ACER Newsletter No. 50 March 1984

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Computing in schools

Jonathan Anderson

Little more than a decade ago, hand-held calculators spelt the demise of the slide rule. Other casualties to follow were mathematical tables used by all students for finding squares, roots, reciprocals, logs and trig ratios. It is a strange irony, that an order placed by a Japanese calculator manufacturer, set in motion the research that was to lead the Intel Corporation in 1971 to succeed in producing, on a single chip, the circuitry to perform these arith- metic functions. And so the calculator, which had briefly heralded changes in mathematics teaching is, in turn, being supplanted by 'machines that may change the very nature of the educational system' (Arthur C. Clarke).

What has been the impact of the microcomputer in the classroom? Until 1983, it would have to be said that this was mini- mal. Caelli (1979), for example, while noting the implications for education of what he called the microcomputer revolution, re-

ported no revolutions taking place in Australian classrooms. And three years later, Sandery (1982) observed that 'the average Australian classroom is still largely untouched by the impact of the computer'.

However, the climate was changing swiftly. The report by Keeves (1982) into education in South Australia strongly advo- cated courses to provide an introduction to new technologies. This theme was taken up by the Commonwealth Schools Com- mission in early 1983 when it stressed that computer education was vital to Australia's future. A national advisory committee was established, presenting its report Teaching, Learning and Computers towards the end of the year. It seems that 1983 was a watershed for computer education.

Australian Education Review No. 21 reviews computing practice in Australian schools and presents some of the back- ground to the schools' computing move- ment. The major focus throughout is on what is being done with computers in schools. It is an account of applications, rather than of computers as such, since computer software or courseware is more important for schools than computer hard- ware. Indeed, for most educational applications, users need never be aware of a particular machine's configuratien. Further- more, the computer applications described are ones in use in classrooms around the country - for example, the major programming languages in use (BASIC and LOGO), the use of word processors, simulations, access to databases, and the many other ways teachers are using computers.

The picture presented of current practice should be useful to all teachers, to administrators, and to others with a professional interest in schools computing. The review opens with a very brief introduction to microcomputers, what a microcomputer is and what characteristics might be important for school use. This is followed by an examination of what are seen to be significant models and influences in computer education overseas, particularly developments in the United Kingdom, France and

the United States. What is happening in these countries provides a backdrop to recent developments in Australia, at both the state and national levels.

There are marked differences between the States, both in terms of support given to computer education over the years and the adoption of a coordinated or a laissez- faire approach to computing in schools. A significant development then was the agreement by three of the States to form a computing consortium. In some States subject associations and computer user groups have carried the weight of computer education, often because of a lack of activity from State Education Depart- ments.

The major thrust of the review is on how computers are used in schools, whether for learning about computers or learning with or from computers. The use of the computer to provide drill and practice, to teach and test factual information, to develop mastery in different subjects is reviewed.

More varied applications described are when the computer is used as a tool for writing, for music, for drawing, and for displaying information. Some of the more exciting Australian produced software is for the use of the computer simulation and for information retrieval. Many schools, however, are electing as well to use the computer for programming. It is in this mode, some would assert, that the computer has most potential for it can change the very way students learn.

A range of applications encountered in schools across the country is next presented in the form of case studies. One looks in detail at the way microcomputers were introduced in one primary school;

another at an experimental evaluation of videotex in an educational context; yet others at computer awareness teacher support material, at a state-wide computer network, at computer studies courses, and at a school computerized administration system. There is the danger, in presenting these case studies, of portraying a picture of a hive of activity in computer education.

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There are certainly exciting on-going developments, of which the ones selected are a sample, but in many schools the activity is yet to take place.

Finally, the review outlines some emerg- ing issues in computer education, or schools computing as it is often called. As principals, teachers and school councils know well, the use of microcomputers in schools gives rise to a host of issues - issues concerning the adequate preparation of teachers, the special needs of girls, questions of copyright, ergonomic con- siderations concerned with seating and lighting, priorities for placing micros in classrooms when resources are limited networks versus stand-alones, to name just a few.

There are still many more questions than answers that can be pointed to for there is a paucity of research about the use of computers in schools. This is a field in urgent need of concerted action by research bodies, by individual researchers and teachers and, indeed, by the whole community.

And what of the future? The promise of further developments in the next few years may be as dramatic as the past. The race to produce the first megabit - a chip to

hold a million bits of computer memory -

is nearly run, which means smaller, even more powerful computers. For schools, however, other developments have the potential to transform the learning environment more radically. One such development will be the availability of portable, battery powered microcomputers, which students will be able to use at school and at home. Another will be the general use of videodiscs in conjunction with microcomputers. Yet another development will be printers that can provide copy of any of the 54 000 frames on a videodisc, thus offering the prospect of storing and retriev- ing vast quantities of textual and graphical information easily Developments in networks, too, will provide increased oppor-

tunities for communication, both with

distant databases and with students in other countries. A further development is likely to be computer voice recognition. All these developments will bring changes to the kind of interactions between teacher and student, and between student and student, compared with those in non- computer or pre-computer environments.

While the promise of microcomputers for

schools, according to some, is very great, leading to more individualized instruction

improved basic literacy and numeracy

skills, motivated students, and help for those with special needs, others wonder whether this new excitement is not a little familiar. Were not similar promises made for the teaching machine and for programmed instruction?

Therein lies the challenge of the chip. Is it a tool ushering in new modes of learning, changing the very way learners think, or is it another education innovation, a fleeting enthusiasm, in time to be relegated to the

shelf? Are schools and teachers prepared

for this new educational tool? Will the presence of computers tend to widen divisions in the educational community?

2

Recurrent Education:

Economic and Equity Issues in Australia

Phillip McKenzie

Recurrent education entails the provision of educational opportunities on a recurring basis over the whole of the lifespan. As a form of educational organization it stands in marked contrast to the contemporary

model whereby educational participation is

generally confined to the early years of life.

The concept of recurrent education has generated a large and, at times, heated literature. Australian Education Review No. 20 elaborates and evaluates the principal arguments raised in the recurrent education debate. The review adopts an economic perspective because of the importance which economic factors are likely to play in the consideration of recurrent education proposals. The economic perspective is applied in the context of recent and prospective changes in the Australian education sector, economy and

society.

Following a chapter which traces the evolution of the concept in both Australia and overseas, the review considers the issues raised by recurrent education in five broad areas:

• the operations of the education sector

• developments in the labour market

• the distribution of educational opportunities between groups

• the costs of recurrent education programs

• financing mechanisms.

Operations of the Education Sector A major factor in the early interest in recur-

rent education, particularly in Europe, was the potential it offered for more closely integrating educational activities with the wider society. It was argued that policies which encouraged young people to defer elements of their post-compulsory education until after a period of employment, and facilitated second-chance education for

adults, would lessen divisions between the

generations and improve the quality of

One to warn against a backlash against computer education is Scriven (1983) The possibility of such a backlash poses per- haps the greatest challenge of the chip.

Already there are more microcomputers in students' homes than in the schools these students attend and, while much of education is the victim of fashion, current technological change guarantees the computer a role, for '•microelectronics technology has the potential to permeate, to some degree, almost all fields of human endeavour"

(Committee of Enquiry into Technological Change in Australia, 1980) Any backlash against computer education, then, runs the risk of putting schools even further out of step with what is happening all around.

Jonathan Anderson. Computing in Schools

(Australian Education Review No. 21) Hawthorn, Vic.; ACER 1984. 112 pp. $7.95.

educational experience. This argument has not been as prominent in the Australian debate on recurrent education, possibly because it is still only a relatively low pro-

portion of young people who proceed

directly from school to tertiary study in this country. While research indicates that deferment has assisted some young people to make more effective educational and

career decisions, the deferment of educa-

tion by substantial numbers for lengthy periods could prove excessively costly. On the other hand, evidence on the educational implications of ageing and the relative learning performance of mature- age students does suggest considerable educational benefits may flow from increasing their numbers in post-compulsory education.

Developments in the Labour Market Recent and prospective trends in the Australian labour market reinforce the value of recurrent education and training programs as part of a manpower policy package. The economic recession has adversely affected the employment pros- pects of many groups in the labour force and there is evidence that the position of the adult unemployed has deteriorated relative to unemployed young people.

Programs which seek to update skills and knowledge, facilitate the constructive use of non-work time, and increase educational participation rates amongst those of em- ployable age will appear increasingly at- tractive on economic and equity grounds.

However, even if much of the current unemployment problem is lessened by increased economic growth, there will still be a need for programs to assist the employed, and those who wish to return to employment, to adjust to the requirements of technological and other structural economic changes. Although such programs may do little directly to stimulate employment, they can facilitate labour force flexi- bility and assist employment opportunities to be more equitably shared.

The Distribution of Educational Opportunities

Recurrent education advocates view the present education system, with its primary focus on the performance of the young and the pervasive influence of home back- ground on the performance of the young, as an ineffectual means of promoting g realer educational and social equality.

The review supports this general con- tention by consideration of evidence on the distribution of educational attainment between and within generations. However, it notes the link between the provision of g realer equity of educational opportunity and the attainment of greater social and economic equality should not be assumed without the clear identification of the type of groups for whom recurrent education

programs may be designed. Policies which

encourage the unhindered return of adults to educational and training activities, for example, may result in a 'second creaming' whereby the already advantaged increase their share of resources.

Continued page 6

ACER Newsletter No. 50. March. 1984

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Explorations in Early Childhood Education

John Braithwaite

Over the past decade numerous research studies in the United States and Europe have confirmed the value of well-planned and comprehensive early childhood services for disadvantaged preschool aged children. Within Australia the number of studies that have examined the benefit of such programs for children who may be termed 'educationally disadvantaged' are few. The reason for the paucity of such studies may be found in the limited resources made available for their conduct by the relevant authorities and the understandable wish of early childhood educators to use whatever funds that are available for the implementation of programs for such children.

Consequently the funding of the Mount Druitt Early Childhood Project by the Bernard van Leer Foundation and the NSW and Australian Commonwealth Govern- ments was looked upon by early childhood educators and educational administrators as an important step in the collection of Australian data that could answer important policy and research questions in the early childhood education area. The project commenced half-way through 1975 and continued on in the schools until the end of 1979.

What was the Project trying to achieve?

Given the complexity of the Project's endeavours, it is understandable that the detailed objectives of the Project changed over time. Nevertheless the general aims of the Project remained fairly constant over the five years of its field operations and guided most implementation and evaluation efforts.

These aims were to:

• provide an environment which would help children to develop physical, intellectual and social abilities through inter- action with a widening range of experi- ences - by so doing, it was intended that children would develop their

conceptual and language abilities;

prosocial behaviour;

creative potentials in a widening range of contexts;

• involve parents and the community in the

education of their children by providing opportunities for the former to share in the education process;

• care for the children's health, nutrition and other needs through active involve- ment with parents and other agencies in the area;

• provide the guidance necessary for the continuity of the programs through the infants schools; and

• evaluate the outcomes of the five different early childhood programs established by the Project.

It should be stressed at this stage that these aims were collaboratively arrived at during the Project's initial years through discussions with the teachers, schools and the parents of the children enrolled in the

various schools.

ACER Newsletter No. 50. March, 1984

The different programs

When the original discussions were held about the introduction of the different programs, considerable debate ensued as to which programs should be implemented.

It was agreed that the programs had to represent different approaches to early childhood education and be capable of replication in public schools within Aus- tralia given the then available resources.

The five different programs that were introduced were:

• the Cognitive program based on the Weikart program of the same name:

• the Competency program based on those competencies in which teachers and parents thought that children in the area needed to succeed in their initial years in school:

• the Contemporary program incorporating the best of the local approaches to early childhood education;

• the Behaviourist program based on the approaches adopted by Bushell in the USA; and

• the Home-based program based on the Home Start program initiated in the USA The five programs represented different approaches to early childhood education and, apart from the Home-based program, all were continued on over the first three years of schooling.

Each program had the support of a program assistant for guidance in the implementation and evaluation procedures.

The important roles that these people

played in the overall success of the Project cannot be overstressed.

In addition to the focus on the five educational programs, there was a range of health, nutritional and community educational programs that followed from the ongoing activities of the Project.

How did we know that we had achieved our aims?

To guide us in the formative stages and in the summative assessment of our endeavours, a comprehensive evaluation plan was devised. This plan featured the collection of process and product data from teachers, children, parents and school administrators.

Data were collected about the children's performances in school achievement, cognitive functioning, behavioural and social characteristics, attitudinal states, language, psychomotor performances and medical condition. Additional data were collected

on the language performances of the

teachers and the classroom processes that they instituted.

The collection of the formative data enabled us to guide the development of the programs and to provide immediate feed- back to the teachers concerning their

classroom practices and the success or

otherwise of their other initiatives. Further the Project had a stream of outside visitors who were asked to comment upon the activities they had observed so that we

could get outsiders' perspectives on our

endeavours.

What were the results of the Project?

In essence, the Project's activities showed that:

• it was possible to develop and implement a variety of early childhood programs which mirrored their stated intentions;

• preschool attendance benefited this particular group of disadvantaged children in a variety of intellectual, social and school related ways; and

• the various programs produced differen- tial effects in the children's performances.

In addition, there were a host of other

findings resulting from the Project's activities, too detailed to list here. However, one set of data should be highlighted and these were the process data that were collected on the classrooms and homes of the children involved in the Project. These data provide detailed insight into the ongoing events within the various settings of the Project. They provided important confirma- tion as to what actually occurred within the various programs and enabled some important linkages to be established between processes and later outcomes.

The future

Results from projects such as these can assist teachers, parents and school administrators to make decisions based on a body of empirical evidence. This is important in an area where hitherto in Australia there has been a marked absence of data about the effects of early childhood programs on disadvantaged children. Of course, at the same time, the results and the

collected data open up a treasure trove of

further questions that have to be addressed for the more soil we uncovered, the more we found it necessary to dig deeper to get to the eventual goals we had set.

John Braithwaite. Explorations in Early Childhood Education. Hawthorn, Vic.; ACER, 1984. 274pp. $20.

3

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1. a dozen good books

·2 from England (NFER-NELSON)

From Birth to Five Years

-.!.!..

'\lfK'-4-,0,1

~ ~ - - - ~

FROM BIRTH TO FIVE YEARS

(Children's Developmental Progress)

SPONTANEOUS PLAY IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

(from birth to Six Years)

both by Mary Sheridan

Stages of development for each age group are clearly described in .illustrated sequences. Both books consistently acclaimed for accuracy and ease of use.

MY WORLD

by Audrey Curtis

&

Sheelagh Hill

This is a handbook of ideas for a thematic approach to meeting the needs of Socially Handicapped Children. It is also a valuable source of ideas for teaching all young children.

Planning Small Scale Research

K. M. Evans

The community is no longer prepared to assume without question that education authorities and teachers know what is best for children and evidence is required to support educational practices. This book will help principals and teachers who wish to begin research at the school level.

Special Provision for Reading

(When will they ever learn) David Mosely

In arguing for special provision for backward readers Mosely covers many aspects of reading and literacy in English situations that are mirrored in Australia. Several appen- dices also include practical information of use to teachers and special- ists.

Childhood: A Sociological Perspective

M. D. Shipman

This book is concerned with socialization, the process of learning the behaviour patterns that enable people tb interact meaningfully. It covers socialization in the home and school and also looks at social class and inequalities in motiva- tion.

ACER is the Australian agent for NFER-Nelson Publishing Co. Ltd. As such we carry stocks of many NFER titles and will obtain all NFER titles on request. An NFER Booklist of titles held in stock is available on request.

- K - - - - - - - - - -

To: Distribution Services Division ACER

P.O. Box 210

Hawthorn Victoria 3122

oRoER FORM

Please supply items listed below

Cheque/money order enclosed for $ ... . or charge to:

Name/School ... . Address ... Postcode ... .

Title Cat. No. Price Qty Title Cat. No. Price Qty

From Birth to Five Years 033 BK $10.20 Planning Small Scale Research 127 BK $7.50 Spontaneous Play in Early Special Provision for Reading 164 BK $25.00 Childhood 165 BK $11.65 _Childhood: A Sociological

My World 500 BS $15.05 Perspective 032 BK $7.50

Sub Total Total

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ORDER FORM

To: Distribution Services Division ACER

P.O. Box 210

Hawthorn Victoria 3122

Please supply items listed below.

Cheque/money order enclosed for$ ... . or charge to:

Name/School ... . Address ... . ... Postcode ... .

Teachers Manual Student Book

Class Set (10 x Student Books)

Cat. No.

500 HN 100 HN 101 HN

Price

$5.50

$3.50

$27.50

Qty Sub Total

TOTAL

- ~ - - - - -

What is Spell-Write?

\ use spen-Writ

\ess of my m_et aching spe\hng

Is

the

S

Pupil's Pell-Write book eas to

Use?

Y

p.re there books tor separate de \eve\'?

each gra

Therefore, Spell-Write is flexible, easy to use,

d most importantly,

an "s

relevant to my pup ·

A comprehensive collection of over 3000 words shown by research

!o be_ regularly used '" children's writing

No: the one

book/et can be

fo_r al/ studen~:ed

'" Years 3.7

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Recurrent Education (cont.)

The Costs of Recurrent Education Programs

Critics have argued that the potential benefits of recurrent education programs are likely to be outweighed by their costs, particularly if they involve large numbers of adults in full-time absence from employment. The direct costs of recurrent education programs will depend upon the type of educational technology employed and the likely scale of operation. The current shortage of tertiary education places relative to demand implies a need to expand facilities and staff to cater for additional students entering conventional forms of tertiary education via recurrent education programs. However, a consistent theme in the literature is that, for many of the adults for whom recurrent education and training may be most valuable, traditional educational settings may not be appropriate. The review considers a number of the economic issues associated with the expansion of alternative forms of educational provision.

In terms of the income and production foregone during educational participation by adults, the review argues that such costs may be relatively low for some of the groups for whom recurrent education programs may be targeted, such as the long-term unemployed, low-income workers and women. The broad dimensions of education spending are also discussed.

Evidence is presented which suggests that since education expenditure on the young as a proportion of GDP is likely to decline over the next decade, principally due to changes in the age distribution of the population, there will be increased financial capacity to fund recurrent education and training programs for adults.

Financing Mechanisms

The review discusses the features of the major financing models proposed for recurrent education. It argues that the common linking point between the models is the need for financing mechanisms to be tailored to the objectives of recurrent education programs. In this regard, a model of 'educational entitlements' which may be drawn on over the course of adult life is appealing and its principal characteristics are outlined.

Phillip McKenzie. Recurrent Education:

6

Economic and Equity Issues in Aus- tralia. (Australian Education Review No.

20.) Hawthorn, Vic.: ACER, 1983. 107 pp. $7.00.

Circulation of ACER Newsletter

The ACER Newsletter is produced three times each year in April, July and November.

One copy is mailed to the principal of every educational institution in Australia and to all other interested persons. Bulk sets are also made available to various educational groups tor distribution to their contacts. There is no charge tor the Newsletter because its wide distribution is considered a vital part of the dissemination work of the ACER.

Progressive Achievement Tests: Mathematics

The ACER is currently undertaking the publication of an adaptation of the Pro- gressive Achievement Tests of Mathematics for use in Australian schools. The tests were originally published in New Zealand by the NZCER. The Australian version of the tests has been produced at three levels of difficulty, and the tests have been designed to be administered at the following school year levels: Test 1 - Years 3 to 5, Test 2 - Years 5 to 7 and Test 3 - Years 6 to 8. There are two equivalent forms of the test at each level.

To provide a comparative frame of reference for interpreting the raw scores from a test in the series, tables of norms for samples of Australian students have been provided to convert the raw scores to either percentile rank scores or stanine scores for different school year levels. The test has been Rasch scaled so that the raw scores can also be converted to PAT Achievement Scale scores which place both the difficulty of the items and individual student achievement from any of the tests in the series onto the same single scale.

This relates student achievement to item difficulty and item difficulty to student achievement.

The Teachers Handbook contains a description of the tests and their intended functions, provides full instructions for test administration, discusses the interpretation of the norm-referenced and Rasch-scaled scores, and describes the use of the test results. It also gives technical information on the development of the tests, the Rasch calibration and the norming procedures. An appendix contains information about the Rasch test model and the derivation of the Achievment Scale scores.

An optical mark reader readable answer sheet was rrepared for use in the norming study and will be made available for teachers using the ACER Test Scoring Service. This service will score a set of answer sheets, providing lists of the students' raw scores with equivalent Rasch Achievement Scale scores, percentile rank scores or stanine scores and, if required, a record of each student's responses together with the means and standard deviations of class or group scores.

The preparation of the tests in New Zealand involved many teachers, inspectors, mathematics advisers and lecturers in the planning, item writing and development stages. The items were reviewed, selected and revised by committees of critics before trial testing in schools. The final forms were then produced and subjected to further examination before the tests were standard- ized for New Zealand.

In Australia, the tests from the series were examined to determine the extent to which they matched current Australian practice. Items were altered to make them more useful for use in Australian classrooms and additional items were written.

The items were subjected to scrutiny by a panel of critics and were arranged into sets of test booklets for use in a trial testing program involving primary and secondary

classes from government schools in three States and Catholic schools in one State.

The item responses from the trial testing were analysed by computer using a Rasch model calibration program. Items which failed to discriminate adequately or which failed to fit the Rasch test model satis- factorily were discarded. The remaining items were recalibrated and linked to a single scale of difficulty for all the items in the item pool. The items were grouped into topics and arranged in increasing order of difficulty within topics and the final tests were then assembled. The Rasch Achieve- ment Scale score tables were then prepared using the item difficulty estimates from the final Rasch scale.

The tests were used in November 1983 in a standardization study to obtain Aus- tralian norms. Tests 1A and 1 B were normed at Years, 3, 4 and 5, Tests 2A and 2B at Years 5, 6, 7 and 8, and Tests 3A and 3B at Years 6, 7 and 8. For each test at each year level, the sample aimed at was one-quarter of a single class selected from each of the schools in a sample of 76 different schools drawn from the government, Catholic and independent sectors in all Australian States and Territories. Separ- ate random stratified samples of primary and secondary schools were drawn using the ACER sampling frame. The Education Departments and Catholic Education Offices in each State and Territory were approached in the first instance and the schools were invited through their principals to participate in the testing. Replacement schools were sought when necessary. If there were two or more classes at a year level, the class to be tested was selected at random by the ACER. The schools returned the tests to the ACER for scoring, coding and analysis.

Results were returned to schools. The items response data were transferred to computer files and scored by computer.

The tables of norms, test statistics for year levels and tables of item facilities for year levels were then prepared for inclusion in the Handbook.

It is intended that the tests and Teachers Handbook will be available in July 1984.

ACER Publications

Recurrent Education: Economic and Equity Issues in Australia by Phillip McKenzie (Aus- tralian Education Review No. 20) .. $7.00 Computing in Schools: An Australian Perspective by Jonathan Anderson (Aus- tralian Education Review No. 21 ) .. $7 95 Explorations in Early Childhood Education:

The Mount Druitt Early Childhood Project by John Braithwaite ... $20.00 Bulletin for Psychologists No. 34 Septem- ber 1983 compiled by Meredith Shears.

Supplied free to psychologists. Australian Education Index: Vol. 26, Cumulation 1983.

The Australian Journal of Education Volume 27, Number 3 November 1983 Childrens Depression Scale. Second Research Edition Moshe Lang and Miriam Tisher. (Available only to psychologists.) ... $100.00 (Kit)

ACER Newsletter No. 50. March. 1984