Chapter 3 Research Methods
3.5 Data Analysis
undertaken to increase the salience of participants’ VFR experiences, and so, encouraged them to contribute to the focus group discussions more enthusiastically.
Each focus group lasted approximately 60 minutes, with the number of participants ranging from two to six members. All focus groups were originally formed with at least six students who confirmed their interest and participation. However, on the day of the focus group discussions, some students did not show up. That is why some focus groups only had two participants. All focus groups were digitally recorded and then manually transcribed by the researcher. The next section explains how the collected data were analysed.
into SPSS. Each question of the questionnaire was converted into one or more variables of different types: nominal, ordinal, scale (also known as interval or ratio) and text. Nominal variables were associated with single- and multiple-choice questions such as gender and nationality. Ordinal variables were associated with multiple-choice questions where the choices were in an order such as age groups.
Scale data were obtained from questions using a slider response format, which yielded a continuous level of measurement to indicate answers. Lastly, text data mainly came from the ‘other’ category where the respondents could write their own opinions.
Pre-listed answer options for several questions that investigate aspects of hosting tasks, hosting problems and the benefits of domestic VF tourism were provided.
These options were aimed at quantifying a small number of conceptually distinct, descriptive categories of these aspects, and to prompt responses from the respondents.
Because the categories were few in number, and because no attempt to develop scalar dimensions was intended, it was felt that measures of internal consistency and reliability were both unnecessary and inappropriate.
Three sets of data were used for analysis. The first dataset contained data from 419 responses. This first dataset was split into two subsets: the second dataset included responses from those who had had some VFR experiences since their arrivals in New Zealand (307 responses), and the third dataset included responses from those who had not (112 responses). Results on background information of the respondents were based on the first dataset. The second dataset was used for most analysis related to VFR experiences of the respondents. The third dataset helped explain the issues around participants’ low engagement in VFR travel. A number of analytical techniques were used with these datasets. They are discussed in the following paragraphs.
First, descriptive statistics such as frequencies and means were employed. According to Veal (2011), frequencies present counts and percentages of responses for single variables; and means present averages for numeric variables. For the current study, frequencies were used mainly for nominal variables, while means were used for scale variables. Another important quantitative analysis is statistical testing. As Grimm (1993, p.123) stated, quantitative research employs inferential statistics to learn about the characteristics of a population from the characteristics of a random sample drawn
research, particularly in relation to tourist behaviour (Li, 2012). The statistical tests used in this research include chi-square test, independent sample t-test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), paired sample t-test, and Kruskal-Wallis test. The alpha value of 0.05 (i.e., p < 0.05 for significance of test results) was adopted for the current study because it is generally acceptable in social science research, and is also a reasonable level to choose when one wishes to protect against the decision of accepting/rejecting a null hypothesis (Kennedy-Shaffer, 2019). The mentioned statistical tests were performed to examine the relationship between the students’
VFR behaviour and experiences, and their demographic factors. Further details are explained in the following chapters, which present the results of the study.
3.5.2 Qualitative data
The key technique used to analyse the qualitative data was thematic analysis. The aim of this method is not simply to summarise the data content, but also to identify and interpret key features of the data, guided by the research question (Clarke & Braun, 2016). It should be noted that in thematic analysis, the data that help answer the research questions can evolve through coding and theme development processes.
According to Clarke and Braun (2016), thematic analysis works on the collected data and draw out patterns that are related to participants’ lived experience, views and perspectives, and behaviour and practices; which seeks to understand what participants think, feel, and do. Since the focus group discussions were about the students reflecting on their own VFR tourism experience, this method was deemed suitable.
Under the method of thematic analysis, a ‘theme coding system’ was employed by clustering the collected data into themes related to the study (Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell, & Alexander, 1995). Coding is carried out by a careful examination of the interview transcripts and by categorising them into themes that are significant to the issues being studied (Bryman & Bell, 2003). Similarly, Gibbs (2007) described coding as a way of categorising the text in order to establish a framework of thematic ideas contained within it.
In addition, Strauss (1987) identified three types of coding: open coding, axial coding and selective coding. Open coding is concerned with identifying key concepts and categories found in the text. Axial coding is the process of relating codes to each other
by using both inductive and deductive thinking (Strauss, 1987). It is often used subsequently to open coding when researchers re-read the text to confirm the key concepts and categories found through open coding, as well as to explore if these concepts and categories are related. Selective coding chooses one core category and focuses on relating all other categories to the core one (Strauss, 1987). The qualitative data gathered in this research were analysed using both open and axial coding techniques.
It should be noted that qualitative research, especially in the form of interviewing, involves some interpretation during the process of gathering and working on data (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). According to Patton (2002, p.480), interpretation involves making sense of the transcripts, attaching significance to the findings, offering explanations, drawing conclusions, and making inferences. For the current study, both quantitative and qualitative data were used in conjunction to help answer the research questions. Where applicable, full quotations of the focus group discussions were used to support or challenge the results of the online survey.
3.5.3 Sequence of analysis
The focus of the current study is on the VFR tourism experiences of international PhD students. The collected data were analysed in ways to help examine three studied aspects of this particular focus: VFR tourism behaviour of international PhD students;
the host–guest relationship manifested in the students’ VFR tourism experiences; and the impacts of their domestic VF tourism experiences on their sociocultural adaptation.
The VFR tourism behaviour and the VFR host–guest relationship aspects were examined with two categories: VF and VR. First, the VFR tourism behaviour aspect was examined through the forms of participation in VFR tourism, VFR travel frequency, undertaken activities and choice of accommodation. The host–guest relationship manifested in VFR tourism of international PhD students was then investigated through the exploration of their roles as VFR hosts and VFR guests, their experiences being in these roles and the factors that influence their guesting/hosting experiences. A number of themes related to sociocultural adaptation were identified from the literature review to help with analyses examining the third aspect, the impact of domestic VF tourism experiences on their sociocultural adaptation.
With all three aspects, where applicable, the potential associations of demographic factors with the students’ VFR travel behaviour, as well as their host–guest experiences were also investigated. These demographic factors were based on several questions in the online questionnaire that asked about the students’ demographic characteristics and background in New Zealand. During the analysis, the data collected from the online survey were analysed first. The qualitative data from the focus group discussions were then analysed in order to provide triangulation on the results from the quantitative data analyses, and to provide an opportunity to search for any new themes that help answer the research questions. The next section explains the research merits, challenges and limitations of this study.