended to describe a greater a variety of teaching strategies than did students with surface approaches, and to show more understanding of the active learning and higher order thinking that their teachers trying to encourage. Students with surface approaches to learning tended to focus on the transmission and reproduction of information. Similar differences in understanding emerged when students were asked about what they thought their teachers wanted them to learn, with those with deep approaches to learning looking at broader objectives related to process as well as content.
In terms of learning, students with deep approaches to learning generally reported taking a more active role in their own learning, using
a greater variety of methods, while students with surface approaches tended to focus more narrowly on repetition and reproduction.
Moreover, students basically expect teacher to implement an efficient teaching methods with a conducive environment and to have affordable assistance during the class. (Chang 2010) the students preferred to use learning strategies that enabled them to use time well and choose environments conducive to learning. Moreover, they preferred to seek assistance from their teachers or classmates when encountering learning difficulties.
Students essentially need to know the objective of the class and assess the teacher teaching effectively. students want to know the expectations for success in the classroom and value the teachers that provide them with concrete details (Akram et al, 2016).
7. Indicators of Perception
According to Robbins (2003) there are two indicators of perception:
a. Acceptance/ Reabsorption
The process of acceptance or reabsorption is indicator of perception in physiology stage, it is about the function of the five sense in grasping external stimulus.
b. Understanding/ Evaluation
The external stimulus that have been grasped will evaluate. It is a subjective evaluation. It will be different perception of each person in environment.
C. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) as teaching method 1. Definition of STAD
STAD (Student Teams-Achievement Division) is a one of the oldest and most extensively researched form of cooperative learning.
Robert Slavin and his colleagues in John Hopkins University developed STAD teaching. STAD system is one of the simplest and most flexible of the cooperative learning method, having been used in second grade up to twelve grades and in such diverse subject area as math, language art, social studies, and science.
In the cooperative learning techniques, students are assigned to four or five members in groups, with each mirroring the others to make up the class in terms of ability, background, and gender. Cooperative learning using STAD technique consists of four steps cycle: teach, team study, test, and recognition.
The teaching phase begins with presentation of material, students should be told what it is they are going to learn and why it is important.
In the team study, group members work cooperatively with teacher providing worksheet and answer sheet. Next, each student individually takes a quiz. Use a scoring system that ranges from 0 to 30 points and reflect degree of individual improvement over previous quiz.
The criterion can be seen in improvement point table.
Quiz Score Improvement Point
More than 10 points below base score 10 points below base score
Base score to 10 point above base score More than 10 points above base score Perfect paper (regardless of base score)
5 According to Slavin (1995: 72) each team receives one of three recognition awards, depending on the average number of points earned by them. From the description above, we know that STAD is a good technique for the teachers who are new to the cooperative approach.
And it uses individual quizzes at the end of class.
2. The Components of STAD
Slavin (1995: 72) states that cooperative learning of STAD technique consists of five major components. They are: class presentation, teams, quizzes, individual scores, and team recognitions.
a. Class Presentation
Material in STAD is introduced in a class presentation. In class presentation, most often direct instruction or a lecture-discussion is conducted by the teacher, but could include audiovisual presentations. Class presentation in STAD is different from usual teaching; it must be clearly focusing in STAD unit. The students must understand about the presentation from the teacher so it will
help them to do well in the quizzes. The quizzes score determine their team score.
b. Teams
After the teacher presents the material, the team meets to study worksheet or other material. Sometimes, the study involves students‟
discussion of the problems together, comparing answers and correction of any misconception if their teammates make mistakes.
The team is the most important feature in STAD. At every point in STAD, emphasis is placed on the team members, doing their best for team and on the team doing its best to help its members. The team provides the peer support for academic performance that is important for learning, and it provides the mutual concern and respect that are important for such outcomes as inter-group relation, self-esteem and acceptance of main stream students. Teams are composed of four or five students who represent a cross section of the class in terms of academic performance, sex, race, and ethnicity. The major function of teams is to make sure that all in team members are learning and more specifically to prepare its members to do well on quizzes.
c. Quizzes
After approximately one to two periods of teacher presentation and one to two periods of team practice, the students take individual quizzes. Students are not permitted to help one another during quizzes. Thus, every student is individually responsible for knowing
the material. So, the students are not permitted to help one another during the quizzes. Each student uses one copy of the quiz.
d. Individual Scores
The idea behind the individual improvement score is to give each student a performance goal that can be attained if he or she works harder and perform better than in the past. Any student can attribute maximum points to his or her teams in this scoring system.
Each student is given a „base‟ score, derived from the student‟s average past performance on similar quizzes. Students earn points for their team based on score. And the group improvement scores are got from the individual score of each member. The students earn points for their teams based on the degree to which their quizzes score (percentage correct) exceed their base score.
Quiz Score Improvement Point
More than 10 points below base score 10 points below base score
Base score to 10 point above base score More than 10 points above base score Perfect paper (regardless of base score)
5 improvement score from improvement score average for each group. The three criteria are bellow:
(Liya, 2009: 10)
Criteria (Team Average) Award used to determine up to twenty percent of their grade. The team that has improved the most is given most recognition.
3. Steps of STAD
According to Maidiyah (1998: 7-13) the steps of cooperative learning in the STAD method are as follows:
a. STAD Preparation
1) Material
Cooperative learning material STAD method is designed in such a way as to group learning. Before presenting the learning material, an activity sheet (discussion sheet) is made which the cooperative group will learn and the answer sheet from the activity sheet.
2) Establish students in groups
Student groups are heterogeneous groups. Each group has 4-5 students consisting of high, medium and low-ability students. If possible, the background, race and ethnicity must be taken into
account. The teacher must not allow students to choose their own group because they will tend to choose friends who they like.
3) Determine the Initial Score
The student's initial score can be taken through the Pre Test carried out by the teacher before the STAD cooperative learning method begins or from the final test score that is owned by the student. In addition, the initial score can be taken from the student report card in the previous semester.
4) Group collaboration
Before starting cooperative learning, it should start with group cooperation exercises. This is an opportunity for each group to do things that are fun and know each other among group members.
5) Activity Schedule
STAD consists of five regular teaching activities, namely the delivery of subject matter by teachers, group work, group award tests and class periodic reports.
b. Teaching
Each learning in STAD starts with a class presentation, which includes introduction, development, practical instructions, group activities, and quizzes.
In class presentations, things to note are:
1) Introduction
a) The teacher explains to students what will be learned and why it is important to raise students' curiosity. This can be done by
giving puzzles, raising problems related to material in everyday life, and so on.
b) The teacher can tell students to work in groups to determine concepts or to generate excitement in learning.
2) Development
a) The teacher determines the goals to be achieved from learning.
b) The teacher emphasizes that what is desired is that students learn and understand meaning, not memorization.
c) The teacher checks students' understanding as often as possible by giving questions.
d) The teacher explains why the answer is right or wrong.
e) The teacher continues the material if the students understand the problem.
3) Controlled practice
a) The teacher tells students to teach questions or answer the questions posed by the teacher.
b) The teacher calls students randomly to answer questions or solve questions raised by the teacher. This will cause students to prepare themselves to answer questions or questions raised.
c) The teacher does not need to give a question or question that has long been completed in this activity. Instead students work on one or two questions, and then the teacher provides feedback.
c. Group Activities
1) On the first day of the STAD group activities:
a) Students have the responsibility to ensure that friends in their
a) Students have the responsibility to ensure that friends in their