12 Oleg Grabar, "Two Paradoxes in the Islamic Art of the Spanish Peninsula," in The Legacy of Muslim Spain, ed. The focus of the current study is now on the extent and patterns of architectural exchange in the context of Eurasia, and not on one-way influences, influences, events or encounters.
Aims and Method
Another contribution of this study is the development of the gateway city model for the analysis of architectural exchange. The recognition of the exchange with European architecture in Aleppo in the eighteenth century is another original contribution of this study.
Scope
Before the eighteenth century, from the eighth century, some of the patterns of the Islamic exchange with European architecture, as well as the patterns of the European exchange with Islamic architecture and elsewhere are also considered pertinent to the study. The main focus is therefore on the eighteenth century, but other examples are included to show an awareness of the long historical aspect of the phenomenon of architectural exchange, and the insights it can bring to developments in the long eighteenth century.
Structure
Examples from earlier and later time frames are included to show that architectural exchange (particularly European and Asian-Islamic exchange) is not a phenomenon, product or process exclusive to the eighteenth century. The previous two statements seem contradictory because they seem to suggest that the scope of the study is not limited or systematic, yet one of the criticisms of past studies of architectural exchange is that studies have not looked beyond isolated examples or limited time frames, and so the main patterns are not recognized.
Critical Survey and Synthesis
The buildings and landscape of Kew Gardens in the eighteenth century are used as an example of European exchange. This application of cultural theory to architectural exchange leads to the development of the gateway city model.
Case Studies
Critical Survey and Synthesis
View of the eleventh-century (brick) Liurongsi Pagoda (Flower Pagoda) at the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees.
Architectural Exchange in Europe: The Example of Kew
Overview
The Hakluyt Society is also a rich source of reprints of European travelers' writings in the eighteenth century. Singh, Travel Knowledge, European Discoveries in the Early Modern Period (New York: Palgrave, 2001); Michael Jacobs, The Painted Voyage, Art, Travel, and Exploration London: British Museum Press, 1995).
Architectural Studies of Kew’s Oriental Follies
- Quaintance and Iconic and Controversial Kew
- Representations and Labels
- Can we look at both sides now?
It is also one of the first examples of a landscape showing characteristics of 'orientalism'.7. This is what is missing from Eurocentric studies of the phenomenon of architectural exchange.
William Chambers’ Architectural Exchange
- Sources of Asian Images for Kew
- The Pagoda
- The Mosque
The mosque at Kew (Fig 2.9), was definitely meant to be of the Turkish or Ottoman variety. This is due to the similarities in the design of the minarets and the body of the Mosque (compare Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.11 b.).
Summary
This chapter shows that, firstly, studies of the European-Islamic influence have largely been represented from a Eurocentric position. The term 'influence' therefore also has the recognition of the process of architectural exchange that occurs through travel, diplomatic exchanges, movement of materials, artisans, building parts, works of art, etc. unified phenomenon of architectural exchange.
The problems of the perception of a one-way exchange and other issues that clouded the discussion of the European exchange are now examined in the light of the Eurasian exchange in Chapter 3.
Exploring Exchange in the Ottoman and Mughal Empires
Overview
The Kew case also provided an opportunity to display the Pagoda and Mosque in the Garden designed by Chambers, examples of architectural exchange between European architecture and Chinese and Ottoman architecture in the eighteenth century. In Chapter 3, the routes between Europe and the Ottoman Empire are defined in the context of the two-way flow of European and Asian travelers as a parallel to the recognition of Chambers' travels, which are considered to be exemplary of a larger group of 18th-century travelers. 1 "Occidentalism" is the influence of Western countries on the East and "Orientalism" is the influence of Eastern countries on the West.
See Jack Goody, East in the West (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996) and Goody, Islam in Europe (Cambridge, Polity Press, 2004), as well as Chapter 1.
Studies of Western Influence on Ottoman and Mughal Architecture
- Labelling Western Influences in the Ottoman and Mughal Empires
Apart from the studies on the 'westernization' of the architecture of the Ottoman Empire with a focus on Istanbul (sometimes extended to include other areas of the empire such as Anatolia, the Balkans and Greece), it is necessary to consider the city of Lucknow in the Mughal Empire as one of the case studies (see Chapter 7). That is why five pages out of the 260 pages are devoted to the architecture of Lucknow and Faizabad. Eaton also sees gift exchange taking place in the 'in-between spaces' of the nawab's court culture.
The term "in-between" was developed in relation to hybridity in architecture in India.
Reciprocal Routes
- From the Ottoman Empire to Europe
- From Europe to the Ottoman Empire
It is therefore important to recognize the cities that were part of the routes traversed by pilgrims, ambassadors, merchants, artists, Muslim clerics, engineers, architects and the occasional ruler in the eighteenth century. 37 See Göçek, East Encounters West, France and the Ottoman Empire in the Eighteenth Century, 13, and Matar, In the Lands of the Christians, 188, 189. The presence of the East India Company in India was the reason why many English workers used the route of the desert in the mid-eighteenth century.
39 During this period, Aleppo competed with Istanbul and Damascus as the main trading city of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries, and the wonders of the Aleppo souq were surpassed only by Istanbul's Kapali Carsi.
Courtly Exchange
There were other Asian influences on European architecture in the eighteenth century, besides the Islamic one. This was through the sending of ambassadors to various European cities in the eighteenth century. They were Ottoman travelers with official approval and duty to report back to the Sublime Porte on the state of the French capital, French culture and military organization in the country.
This was the case in describing the architecture and social customs of Iran, especially the city of Isfahan.
Summary
Interior objects from distant cities in the Islamic world also became part of the court milieu and part of inter-Islamic architectural exchanges in palaces in court cities. Another example of the mechanics of Eurasian exchange is the seventeenth century, when a Lebanese ruler sent skilled artisans from Italy to work in Beirut (see Chapter 6). Exchanges of courts are also discussed in parallel, rather than discussing the Ottoman court separately.
The synthesis of this disparate evidence of exchange in the buildings and gardens of the Ottoman and Mughal empires gives rise to the concept of Gateway Cities situated amid a network of routes traversed by merchants, goods, building materials, travelers, ambassadors, artists and architects. engineers.
Portable Architecture and Gateway Cities
Overview
Moreover, they do not recognize the extent or complexity of the network of cultural exchange that existed in Eurasia in the eighteenth century and the importance of this for architectural studies. The concept of the gateway city also provides a theoretical tool to enrich the study of the phenomenon of architectural exchange.4 It defines the concept of gateway cities as places within a given network where many types of exchange take place. In this chapter some of the concerns of economic geography (which originally developed the concept of a gateway city in relation to the economy of American cities) are also applied to Istanbul, Aleppo and Lucknow.
This is the first application of the concept of gateway cities to the cities of the eighteenth century.5 The gateway city concept also makes it possible to explore the richness of architectural exchange without attempting to single out a dominant influence of exchange (which ignores other factors). , or limit the discussion to binary oppositions.
Interdisciplinary Scholarship on Exchange
- Leed
- Gunn
- Pieterse
- Hoffmann
First, he sees a privileging of Europe, or notions of European superiority, in eighteenth-century exchange as a mistake. In this study, the phenomenon of the crossed digit is observed in the case studies. Animal motifs can be seen in the ceiling and wall decoration of the Norman drawing room (Fig 4.6), as well as on the Mantel of Rodger II.
William Tronzo also deals with the architectural exchange in Palermo in the middle of the 12th century, where he explores the decoration and furnishings of the Cappella Palatina.
Portable Images of European Architecture in Asia
- Illustrations
- Intangible Images
- Ephemeral and Portable Models
Thus, buildings are seen as the chameleon capacity of metamorphosis, to undergo constant changes in relation to changes in the power relations of the city, but also religious vicissitudes (for examples see Part II). These images formed part of the corpus of traveling images of the architecture of Empire. The accuracy of illustrations also depended on the artist's skill and use of the camera obscura.
50 Deborah Howard says that "memories" of Islamic architecture played a role in the influence of Islamic architecture on Venetian architecture, when Venetian merchants returned from Egypt and Syria with memories of the mosques and palaces they had seen there.
4. 4 Portable Images of Asian Architecture in Europe
Illustrations
54 But in the twelfth century, Muslim craftsmen worked at the court of the Norman King William II in Palermo. But even his depiction of the Atala Mosque in Jaunpur (Fig. 4.8.d) in 1786, compared with a nineteenth-century photograph of this mosque (Fig. 4.8.e), shows great accuracy in its representation. Some of his illustrations include a view of the city of Jerusalem (Fig. 4.7.h) and 'Mesched Ali' in Iraq.
This facilitated European-Islamic exchange in the eighteenth century, and the increased accuracy of the engravings and aquatints allowed for greater fidelity to the original models.
Illustrated World Histories and Architectural Surveys
A Prospect of the Mosque, in which Mahomet's Tomb, near the City of. 69 Fischer von Erlach, Fischer's Civil and Historical Architecture, Book III, The Third Book: Containing Fifteen Plates, Describing The Buildings of the Arabians, Turks, etc. 70 Grabar also discusses the caption to Fischer's illustration of the mosque housing 'Mahomet's tomb' near Medina.
He speculates on the routes of the sources Fischer names for the illustrations of Mecca and the mosque near Medina.
Portable Objects
Buildings as Illustrative Models of Asian Architecture
76 The composition, or numbers, of the traveling 'public' in the eighteenth century is not easily answered from available evidence. Records of the many voyages in the eighteenth century were written by aristocrats and the wealthy bourgeoisie who traveled on the grand tour. Europe therefore also provided examples in the built environment of the multi-locus nature of the exchanges; this means that the exchanges were not simply one-sided (from the east to the west) or an uncomplicated transfer of one influence.
However, increasingly accurate illustrations of buildings in Asia in the eighteenth century increased the sophistication of architectural exchange in Europe, but their interiors still had to reflect the custom by which these European gentlemen wished to live.
Portable Building Fragments in Eurasia
One of the hallmarks of architectural portability is the reintegration of older building materials into newer structures. 89 The example of tiles imported from Mesopotamia in the ninth century to surround the mihrab of the Great Mosque of Kairouan demonstrates the portability of this building material. It is also an example of architecture's independence from local, national and imperial constraints.
90 Another example of the portability of tiles is the use of Ottoman tiles in the mosque at Mecca, when it was upgraded in the sixteenth century.
Gateway Cities
- Capital Flows and Commodity Exchanges in Gateway Cities
- Architectural and Economic Gateways
- Inter-Islamic Exchanges in Gateway Cities
- Gates
How does the gateway city model developed in economic geography apply to Asian cities in the eighteenth century. Cities, and in particular port cities in the eighteenth century, can thus be seen as. Economic exchanges and capital flows (as well as the importance of debt financing) that occurred in eighteenth-century gateway cities helped facilitate architectural exchanges.
One of the priorities of the rulers of Oudh was to be heavily engaged in building in the capital.
Summary
