ACER Newsletter No. 40 November 1980

(1)

Invitational Conference on Societal Change and its Impact on Education

A major invitational conference on the relation between societal change and education was recently conducted by the ACER. The conference, held on 28 and 29 August at the University of Melbourne, was planned to help mark 1980 as the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the ACER.

The 95 conference participants represented a broad cross-section of Australian educators, educationists, employers, trade unionists, and media personnel. The participants came from every Australian State and Territory as well as New Zealand, Sweden, England and the United States.

Purpose of the conference

The conference was designed to focus attention on the interaction between economic, demographic, political, and

social change and the education system.

In any period of change the traditional roles of major social institutions come into question, and education is not immune from such a re-examination.

It was hoped that, if the conference

could encourage the rigorous analysis of

the interaction between education and societal change, the task of preparing Australian education for the coming decades would be facilitated.

Organization of the conference Because of the broad nature of the issues to be examined, it was considered essen- tial that the areas of debate be identified

well in advance. To achieve this objective,

background papers were commissioned from four prominent Australian scholars.

Professor Brian Crittenden, Latrobe University, prepared a paper entitled 'Theoretical Assumptions in the Recent Development of Australian Education'.

This paper, discussed changes in the

main objectives and assumptions of education in Australia since. about 1950 and critically assessed the ones that are most useful in current practice.

Professor Don Aitkin, Australian Na-

tional University, examined the political

and sociological dimensions of change in a paper entitled 'Australian Society in Change: A Sociological and Political Perspective'. Professor Sir Bruce Williams, University of Sydney, in his paper 'Australian Society in Change: An Economic and Demographic Perspective' outlined the economic and demographic factors which influence the proportion of the nation's resources which are al- located to the education sector, and considered likely changes in the relative strength of these factors.

In the fourth paper, 'Changing Educa- tional Emphases for the 1980s', Mrs Jean Blackburn, a former full-time member of the Schools Commission, considered the impact of societal change upon the func- tions of Australian education and discussed some of the modifications which may be necessary as a result.

To promote discussion, the four papers were circulated to conference participants several months before the conference, and six individuals were invited to prepare statements of reaction. The

reactants were:

• Mr R. G. Fry, Director, Metal Trades

Industry Association of Australia;

~

• Dr D. A. Jecks, Principal, Churchlands College of Advanced Education;

• Mrs J. E. Kirner, Executive Officer, Vic- torian Federation of State Schools Parents Clubs;

• Mr P. W. Matthews, Director of Studies, Trade Union Training Authority;

• Dr B. W. Scott, Managing Director, W. D. Scott and Company, Sydney;

• Mr J: R. Steinle, Director-General of Education, South Australia.

As a further stimulus to debate, each of the State Institutes of Educational Research established working parties to

examine issues raised by the background

papers and reactant statements.

The pre-conference activities were designed to enable participants to bring with them a common set of data on various aspects of change in Australian society and a common understanding of the issues involved in considering the implications of change for Australian education.

At the conference itself, seven papers

were presented which elaborated these

issues and placed them in an international perspective. A summary follows of each of the papers presented at the conference.

Key speakers (left to right) Dr M. Ski I beck, Dr J.P. Keeves, Professor Torsten Husen, Professor P. H. Karmel, Professor A. H. Halsey, Dr H. M. Levin, Dr E. L. Boyer

(2)

Paper 1 Social Influences on Education:

The British Case

Author Professor A. H. Halsey (Direc- tor of the Department of Social and Ad- ministrative Studies, Oxford University, England)

Halsey was concerned with exploring two broad themes-the dependence of changes in the education system upon social changes characterized by increasing complexity in the division of labour, and the impact of the expansion of educational opportunity upon social equality. He developed the first theme by argu- ing that at the present time, three economic developments have particular relevance for the education system. First, the relation between work, education, and leisure as understood historically is open to fundamental change. Under such conditions the challenge for the education system is to 'democratize idleness'. Secondly, there is evidence of the growth in relative size of the informal economy, that is, those economic activities whose out- comes are not reflected in official national accounts. Combined with general pessimism about the value of increased expenditure on education, the development of the informal economy at the expense of the formal economy means that the relative proportion of society's resources going to the education system may decline. The third economic development of significance for education is the lowering price of capital goods relative to labour. This development may have consider- able effect upon the types of pedagogical techniques employed by schools.

Halsey's second theme commenced with an

outline of recent research which has cast

doubt on the ability of educational expansion to promote social equality. The results, while disappointing to educators, are not wholly sur- prising since the opportunities for educational participation are unequally distributed among social classes in the first place.

Halsey concluded on the more optimistic note that one cannot be pessimistic about the prospects for social equality in a future in which the division of labour is likely to be fundamentally reconstructed. The appropriate task for educators, as for the rest of society, is to decide upon the future that is desired and to devise strategies that will facilitate the transition to that future.

Paper 2 The Future of Institutionalized Schooling

Author Professor Torsten Husen (Director, Institute of International Educa- tion, University of Stockholm, Sweden) Husen commenced by examining the changed auspices under which the education system is now operating: economic growth has slowed markedly, enrolments have declined in a number of sectors, and misgivings have developed about the value of education. These factors have culminated in the 'institutional malaise' which is affecting education.

Husen argued that a major factor contributing to the difficulties of the education system is the role that the school is expected to play in sifting and sorting students for employment. The overall task for education is not simply to prepare people for employment, but to provide them with the competency they need in order to become well-rounded, ·reason- ably satisfied, and participating citizens.

Policies which encouraged less emphasis on formal education in assessing employment qualifications would assist to weaken the nexus between education and employment.

Concerning the school itself Hus~n argued that, for the school to be reshaped into a better and more humane institution, it is necessary to give consideratiDn to what characterizes the educative process. At the core of this process

2

is the interaction between the teacher and the student. The main task of institutional arrangements is to establish a system whereby every student has a teacher to whom he can particularly relate; such arrangements are not likely to be present in large, highly fragmented schools.

Husen concluded that greater research efforts need to be devoted to identifying the factors contributing to the 'institutional malaise' from which the secondary school in particular is suffering, and studies pertaining to reshap- ing the school to make it better able to meet the needs of the post-industrial society have to be undertaken.

Paper 3 Youth Unemployment and Edu- cation

Author Dr H. M. Levin (Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance, Stanford University, USA) Levin commenced by examining youth and adult unemployment rates in both the United States and Australia, While the United States has had a persistent youth unemployment problem, high levels of youth unemployment have only become apparent in Australia since about 197 4. This factor needed to be borne in mind when considering the various explanations advanced for youth unemployment in Australia.

Four major explanations of high levels of youth unemployment were examined- the demographic, minimum wage, shortage of skills, and the aggregate economic conditions theories. The strongest evidence supported the argument that, in Australia at least, the downturn in economic activity since the mid- seventies was the major contributing factor to high levels of youth unemployment.

Levin was pessimistic about the current ef- ficacy of conventional monetary, fiscal, and ex- ternal sector policies in increasing aggregate employment without raising inflation levels.

Rather, attention should be directed at more specific job creation programs. In particular, small-scale enterprises have a better chance of providing employment opportunities, foster- ing a satisfactory work environment, and fulfil- ling social needs than do large enterprises. Ac- cordingly government policy should be redirec- ted towards facilitating the operation of small enterprises including youth producer co- operatives.

Levin concluded with the observation that, since the contention that the education sector was responsible for youth unemployment was not well supported by the available evidence, the education sector should not make prom- ises to undertake reforms to solve the problem of youth unemployment. Such policies should only be undertaken if they are worthwhile in themselves.

Paper 4 Education For A Complete Life Author Dr E. L. Boyer (President, Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, Washington, USA) Boyer argued that consideration of the type of education necessary for a complete life necessitates an examination of the values and objectives of education. One should attempt to idenHfy values and issues which are likely to be consolidated or emerge over the next few decades and which will influence the needs of individuals. Dr Boyer identified four major groups of likely developments.

First, because of rising expectations, the demand for education will continue to escalate despite current pessimism about the value of education. Much of this pessimism was ill- founded and there was a great deal of evidence to support the view that expansion of educational opportunities had facilitated social mobility. Education for a complete life will re- quire not only a great expansion of educational

opportunity but also a greater diversity of educational provision in order to meet the varied needs of individuals.

The second major trend concerned the changing life styles of individuals and the con- comitant changes in their educational needs. These developments indicate that education for a complete life requires the provision of educational opportunities over the complete life-cycle of the individual.

Thirdly, Boyer described the growth of technology and, in particular, communications technology. Technology greatly opens up the opportunity for learning outside the classroom, and this non-traditional education must be more closely integrated with the traditional educative process before education for a complete life can be achieved.

The final group of developments concerned the substance of the educative process. He predicted that the curriculum will move beyond the traditional academic subjects and will try to achieve a central integrating purpose for education. Boyer concluded that education for a complete life requires a curriculum which is structured to allow the study of the common need for language, our common heritage, common social institutions, common activities, and common prospects for-the future.

Paper 5 The Implications of Societal Change for Educational Research Author Dr J. P. Keeves (Director, Australian Council for Educational Research)

Keeves commenced the paper by briefly reviewing developments in educational research in Australia and overseas. These developments have assisted the greater co- ordination of the educational research effort and have facilitated an impressive accumula- tion of significant educational research findings. The recent development of new techniques to review and consolidate research findings offers promise but more needs to be done to achieve a coherent body of knowledge.

Keeves argued that three major forces will

influence the direction of research in educa-

tion. First, new paradigms will evolve from the cross-fertilization of the wide range of social and behavioural sciences engaged in educational research. The second major factor is the emergence of critical issues which demand the efforts of researchers. Finally the development of high-speed computational facilities over the past decade has enabled the employment of sophisticated statistical and analytical techniques which have shifted the thrust of educational research towards the study of multi- variate relationships. In the long term, it will be the development of explicit and tightly argued theory for examination with empirical data that will lead to advances.

On the basis of the major problems identified by the conference background papers and from an examination of the areas where gains are likely to be made because of the interplay of the three factors djscussed above, Keeves presented for debate a number of areas in which he believed educational research should be actively pursued in the future:

• the development of an effective scale for the measurement and comparison of student performance;

• the development of a coherent understanding of the factors which influence school learning;

• the development of procedures for the mapping of the school curriculum;

• studies of the cost-effectiveness of different educational programs and services;

• studies in the transition from school to a con- structive adult life;

• the educational environment of the home;

• the thought processes of children.

continued on page 4

ACER Newsletter No. 40 November 1980

(3)

The Assessment of Oracy in Australian Schools

Sid Bourke

As most communication in everyday life is oral, not written, the development of listening and speaking skills by students may be of even greater importance than the development of the parallel skills of reading and writing. The school has a role to play in the development of oracy skills by students, although clearly it is not the only agency involved in oracy development of young people. It is suggested that oracy should be considered with literacy and numeracy to form a triumvirate of the basic skills which all students should possess on leaving school and which form the basis for all further learning.

During 1976, Dr Diana Davis and Dr Milton Clark surveyed the literature on oral language development and gathered all available curriculum and other statements used in oral language programs in Australian schools. They concluded that there was a distinct lack of materials useful to teachers and that there was an obvious need for research and development of ideas for oral language development in schools.

In 1977, the ACER and the ERDC jointly funded a study to look into current school practices in the oral language area and to consider the usefulness and feasibility of testing the listening and speaking performances of students. To meet these aims, Mr Sid Bourke and Mrs Faye Holzer developed a framework for classifying listening and speaking tasks which could be included in a school's oral language development program. The framework consisted of three dimensions of the abil- ity the student needed to possess to be able to do the task, the context in which the task was performed, and the purpose served for the students when they listened or spoke. Large numbers of listening and speaking tasks were then collected and classified according to the framework.

Emphasis was given to the ability dimen- sion because it was argued that, although context and purpose were important, the objectives of school programs in the area were to develop students' abilities.

Teacher opinion and practice

Group interviews with four or five teachers at primary and secondary schools were conducted to find out what primary and secondary teachers thought to be important, what they actually did in helping students to develop their oral language abilities, and how they assessed listening and speaking. Towards the end of the interview, the teachers were asked, individually, to indicate the importance for students of each of the listening and speaking tasks on a list previously prepared by the researchers.

In general, most teachers thought that oral language development deserved greater emphasis than it normally receiv- ed in school programs and many saw a need for assistance in methods of assessing listening and speaking. Much of what they said confirmed the statements of Davis and Clark concerning the need for

more work in the area. The teachers' opinions obtained on the importance of the listening and speaking tasks became the major component in a selection by Bourke and Holzer of tasks for possible assessment.

Listening and speaking tests

Listening and speaking tests were planned, designed, trial-tested, amended, and used to assess the performances of 10-year-old and 14-year-old students in all States and Territories of Australia. At each age level, six students at each of approximately 220 schools were tested. The sample sizes were thus approximately 1300 students in each case.

Listening

For the listening tests, the stimulus material, test items, and test instructions were all provided on audio cassette and the supervising teacher was asked to take responsibility for ensuring that all six students being tested knew what to do.

Multiple-choice and a few completion items were used. Test lengths were 23 minutes and 29 minutes for 10- and 14-year-old students respectively. Al- though many listening tasks were tested, the tests concentrated upon students' abilities to comprehend literal meaning at several levels, instructions, implied meaning, and conversations, to recall facts, and to identify a speaker's probable intent and intended audience.

Speaking

Speaking tests were conducted in the form of an interview with each of the six students individually. The test ad- ministrator or interviewer (usually a teacher at the school) worked from a detailed schedule which included guid- ance on when and how to prompt students where necessary as well as the ac- tual questions to be asked. The interview, which lasted from 20 to 30 minutes in

most cases, was recorded on an audio cassette and returned to ACER for scoring. In the main, two types of scoring were used: adequacy of response was scored on a four-point scale referenced to specific criteria; and fluency of response was scored on a five-point normative scale. The major speaking tasks assessed included giving personal details, instructions, and information, reading aloud, tell- ing a story, using appropriate information, expressing critical judgments, and organ- izing, developing, and presenting ideas.

Summary of results Listening

The listening tests were divided into a series of sub-tests each concerned with a specific ability, and the proportion of students who were successful on each sub-test and the total test were reported.

(Successful students for a test or sub-test were those whose estimated true score was 80 per cent of the items correct). The proportions of successful stLJdents for a selection of the sub-tests and the total test are shown in Table 1.

If the total result were taken as an in- dication of overall listening performance, 62 per cent of the 10-year-old and 79 per cent of the 14-year-old students would be considered as successful. For most sub- tests, the proportions of successful 10-year-old students ranged from 45 to 65 per cent and the proportions of 14-year- old students from 75 to 90 per cent.

Almost all the 10-year-old and all the 14-year-old students were successful when comprehending words and simple statements and understanding instructions. However only a quarter of the 10-year-old students were able to comprehend passages, make critical judgments, and recognize emotional language to the levels required by the sub-tests.

There were three listening sub-tests that were identical at the two age levels.

Table 1 Some Listening Test Results

Sub-test Successful students

Age 10years Age 14years

% %

Comprehending words and statements⁸ 97 100

Understanding statements 100 100

Comprehending passages⁸ 25 74

Comprehending conversation 65 88

Comprehending in different situations⁸ 47 80

Total test 62 79

a Indicates a sub-test that was identical at both age levels.

Table 2 Some Speaking Test Results

Task Successful students

Age 10 years Age 14years

% %

Giving directions 72 64

Repeating a story⁸ 87 92

Repeating and idea⁸ 46 72

Making critical judgments⁸ 63 84

Giving own ideas⁸ 85 95

Giving a message⁸ 80 71

a Indicates a task tested by the same item at both age levels.

3

(4)

~

These were the Total Anchor Items Sub- test and those concerned with comprehending literal meaning and comprehending passages. When results were compared, it was found that approximately 30 per cent more 14-year-old than 10-year-old students had succeeded in reaching the criterion scores for these tests. In each case, the majority of students were assessed as being able to perform the task before they reached the end of the compulsory phase of schooling.

Speaking

For speaking, high proportions of students at both age levels were able to give personal details orally. This was particularly true of the 14-year-old students where at least 95 per cent were correct on each item. The performance of the 10-year-old students was more variable, but the proportion of students making an adequate response did not fall below 78 per cent for any item where the students were providing personal details. (An adequate response was one which included all the information necessary for the intended communication to be successful.) For other speaking tasks, there was a con- siderable range in the proportions of successful students. At both age levels, the task of repeating an idea had the lowest proportion of successful students, with 46 per cent of 10-year-old students and 40 per cent of 14-year-old students making an adequate response, and the task of listing facts had the highest proportion of adequate responses with 95 per cent of successful students. For most items when the context- was familiar to students, at least 80 per cent were able to perform adequately the speaking task that had been set. The adequacy of a student's response was judged according to whether it could have constituted an effective communication. The results for some selected tasks are shown in Table 2.

Two global fluency measures used were fluency-when-reading-aloud and fluency-when-giving-opinions. Fluency was related to adequacy for individual students, but the two measures did seem to be tapping different aspects of student responses. Many students has poor fluency but made adequate responses, and the opposite was also true. The teachers scoring the speaking tests were able to distinguish a greater range of fluency for the reading-aloud measure, but the giving- opinion measure was more closely related to the adequacy assessments made.

Fluency was also more closely related to adequacy for the 10-year-old students.

The task of reading aloud was assessed for adequacy by the number of errors made and by the literal comprehension of what was read. By either measure, at least approximately 90 per cent of students were successful. It would seem that this high proportion of students are able to read aloud accurately while comprehending what they read, at least to the level of difficulty demanded in the speaking tests. Other more detailed assessments of some of the speaking tasks were also made but are not reported here.

ACER will publish a full report of this study titled Oracy in Australian Schools. □ 4

continued from page 2

Invitational Conference

Keeves concluded that, without an understanding of the problems which exist in these areas and without evidence arising from research, there is little available upon which to base future programs and policies.

Paper 6 The Implications of Societal Change for the Curriculum

Author Dr M. Skilbeck (Director, Cur- riculum Development Centre, Australia) Skilbeck commenced by noting that the con- cept of curriculum has broadened over time from syllabus to experience. Accordingly curriculum change is a form of social change both within the school and in terms of its impact on society.

The curriculum should be viewed as a social- cultural map. Under this view, the school curriculum is a means of sustaining, modifying, and recreating the world to which it addresses itself.

Some of the elements in the curriculum map would be:

• the development of personal, group, national, and international identity;

• an acknowledgment of the reality of change;

• an acknowledgment of the openness of truth, values, and beliefs;

• the means by which individuals can manage, guide, and direct the social order;

• knowledge of the opportunities for growth in.

work, leisure, and relationships.

Skilbeck contrasted the conventional model of curriculum design with the view of curriculum as a social-cultural mapping in which the curriculum designer interacts with other groups and individuals.

If the map-making approach is to have effect, it is necessary to think of teachers as designers and engineers of curricula rather than as the translators of a curriculum designed elsewhere.

Dr Skilbeck concluded by placing his earlier comments into the context of the recent Cur- riculum Development Centre publication, A Core Curriculum for Australian Schools.

Paper 7 Societal Change and Its Impact on Education: A Conference Summation Author Professor P. H. Karmel (Chair- man, Tertiary Education Commission, Australia)

Karmel outlined likely developments over the next 20 years in demography, the labour market, technological change, and the growth of a public acceptance of pluralism in values. If educational institutions are to offer courses relevant to a socially complex and techno- logically sophisticated world, they must be prepared to range very widely in their activities and to function in many roles.

Karmel argued it could be stated that:

(a) education in the formal sector has the task of preparing individuals for human activity of which work is only one aspect; and

(b) educational institutions and processes reflect the relations within society, and society itself is moderated by the nature of education.

On the basis of the background and conference papers, Karmel suggested a number of practical prescriptions which lead in the direction of fairer treatment for disadvantaged groups as well as raising individual com- petencies:

• within the years of compulsory education, proper attention should be directed towards basic language skills in the broadest sense;

• the compulsory curriculum should include a study of work as a major human activity;

• the development of comprehensive two-year educational institutions for the post- compulsory school years should be considered;

• the present apprenticeship system should be supplemented with other forms of training;

• employers should maintain a balanced workforce with an appropriate proportion of training positions for young people;

• the financial allowances for young people in various educational, training, and employment activities need to be rationalized to provide appropriate incentives for the undertak- ing of meaningful activities;

• it is desirable to encourage recurrent education so that people are able to move in and out of education throughout their lifetimes.

Karmel noted that over the past 20 years in Australia, there have been many significant im- provements in the quality of Australian education. He concluded that if as much can be achieved in the next 20 years, a great deal of progress will have been made, even though the future is likely to be one in which social conflict rather than economic growth predominates.

It is planned that the background and conference papers will be published by the ACER to be available in early 1981. D

t

^research

Se

information

for teachers

set

is a package of pamphlets of research news for teachers

set is written for teachers and all others vitally concerned with education. It is published twice a year in the second and third terms. The articles are the latest and most helpful research findings available, written to give quick insight into the facts which can make teaching and learning more effective. The editors try to keep a good mix of material: some of it is chosen for its general professional interest; some for its immediate relevance to one or other group of teachers.

There have been in the past, for example, articles about Emotional Development, Tele- vision and Learning, Reading, Listening Skills, Mathematics, Tests, Youth Unemployment, Pre-schools, Primary schools, Secondary schools and Tertiary Education.

We are sure that you will find articles in every set which are of interest and relevance to you.

set 1980 No. 1 & No. 2 available now for

$10.00 for the two packets.

set 1981 subscription (order now) $12.50 for two packets during 1981.

New from ACER

Books

The Australian Council for Educational Research 1930-80 by W. F. Connell, Casebound. . . ... $25.00 Mathematics Evaluation Procedures K-2 (For use by teachers with children in Years K-4) by North Sydney Region Infants' Mistresses' Council. .... $12.50 Changes in Secondary School

Mathematics in Australia 1964-1978 by Malcolm J. Rosier (ACER Research Monograph No.8). . $10.00

Bulletin

Bulletin for Psychologists No. 28 August 1980 edited by Diana Bradshaw