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QUALI TY AND YI ELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE MADE FROM MILK CONCENTRATED BY ULTRAFILTRATI ON
A the s i s presented in partial ful f i lment of the requirements f or the degree of Doctor of Phi l osophy in the Department of Food Technology at Ma s s ey Univers i ty
MANI IYER 1 9 8 6
ABSTRACT
Ultraf i l tration ( UF ) i s a concentrati on and s eparation proce s s whi ch oper ates at the molecular l eve l . It has been succes s fu l l y app l i ed to certa i n soft chees e var ieties with the primary advantage of increa s ed yields . When app l i ed to Cheddar , whi ch is a hard var i ety , problems a r e encount ered . The se are lack of f l avour and texture devel opment , l a c k of economic a l ly viable yield increa s e and pra c t i c a l prob l ems in hand l i ng o f UF curd .
An i nvesti gati on was undertaken to s tudy the app l i c a tion of UF technol ogy t o the manufacture o f Cheddar chee s e . The empha s i s was on the biochemi cal and biophy s i c a l probl ems in UF Cheddar and the pos s ib l e yield advantages in making the product .
Res u l t s sugges t that UF per se does not contr i bute to prob l ems i n the qual i ty of UF Cheddar . No ma j or probl ems were encountered in the che e s emaking proces s or in f inal cheese qua l i ty when chees e was made from 2 : 1 UF retentate us ing conventional method a�d equipment . There were , how
ever , no yield advantages . When 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 r etentates were used , s ome mod i f i c ation in the method of manufacture , parti cula r l y i n the cutting time and cutting device , wa s neces sary .
r etentate retentate cheeses .
The qual ity of cheese obta ined from was f ound to be i n ferior whi l e that from
3 : 1 5 : 1 was comparable with respect to the control
The bi ochemi cal and bi ophysical probl ems a s soci ated with the qua l i ty o f UF Cheddar could be overcome to a l arge extent by ad j usting the amount of starter and rennet a dded on the ba s i s of quantity of milk prior to UF . Th i s y i elds Cheddar of norma l one-day pH but with res idual rennet con
centration much h i gher than that in the conventional product . The higher leve l is probably requ i r ed to overcome the ' di l ut i on ' ef f e c t of the extra whey proteins present in the UF product . Thi s ' di lution ' e f f ect may be partly due to
the d i f f ic u l ty of rennet d i f f u s i on i n UF Cheddar and p a r t l y a result o f a decrea s e in concentration of f lavour compounds due to the pres ence of extra whey protein s . The r e s u l t s show that substanti al savings i n rennet a r e not pos s i b l e i n che e s emak i ng from 5 : 1 UF retentate . The r e s u l t s a l s o sugge s t that it i s pos s ib l e t o make U F Cheddar with a r equired r e s idual r ennet concentra t i on by regulating the amount of rennet added to the retentate and drai ning the whey at a predetermined pH .
The y i e ld advantage i n che e s emaking from 5 : 1 retentate ( i f UF Cheddar is made to normal MNFS of 5 3 . 5 % ) was l imited to 4% l a r g e l y becaus e only one third o f the whey protei n s of UF mi lk wa s retai ned in the che e s e . Theoretical analys i s of mas s balance data indicated that thi s yield advantage could be improved to about 6 % by reducing ' f ines ' l o s s e s and t o about 8 % b y decreas ing f a t l o s s e s a s compared with the conventional proce s s .
Given the current state o f UF chee s emak i ng technol ogy , i t i s p os s ible that reductions i n l o s s e s i n conven t i ona l cheese-ma k i ng p lants may prove to be a more prof i t a b l e method o f increas ing yields o f Cheddar che e s e than the u s e
of U F che e s emaking methods .
( ii i )
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wi sh to exp r e s s my appr e c i at i on and deep s en s e of gratitude to my chi e f supervi sor , Dr . John L . Le l i ev r e for his guidance i n all aspects of thi s work , his never e n d i ng patience i n h e l p f u l and often long di s cu s s ions and h i s generous help i n the preparation of thi s manus cr i pt .
I am thankf u l to Dr . R . C . Lawrence of the New Z e a l and Dairy Research I n s t i tute , for helpful d i s c u s s i on s , f or providing important guidance during the course o f t h i s pro j ect and f o r h e l p in the preparation of t h e the s i s .
I am grateful to Mr . R . D . Bennett f or providing important experti s e during cheesemaking , for h e l p f u l d i s cu s s i on s , f or s erving on the grading panel f or c h ee s e , for help in the preparation of the the s i s and for qui et l y providing encouragement during t h e cour s e o f thi s pro j e ct .
I grateful l y a cknowledge the guidance of Dr . W . J . Harper o f the New Z e a land Dairy Research I n s t i tute i n the pl anning and d i s cu s s i on on the progre s s of the pro j ec t .
Several members o f the sta f f i n the Food Technol ogy Department , Mas sey Univer s i ty , provided valuable a s s i stance during the cou r s e o f thi s pro j ect . I n particular I would l ike to thank Mrs . Margaret Bewley , Mr s . Judith Cl e la nd ,
( late ) Mr . Terry Gracie , and Mr . Hank van Til . I wi s h to expr e s s my deep s e n s e of gratitude to Dr . K . R . Aiyar and h i s wi fe Ganga f o r prov i ding mor a l support e s pe c i a l l y a t t ime s when I wa s conf ronted with di f f icult s i tuati on s .
A number of s t a f f members at the New Z e a l and Dairy Research Institute provided inval uable help
during t h e ent ire c ourse of th i s pro j ec t . acknowledge the help of the f o l l owing :
and I
guidance grate f u l l y
Dr . L . K . Creamer f o r helpful d i s cu s s ions and a s s i s tance in the anal y s i s of data on proteol ys i s .
Mi s s S andy Dav i s for help i n gel e l ec trophore s i s and
meas urement o f acid-soluble peptide s .
- - Mr . John G i l l e s , Mr . O . J . Freese and Mr . Frank Dun l o p f o r s e rving on the panel f o r cheese grading a n d f o r h e l p f u l d i s cu s s ion s .
-- Mr . Keith Montgomeri e , Mr . Pat Hogan and Mr . Steve B o l eyn for help during chees emak ing .
-- Mr . Mike O ' Conne l l , Mr . John Bligh , Mr . R . A . Robin s on and Mr . Bruce Duker for a s s i s ting in the ultra f i l tratio n of milk .
-- Dr . He s ter Cooper and her e f f i c i ent team in the s e n s or y evaluat i on l aboratory f o r s en sory evaluat i on o f c h e e s e samp l e s a n d f or stati s t i c a l ana lys i s of the data .
-- Dr . Audrey Jarvi s for helping with the method f o r estimating residual rennet in the cheese .
-- Dr . Lee Huf fman for he l fu l d i s c u s s i on s and for a s s i s ta n c e during s l urrymaking tria l s .
-- Mr s . Julie Ander s on and Mi s s Di anne Shute for hel p i ng in the stat i s ti c a l ana l y s i s of all the data .
Mr . Keith Turner for helpful di s cu s s ions .
Mr . Errol Conaghan for a s s i s tance i n the chemi c a l analy s i s o f s ome o f the samp l e s .
-- Mr . Paul Le Ceve for kind l y provid ing exper t i s e i n t ak i ng photographs and prepar ing s l i de s .
I am thankful to the Di rector , New Z e a l and Research Insti tute for kindly providing f a c i l it i e s research a nd giving me a unique opportuni ty t o work di stingui s h ed s c i enti s t s .
D a i r y f o r w i th
For f inancial a s s i stance , I wish to expr e s s my grati tude to the New Zea land Government for awarding me a Commonwea l th S cholarship ; to the Dean , Facu l ty of Technology , f or providing a r e s earch grant , to the G l ob u s Group ( NZ ) Ltd . f o r the Globus award . I am a l s o thank f u l to Prof . D . Batt , Chemi stry/Biochemi stry Department f or o f f e r i ng a j ob to my wife , Lakshmi ; and to Dr . D . R . K . Hard i ng f or a s s i sting in gett i ng the j ob extended . The sa lary f r om her job provided f inanci a l support i n the l a s t s i x months when I had run out of funds from the Commonweal th
( v ) S c h o l ar s h i p .
I am grateful to my wi f e , Lakshmi , who helped with the reading , bibl i ography and plotting of the g raphs . proof
Without pro j ect thankful
her mora l s upport , the ta sk o f comp l e t i n g the would have been exceedingly d i f f i cul t . I am a l s o t o a l l our f ami l y members i n I nd i a f o r the encouragement and mor a l s upport .
Thanks are a l so due to my f r i ends and f e l l ow p o s t graduates for h e l p and encouragement .
Fina l ly , thanks to Mrs . G r i selda B l a z ey f o r h e r patience a n d excel l ence i n t h e typing o f thi s thes i s .
Mani Iyer August 1 9 8 6 .
Abstract
Acknowledgement s L i s t of Tab l e s L i s t o f Figures
List of Abbreviations u s ed
Chapter 1 : Introduction
CONTENTS
Chapter 2 : A review of a spects of chee s emak ing u s ing
Page No . ( i ) ( i i i ) (X) ( xi i ) ( xviJ.
)
1
milk concentrated by ultra f i ltration 3
2 . 1 S cope o f the review 3
2 . 2 Princ i p l e s of UF 3
2 . 3 Ef fects of UF on the components of mi l k 5 2 . 4 Advanta g e s o f u s i ng UF milk i n chee s emaking 6 2 . 5 Manufacture of d i f f e r ent che e s e vari e t i e s f r om
UF concentrated milk 8
2 . 6 Problems in the app l i cation o f UF to Cheddar
chee s emak ing 9
Chapter 3 : S cope and objective s o f the pres ent
inves t igation 1 8
Chapter 4 : Ef fect of ultrafi ltration per se on the
quality and yield of Cheddar chees e 1 9
4 . 1 I ntroduction 1 9
4 . 2 Exper imental plan 1 9
4 . 3 Expe r imental 1 9
4 . 4 Anal yti ca l methods 2 3
4 . 5 Resul t s and d i s c u s s ion 2 9
4 . 6 Concl u s i on 3 9
( vi i )
Chapter 5 : E f f ect of use of 2 : 1 ultraf i ltered milk on the qua l i ty and yield of Cheddar chees e 4 1
5 . 1 Introduction 4 1
5 . 2 Exper imental 4 1
5 . 3 Anal yt i c a l methods 4 3
5 . 4 Res u l t s and d i s c u s s i on 4 3
5 . 5 Impl i c a t i on s 5 1
Chapter 6 : E f f ect of whey protei n s on the qua l i ty of
Cheddar cheese 5 2
6 . 1 Introduct i on 5 2
6 . 2 Section 1 : Addition of whey protein powder to
che e s emilk 5 3
6 . 2 . 1 I ntroduction 5 3
6 . 3 Section 2 : Addition of whey protein powder to
parti a l l y ultra f i l tered mi lk 5 5
6 . 3 . 1 I ntroduction 5 5
6 . 3 . 2 Exper imental plan 5 5
6 . 3 . 3 Exper imental 5 6
6 . 3 . 4 Analytical methods 5 6
6 . 3 . 5 Results and di s cus s ion 5 7
6 . 3 . 6 Conclus ion 6 4
6 . 4 Section 3 : Addition of whey protein concentrate to chees e s lurries
6 . 4 . 1 I ntroduction
6 . 4 . 2 Experimental p l an 6 . 4 . 3 Exper imental
6 . 4 . 4 Ana l y s i s of s lurrie s 6 . 4 . 5 Results and d i s cus s i on 6 . 4 . 6 Conclu s i on
6 . 5 Over a l l conclusion to Chapte r 6
Chapter 7 : Ef f ect of degree of ultrafi ltration on the qua l i ty of Cheddar chee se
7 . 1 I ntroduction
6 4 6 4 6 5 6 5 6 8 6 9 7 3 7 4
7 5 7 5
7 . 2 Exper imental p l an 7 . 3 Experimental
7 . 4 Ana l ayti c a l methods 7 . 5 Results and d i s c u s s ion 7 . 6 Concl u s ion
Chapter 8: Ef fect of vari a ti on i n rennet addi tion 5: 1 retentate on the character i s ti cs of UF Cheddar cheese
8 . 1 I ntroduction
8 . 2 Exper imenta l p l an 8 . 3 Exper imenta l
8 . 4 Ana l yt i c a l methods 8 . 5 Results and d i s cu s s ion 8 . 6 Conclus i on
Chapter 9 : Yield of UF Cheddar cheese
9 . 1 I ntroduction
9 . 2 Methods by which UF c a n i n crea s e cheese yields 9 . 3 Exper imenta l approach
9 . 4 Exper imental 9 . 5 Ana l y s e s 9 . 6 Results 9 . 7 D i s cu s s i on 9 . 8 Conclus i on
Chapter 1 0: Mi scellaneous experiments
1 0 . 1 I ntroduction
to
1 0 . 2 Effect of UF chee s emak i n g from fresh milk
( without overnight storage ) on the qual ity and yield of Chedda r che e s e
1 0 . 3 Effect o f addi tion of permeate t o cheese curd f r om 5 : 1 UF retentate on the qual i ty and y i e l d o f Cheddar chee s e
7 6 7 6 8 1 8 8 1 0 9
1 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 5 1 2 6
1 2 6 1 2 7 1 3 0 1 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 2 1 3 8 1 4 5 1 4 6 1 4 6
1 4 6
1 5 0
1 0 . 4 E f fect of add iti on o f whey protein supp l emented permeate to the chee se curd from 5 : 1 UF
retentate on the qua l i ty and yield of Cheddar cheese
Chapter 1 1 : Overa l l I .
Appendices
( see LIST OF APPENDI CES on page ( xv ) )
(ix)
1 5 5 1 6 2 1 6 3
Bibl iography 1 8 8 - 2 0 0
Table no . 4 . 1 A
4 . 1 B 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7
4 . 8 4 . 9 4 . 1 0 4 . 1 1
5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3
5 . 4 5 . 5 5 . 6 6 . 1
(X) LIST OF TABLES
Legend Page
Chemical methods for analys i s of mi l k
and whey 2 4
Chemi cal methods for ana l y s i s of chee s e 2 6
Milk composit ion 2 9
Che e s e compos it i on 3 1
Whey compos ition 3 1
Samp l e ma s s balance calculat i on f or tota l
s o l i d s 3 2
Samp l e mas s balance cal culation f or c a s e i n nitrogen
Ma s s balance ( per centage r ecovery in chees e )
Yie ld o f chees e Grading of cheese
Stati s t i c a l ana l y s i s o f grade s co r e s Che e s e sensory panel
Mi lk and retentate compos ition Chee s e composition
Ma s s balance ( percentage r ecovery in chees e )
Yield of chees e Grading of chees e Chee se sensory panel
4 8 5 0
E f f ec t o f whey protein powder on the strength ( by visual examination ) of the gel obta i ned by the addition of rennet to mi lk
33
3 4 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7
4 5 4 6
4 7 4 7 - 4 9 - 5 1
5 4 6 . 2 Mi lk and whey protein suppl emented
retentate compo s i tion 5 9
5 9 6 . 3 Cheese compos ition
6 . 4 Ma s s balance ( percentage recovery i n
chee s e ) 6 0
6 . 5 6 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 1 0 6 . 1 1
7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3 7 . 4 7 . 5 7 . 6 7 . 7
8 . 1 8 . 2
8 . 3 8 . 4 A 8 . 4 B 8 . 5
9 . 1 9 . 2 9 . 3 9 . 4 9 . 5
9 . 6 9 . 7
Whey compos ition Yield of cheese Grading of chees e
Ingredient s f o r making s lurri e s Chemi c a l compos ition o f s l ur r i e s
( xi ) 6 0 6 3 6 1 - 6 2 6 7 6 9 Soluble nitrogen a s a perc entage of total nitrogen in s lurri e s duri ng r ipening 7 1 Average sensory panel scores of s lurr i e s 7 3
Summary of chees emaking conditions 7 7 Mi l k and retentate compos it ion 8 9
Che e s e compos i tions 9 4
Res idual rennet concentration i n chee se 9 5 Percentage rennet retention i n chees e 9 6
Grading of chees e 1 0 3 - 1 0 5
Sensory panel s cores 1 0 6 - 1 0 7
Che e s e compos i t i on 1 1 4
Mas s balance ( percentage r ecovery in
chee s e ) 1 1 5
Res idual rennet i n che e s e 1 1 7 Grading of chee s e ( se r i e s 1 ) 1 2 1 Grading of che e s e ( se r i e s 2 ) 1 2 2 Sens ory panel s cores 1 2 3 - 1 2 4
Ma s s balance 1 3 3
Compo s ition of cheese 1 3 4
Wei ght of SNF in chee s e f r om 5 0 kg mi lk
+ 1 kg starter 1 3 5
Weight of fat in the che e s e from 5 0 kg mi l k + 1 kg starter
Fat recovery i n cheese from r etentate concentrated with UF unit operating in batch and continuous mode
E f f ect of curd handling on f at recovery in 5 : 1 UF Cheddar
Cheese qua l i ty and grades
1 3 6
1 3 7 1 3 7 1 3 9
9 . 8
1 0 . 1
1 0 . 2 1 0 . 3 1 0 . 4 1 0 . 5 1 0 . 6
1 0 . 7 1 0 . 8 1 0 . 9
1 0 . 1 0 1 0 • 1 1
1 0 . 1 2 1 0 • 1 3
Whey protei n : water ratio in retentates and UF che e s e s
Mas s ba lance ( pe r centage recovery i n cheese )
Yield of che e s e Grading o f chee s e
Composition of permeate Cheese compos i t i o n
Ma s s balance ( perc entage recovery in cheese
Yield of cheese Grading of chee s e
Compos ition o f permeate and whey protein supp l emented permeate
Chees e compos i t i on
Ma s s balance ( pe r centage recovery in chee s e )
Yield of chee s e Grading o f che e s e
1 4 2
1 4 7 1 4 8 1 4 9 1 5 1 1 5 2
1 5 3 1 5 3 1 5 4
1 5 7 1 5 7
1 5 8 1 5 9 1 6 0
F i g . no . 4 . 1
4 . 2
4 . 3
5 . 1
6 . 1
7 . 1 7 . 2
7 . 3
7 . 4
L I ST OF F I GURES
Legend
U l tr a f i ltration unit used for UF of mi l k i n a l l experiments
Compari son of pH changes during cheese
making f r om control mi lk and mi l k equivalent
Polyacrylamide gel e lectrophor e s i s o f che e s e made f r om m i l k and milk
equiva l ent
Compar i son of pH changes dur ing chee s e mak i ng from control milk a n d 2 :1 UF retentate
Compari son of pH changes dur ing chee s e mak i ng f rom control mi lk and whey prot e i n
suppl emented 2 : 1 r etentate Dev i c e for cutt ing UF curd
D i f f u s ion tubes ( for standard curve ) f i l l e d with k-ca s ein/agarose gel s howing the d i f fus ion of r ennet
Standard curve f or estimating r e s idual rennet concentration in chee se
samp l e s
Di f fus ion tubes f i l l ed with k-ca s ein/
agarose gel showing the d i f fus ion of rennet from the control , 3 :1 UF and 5 :1 UF chee se extracts
( xi i i )
Page
2 1
3 0
3 8
4 4
5 8 8 0
8 3
8 4
8 5
7 . 5 A and B
7 . 5 B and D
7 . 5 E and F 7 . 6
7 . 7
7 . 8
7 . 9
7 . 1 0
8 . 1 A and B
8 . 2
Control , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 curds ( A ) s oon after cutting and ( B ) one hour a fter cutting
Control , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 curds ( C ) j ust prior to whey drainage and ( D ) 1 hour after cheddaring
Control , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 ( E ) curds a fter mi l l ing and ( F ) 1 -day old che e s e s
Compari son of p H c hanges dur i ng chees e making from contr o l , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1
retentate
Polyacrylamide gel electrophore s i s of control , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 Chedda r
Compar i son of p H changes during che e s e maturation i n control , 3 : 1 a n d 5 : 1 Cheddar
9 0
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 7
9 8
Polyacrylamide thick s lab g e l el ectro
pho r e s i s of contr o l , 3 : 1 and 5 : 1 Cheddar
showing the proteol ys i s of whey proteins 1 0 0
Compar i son of acid soluble peptides in che e s e made from control mi lk , 3 : 1 and
5 : 1 UF retentate 1 0 2
Res idual rennet concentration in chee s e made from 5 : 1 retentate with
various leve l s of rennet add i t i on 1 1 6
Polyacrylamide gel el ectrophor e s i s of che e s e made from 5 : 1 retentate with variou s
l eve l s of rennet addition 1 1 9
App . no .
I A I B
( xv )
L I ST OF APPENDICES
Title Page
Guidelines for grading o f Cheddar cheese 1 6 3 Selection and tra ining of paneli s t s 1 6 7 I C Ques t i onnaire used to evaluate Cheddar
chee se s ample s 1 6 8
I D
I E
I I A I I B I I C I I D
I IE
I I I A I I I B
I I I C I I I D
IV A
Def in i t i on o f terms u s ed by the sensory pane l to eva luate the experimenta l
chees e s
Summary o f stat i s t ical analy s i s o f sensory pane l result s ( Chapter 4 ) S lurry c a lculations
1 7 0 1 7 2
1 7 3 Score card for sensory panel o f s lurr i e s 1 7 5 Average sens ory panel s cores for s lurri e s 1 7 6 Chemic a l compos it i on of whey protein
powder ( Alacen 3 4 3 ) supplied by New Z e a land Dairy Board
Calcula t i on s for whey protein addi t i on to milk
Que s t i onna i r e used to evaluate UF Chedda r cheese samp le s
Definition o f addi t i onal terms u s e d by the sensory panel to evaluate UF
Cheddar chees e s
Summary of stat i s t ical analy s i s o f sensory pane l result s ( Chapter 7 )
Preparati on o f gel solution and r eagents for polyacrylamide thi ck s lab e lectro
phore s i s
Polyacrylamide ge l e lectrophore s i s o f chees e from control, 5 :1 UF ( 1 . 0 R ) and 5 :1 UF ( 0 . 2 R ) retentates at var ious stages o f maturation
1 7 7 1 7 8
1 7 9
1 8 1 1 8 2
1 8 3
1 8 4
IV B
IV C
Polyacrylamide g e l e le c tr ophores i s o f che e s e f rom the cont r o l , 5 : 1 U F ( 0 . 4 R ) and 5 : 1 UF ( 0 . 6 R ) retentates a t var i ous stages o f maturation
Summary o f stat i s ti c a l analy s i s o f s e nsory pane l r e su lt s ( Chapter 8 )
V A Calculations for whey protein s upple
mentation o f UF permeate
1 8 5
1 8 6
1 8 7
Abbrevi ation
BSA Ca/P Ca/SNFNS CF
CFU CN DF NCN NPN NSLAB RCT SD S l SNF SNFNS TN UF WP WPN WPSM WPSR
a-La p-Lg
FDM MNFS RU S /M
LIST OF ABBREVIAT I ONS USED
( in a lphabeti cal order )
Full f orm
Bovine s erum a lbumin Calc ium/pho s phorus
Calcium in s o l i d s -not - f at-not- s a l t Concentra t i on f actor
Colony f ormi ng unit Casein n i t rogen D i a fi ltrat i on
Non-c a s e i n ni trogen Non-protein n i t r ogen
Non-starter l a c t i c acid bacteria Rennet c lotting time
Standard devi ation S l ight l y
Solid s - no t - f at
Solids -not - f a t -not- s a lt Tota l ni trogen
Ul tra f i ltration Whey protein
Whey protein nitrogen Whey protein supp l emented Whey protein supp l emented
Alpha lacta lbumi n Beta lactoglobu l i n
Fat i n dry matter
mi lk 2 : 1
Mo ist ure in non -f at s o lids Rennet Units
S a lt in mo isture
retentate
( xv i i )
