J O U R N A L of the
American Society of Sugar Beet Technologists
Volume 14 Number 1 April 1966
Published quarterly by
American Society of Sugar Beet Xechnologists Office of the Secretary
P . O . Box 538 F o r t Collins, C o l o r a d o 80521
Subscription prices:
$4.50 p e r year, domestic
$5.00 p e r year, foreign
$1.25 p e r copy, domestic
$1.40 p e r copy, foreign
M a d e in the U n i t e d States of America
TABLE OF CONTENTS
T i t l e A u t h o r Page Presidential address B. E. Easton 1
Pests a n d their control W. C. Shaw 10
Sugar a n d the synthetics Neil Kelly 19
A m e t h o d of i n d u c i n g autopolyploidy in
sugar beets by seed t r e a t m e n t Helen Savitsky 26 A survey of the n u t r i e n t status of soils in
the N o r t h Platte Valley of Nebraska for
sugar beet p r o d u c t i o n G. A. Peterson F. N. Anderson
R. A. Olson 48
H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e studies o f s u g a r b e e t
germination R. M. Hoover
J. R. Goodin 61
Effect of growth regulators on yield a n d
quality of sugar beets K. Schreiber
A. C. Ferguson 67
Homozygous diploid sugar beets Bayard L. Hammond 75
M i n u t e s of the F o u r t e e n t h General Meeting of the American Society
of Sugar Beet Technologists — 79
Meritorious Service Awards 85
Forty Year Veteran Awards 90
L l o y d T . J e n s e n
P r e s i d e n t o f t h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f S u g a r B e e t T e c h n o l o g i s t s for t h e b i e n n i u m 1966-67 i s M r . L l o y d T . J e n s e n . M r . J e n s e n i s V i c e P r e s i - d e n t - O p e r a t i o n s , T h e G r e a t W e s t e r n S u g a r C o m p a n y , D e n v e r , C o l o r a d o .
Presidential Address
B. E. EASTON1
I welcome this o p p o r t u n i t y of reporting to you a n d recording some of the facts and events that have happened since our meet- ing two years ago at San Francisco. For the first time in our history, we are meeting in the state of Minnesota and this wonderful city of Minneapolis. T h e committee in charge of arrangements has d o n e its job well. T h e i r enthusiasm and hos- pitality have already been experienced by all delegates. We hope that it will not be too long before we can r e t u r n to meet again in this very fine beet growing state.
It is a great honor for me to have been your President for the past two years and to have been the first Canadian elected to this high office. My friends in the industry in Canada, and certainly my company, share with me sincere appreciation of this honor.
T h e Society has continued to grow n o t only in numbers, b u t in stature. I am pleased to tell you that we now have a total m e m b e r s h i p approaching 800, representing 38 states plus the District of Columbia, 5 provinces in Canada, and 22 foreign countries. O u r very fine official publication, " T h e J o u r n a l " has a circulation of over 1200 copies.
Your executive hopes that you like the type of program being presented this year. You will notice there are many more symposia and g r o u p discussions in addition to some excellent formal technical presentations. At this point I would like to congratulate o u r Program Chairman and his committee for the splendid job they have done.
As President, I would ask you to reflect u p o n the accomplish- ments of the past, consider current problems of sugar beet tech- nology, and as a corporate body, work diligently toward finding solutions to o u r various problems. O u r Society is a forum for the exchange of ideas as well as for the presentation of research accomplishments.
T h e r e is a continued need for research. Essentially, effective research, fundamental or applied, calls for a s y s t e m a t i c approach to the problem through experimentation, accurate ob- servations and valid interpretation for constructive application.
T o o often the full effectiveness of research is lost because the last link in these three aspects, valid interpretation for con-
1 Agricultural Superintendent, Canada and Dominion Sugar Company Limited, Chatham, Ontario, Canada.
2 J O U R N A L OF T H E A. S. S. B. T.
s t r u c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n , i s n o t d e v e l o p e d t o t h e e x t e n t i t s h o u l d be.
H a d i t n o t b e e n for research, b o t h o f t h e t w o sources o f sugar, c a n e a n d b e e t , w o u l d b e o u t o f p r o d u c t i o n d u e t o disease a n d insect p r o b l e m s . W e m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , c o n t i n u e t o m e e t a n d e x - c h a n g e o u r ideas a s well a s p r e s e n t o u r latest f i n d i n g s . O u r i n d u s t r y , u n i q u e i n its o r g a n i z a t i o n , allows for this c o o p e r a t i o n a n d greatly benefits from it. T h e r e m u s t b e c o n t i n u e d c o o p e r a - t i o n b e t w e e n g o v e r n m e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s , u n i v e r s i t i e s , processors a n d g r o w e r s .
I w o u l d like to r e m i n i s c e for a few m o m e n t s . At o n e stage in p r e p a r i n g this t a l k I t h o u g h t for t h e benefit of o u r n e w e r m e m b e r s , I s h o u l d r e v i e w t h e h i s t o r y o f o u r Society. U p o n c h e c k i n g t h e r e c o r d s , h o w e v e r , o n e was r e m i n d e d t h a t Past P r e s i d e n t D e w e y S t e w a r t d i d t h i s very j o b f o u r years a g o i n a m o s t c a p a b l e m a n n e r . T h e s e i n t e r e s t e d s h o u l d r e f e r t o h i s official p r e s e n t a t i o n . O n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t t h i n k o f t h e t r e - m e n d o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s m a d e b y o u r associates a n d friends w h o a r e e i t h e r n o l o n g e r w i t h u s o r h a v e r e t i r e d . M y o n l y p u r p o s e i n b r i n g i n g this u p a t t h i s t i m e i s t o i n f o r m o u r n e w e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r e a t efforts o u r predecessors h a v e m a d e for t h e benefit o f t h i s Society. O n e s h o u l d also n o t forget t h e g r e a t w o r k some o f o u r p r e s e n t m e m b e r s h a v e a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d t h u s b r o u g h t h o n o r t o this Society.
It is always sad for us to r e c o r d t h e loss of s o m e of o u r m e m b e r s . I am s u r e we all e x t e n d to t h e families of t h o s e w h o h a v e passed o n i n t h e last t w o years, o u r d e e p e s t s y m p a t h y . A l t h o u g h n o t p r a c t i c a l to list all, I find it necessary to r e c o r d t h e d e a t h of V. F. Savitsky w h o passed away on A p r i l 16th, 1965, in C a l i f o r n i a after a b r i l l i a n t c a r e e r in his n a t i v e l a n d a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y i n t h e U n i t e d States. D r . Savitsky a n d h i s wife w e r e a n u n i q u e scientific t e a m a n d o f c o u r s e , w i l l g o d o w n in history for t h e i r t r e m e n d o u s discovery of g e n e t i c m o n o g e r m seed i n 1948. T h e loss o f L e r o y P o w e r s , g e n e t i c i s t , U S D A , F o r t C o l l i n s , C o l o r a d o , b r o u g h t t o a n e n d t h e active c a r e e r o f a n o u t s t a n d i n g scientist. H i s c o n t r i b u t i o n s to his c h o s e n field of science, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s u g a r b e e t i m p r o v e m e n t , will l o n g b e r e m e m b e r e d .
O u r a c h i e v e m e n t s o f t h e p a s t a r e m a n y . T h e r e h a v e b e e n steady increases i n yields o f s u g a r b e e t s p e r a c r e , b u t u n f o r t u - n a t e l y t h e r e h a s b e e n a d e c r e a s e in t h e p o u n d s of s u g a r re- c o v e r e d f r o m a t o n of beets. I w i l l say m o r e a b o u t t h i s d r o p i n s u g a r later. O n e m u s t a d m i t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e Society h a s g i v e n l e a d e r s h i p i n m a n y fields. L o c a l v a r i e t i e s a d a p t e d f o r resistance t o disease, g e n e t i c m o n o g e r m seed w h i c h facilitates
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966
mechanization of field operations, new plant breeding techniques and advanced technology in the factories are only some of the improvements.
Monogerm varieties have comprised about 9 0 % of sugar beet production in N o r t h America for the past three years. Most districts are now planting monogerm seed exclusively. F u t u r e research a n d field practices with monogerm seed and applica- tions of selective herbicides should eliminate the need for migrant laborers in sugar beet production, thereby removing an economic and sociological b u r d e n from the enterprise.
In the eastern area of the U n i t e d States and Canada, regional meetings have been held regularly d u r i n g the life of this Society every year between National meetings. In 1965, at East Lansing, Michigan, the 13th regional meeting was slanted particularly to company field staff in order to keep them well informed on latest research developments. It is interesting to record that this year in the eastern area, the 5th A n n u a l Spring Demon- stration, modeled after the famous British Sugar Corporation show, will be held in Michigan. Usually there are from one to two thousand people attending this one-day event which further indicates the keen desire of beet growers to see new equipment and try to completely mechanize their crop as soon a practicable.
History has been made since our last meeting. You will remember that after closing o u r proceedings in San Francisco, we were given the very great thrill of touring the new Spreckels automated plant at Mendota, California. Since then, plants have opened at Hereford, Texas, Drayton, North Dakota, and Montezuma, New York. Plants are being erected in Chandler, Arizona, and Easton, Maine. Practically every company has plans for modernization of present factories with an eye towards automation, taking advantage of technological advances to lower the cost of operation.
We have been talking for many years about mechanization of spring field work which obviously must be accompanied by sound weed control practices. In 1965, Public Law # 7 8 was not renewed and the importation of Mexican nationals was for- bidden. U n d o u b t e d l y this caused hardships in some areas b u t it may be a blessing in disguise in forcing at a faster pace, com- plete mechanization of the beet crop.
Factory technology has made great strides as you have heard or will hear reported at this meeting.
T h e r e t u r n to low sugar prices was m u c h more sudden than any of us realized would happen. D u r i n g the year 1963 and into 1964, the world price of sugar reached dizzy heights. Almost
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a s quickly, however, prices p l u n g e d o n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t a n d d u r i n g 1965, r e a c h e d t h e lowest level in over 25 years. C a n a d a i m p o r t s 8 5 % of its sugar s u p p l y in t h e form of r a w cane sugar, w h i c h i s p u r c h a s e d o n t h e w o r l d m a r k e t . W o r l d m a r k e t prices, therefore, h a v e a d i r e c t b e a r i n g on t h e p r i c e of sugar beets in C a n a d a . T h e U n i t e d States' p r o g r a m does n o t follow t h e w o r l d m a r k e t q u i t e as directly, b u t low sugar prices cause h a r d s h i p s for b o t h growers a n d processors.
It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t m e c h a n i c a l h a r v e s t i n g plays a m i n o r role o n o u r p r o g r a m . W e a r e n o w m a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h refinements to existing m a c h i n e s . T h e r e has b e e n a great g r o w t h of t h e 2-row harvesters, w h i c h caused some p r o b l e m s w i t h r a p i d delivery, b u t this type will c o n t i n u e t o increase i n n u m b e r s .
A n y discussion of events of t h e past two years, i m p o r t a n t to t h e b e e t sugar i n d u s t r y i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , o r any a t t e m p t t o look t o w a r d the f u t u r e of t h e i n d u s t r y on this c o n t i n e n t , m u s t show at least an awareness of the a m e n d m e n t s to t h e Sugar Act passed by t h e U n i t e d States Congress in O c t o b e r of 1965.
A m e r i c a n sugar legislation is of great interest to all of us, a n d to o u r A m e r i c a n m e m b e r s t h e interest i s m u c h m o r e t h a n a c a d e m i c . T h e livelihood a n d f u t u r e progress o f everyone c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e i n d u s t r y in this c o u n t r y is affected by t h e legal framework, u n d e r w h i c h t h e U n i t e d States i n d u s t r y o p e r a t e s .
F r o m friends a n d associates on this side of t h e b o r d e r I have l e a r n e d t h a t p e r h a p s t h e most i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e t o y o u o f t h e n e w law i s t h e i m m e d i a t e increase i n y o u r a n n u a l m a r k e t i n g q u o t a t o 3,025,000 t o n s — a figure w h i c h will r e m a i n c o n s t a n t u n t i l t h e total a n n u a l sugar r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e U n i t e d States r e a c h 10,400,000 tons. As I u n d e r s t a n d it, this n e w q u o t a is s o m e w h a t m o r e t h a n you w o u l d have h a d for t h e n e x t few years u n d e r t h e g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g q u o t a p r o v i d e d b y t h e o l d law.
T h e n e w q u o t a will allow you t o m a r k e t , g r a d u a l l y , t h e a d d i - t i o n a l sugar t h a t was p r o d u c e d as a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h e u r g i n g of y o u r g o v e r n m e n t d u r i n g t h e sugar crisis of some t h r e e years ago.
Also e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t from y o u r p o i n t of view, I u n d e r - stand, is t h e t e r m of t h e revised l a w — w h i c h n o w r u n s u n t i l t h e end of 1971. T h i s will h e l p to give y o u r i n d u s t r y r e a s o n a b l e stability for t h e n e x t five years, a n d will afford t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to d i r e c t m o r e effort to some basic a n d vital m a t t e r s such as research from w h i c h a t t e n t i o n has b e e n d i v e r t e d d u r i n g t h e re- c e n t years of u n c e r t a i n t y in t h e sugar w o r l d .
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 5
O n e of the highlights since o u r last meeting was the second joint meeting of the European Research Society, commonly called I I R B a n d our Society which took the form of a cross- country t o u r in May and J u n e of last year. Approximately 60 sugar beet leaders a n d scientists assembled on the east coast and visited four m a i n areas; Washington and Beltsville, Great Lakes Area, Colorado District, and the West Coast. T h e administration to set up such a tour was a very large task and the special com- mittee for this purpose, ably assisted by o u r secretary, is to be commended for a j o b well done. It was obvious that meetings of this type, held every three to five years, can be of tremendous value. It gives an o p p o r t u n i t y for o u r two societies to exchange ideas; to learn first hand how we are facing o u r m u t u a l prob- lems. We have received many complimentary letters expressing appreciation of this visit. We have an official invitation for our Society to take part in a third joint meeting, tentatively scheduled for Europe in either 2 or 3 years time. A special committee for investigating this possibility should be formed and I should like to recommend to o u r new executive that the invitation be accepted and tentative p l a n n i n g begun. We will have official delegates at the winter congress of the I I R B at Brussels, Belgium, earlier this year. We are pleased there are some official delegates here today from the I I R B , who will be bringing us greetings from our European friends. On behalf of the Society I wish to thank very sincerely all the people w h o took part in this historic occasion, particularly the companies who shared the ex- pense of complimentary arrangements.
T h e r e are some immediate problems which I would like to discuss briefly now. I believe low sugar prices, as far as we in Canada are concerned, is one cf the big problems. It is hoped that future International Sugar Agreements will help stabilize prices so that the whole industry can remain healthy and survive.
Money for research requires a healthy industry. It is also hoped that excessive cane sugar competition in traditional beet sugar areas will not force the price of sugar to excessively low levels.
Having recently toured the cane sugar-producing areas of the Caribbean, I am confident that in the long r u n the beet industry can successfully compete. T h e y are beset with problems impeding;
mechanization. T h e y too are feeling the pinch of unrealistic present day world sugar prices.
T h e word quality has been used at o u r meetings for some time and quality is still a major problem. We are learning to grow the crop with less nitrogen. We are learning to pile our beets better in spite of the fact they have to remain for long
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periods of t i m e in storage u n d e r all k i n d s of w e a t h e r . All com- panies, however, a r e deeply c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e l o w e r i n g of e x t r a c t i o n a n d certainly t h e r e is a challenge for this Society to give l e a d e r s h i p i n reversing this t r e n d . R a t h e r t h a n a g r i c u l t u r e b l a m i n g t h e factory a n d t h e factory b l a m i n g a g r i c u l t u r e , w e m u s t all u n i t e in this c o m m o n goal a n d w o r k very closely t o g e t h e r towards a h i g h e r q u a l i t y beet w i t h its c o n s e q u e n t benefits to b o t h growers a n d processors.
W i t h t h e B r a c e r o p r o g r a m n o w history, a n d w i t h t h e tre- m e n d o u s g r o w t h of i n d u s t r y in all areas, t h e field l a b o r p r o b l e m will b e c o m e even m o r e a c u t e . W e can a n d m u s t e x p l o i t t h e alternatives n o w b e i n g d e v e l o p e d t o replace h a n d w o r k which i n c l u d e e x p a n d e d use of space p l a n t i n g , chemical weed control a n d m e c h a n i c a l t h i n n e r s . I t m a y m e a n m o r e trash i n the fall d u e to less efficient weed c o n t r o l by t h e above m e t h o d s . O u r factories m a y have to learn to receive a n d cope w i t h g r e a t e r a m o u n t s of foreign m a t e r i a l in beet deliveries t h a n heretofore.
O n the o t h e r h a n d , the a g r i c u l t u r i s t s have t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e p r o b l e m o f e x t r a c t i o n a n d d o t h e i r very best t o h e l p deliver as clean a r a w m a t e r i a l as possible.
W i t h respect to seed, n o w t h a t we have m o n o g e r m , it be- comes increasingly i m p o r t a n t for us to have r e l i a b l e g e r m i n a t i n g seed t h a t will p r o d u c e m o r e vigorous seedlings. We like to en- vision t h e possibility of p l a n t i n g t h e seed as d e e p as o t h e r seed crops t h u s r e d u c i n g the sensitivity of a y o u n g p l a n t a n d t h e g e r m i n a t i n g seed from m a r g i n a l m o i s t u r e c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e is evidence t h a t this is p r a c t i c a b l e . If such a possibility becomes reality, f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n m u s t t h e n b e given t o o u r m e t h o d s of p l a n t i n g , i n c l u d i n g t h e m e c h a n i c a l devices a n d a c c o m p a n y i n g c u l t u r a l practices.
In weed c o n t r o l , it is necessary for us to have a b e t t e r u n d e r - s t a n d i n g of t h e lethal a n d selective actions of herbicides. We s h o u l d b e a b l e t o answer questions such as. " W h y d o c e r t a i n h e r b i c i d e s give good results i n o n e f i e l d a n d p o o r o r n e g a t i v e results i n a n adjacent f i e l d ? " T o a n s w e r such questions i t will be necessary to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of beets a n d i n t e r n a l p l a n t reactions such a s photosynthesis, t h e e n z y m e systems, t h e m e t a b o l i c activity a n d the processes of t r a n s l o c a t i o n . W i t h a b e t t e r k n o w l e d g e of these processes, it is conceivable t h a t f o r m u l a t i o n s specific t o t h e sugar b e e t can t h e n b e s u b - sequently p r o d u c e d .
T h e p r o g r a m o f chemical genetics i n p a r t overlaps w i t h t h a t m e n t i o n e d above for weed c o n t r o l . H o w e v e r , f u r t h e r basic re- search n e e d s to be d o n e on t h e c h e m i c a l association of genetics w i t h disease resistance.
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T h e use of chemicals for insect control is currently in turmoil.
T h e recent refinement in analytical techniques has created an aura of uncertainty regarding the residues in plant material consumed by animals and humans. Since the residues apparently accumulate with negligible degeneration, it appears that either a diligent search must be made for substances to neutralize the residues or it must be definitely determined if concentrations can actually become lethal to plant and animal life.
T h e beet sugar industry has been pointed to as one of the culprits c o n t r i b u t i n g to stream pollution. Waste water disposal is a big problem. Companies not yet adhering to national pro- grams will be forced to do so at large capital expense with no financial r e t u r n . It behooves us to exert extensive research efforts to reduce and, hopefully, eventually eliminate our contribution to stream pollution. T h i s is being started and should continue as fast as possible.
T h i s past year I heard many factory superintendents state they did not know how they were going to carry on in the future if the type and supply of labor continued in its present pattern. T h e next few years will see some very significant changes in the u n i t processes of extracting sugar from sugar beets. Fore- most among these developments will be the incorporation of automated controls in the individual factories. Many industries in N o r t h America are adapting processing controls to computer systems. As we gain a better knowledge of our own u n i t process, the better becomes the opportunity of placing those processes u n d e r guidance and control of "electronic brains". W i t h i n the last decade o u r industry has incorporated more new process e q u i p - ment in its factories than d u r i n g the previous three or four decades. T h e changes are occurring so quickly and frequently, it is difficult to keep pace with them, b u t automation is fast becoming an economic and operational necessity in our industry.
In the last few years use of non-caloric artificial sweeteners in food processing has skyrocketed. T h e paper by Mr. Kelly helps us to better understand the situation. We in the industry must continue to not only fight this invasion, b u t search for new uses for sugar and possibly new by-products. We perhaps should make better use of those we now have. T h i s factor becomes in- creasingly i m p o r t a n t as world sugar production continues to rise. It might be useful for us to take a page from the book of the oil-chemical industry as we reflect u p o n the inroads of synthetics in the fiber industry of the world. Laboratory novelties have become the products of business through the ingenuity and imagination of research and development personnel.
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It is a little d i s c o u r a g i n g to go back over t h e p a p e r s of e a r l i e r m e e t i n g s a n d see t h e terrific l e n g t h of t i m e it takes for r e s u l t a n t action after research i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s have b e e n r e c o r d e d . In o t h e r words, scientists w e r e r e c o m m e n d i n g action for some of o u r p r o b l e m s several years before c o m m e r c i a l t r e a t m e n t actually became a fact. It is up to all c o m p a n i e s to pick up i n f o r m a t i o n from m e e t i n g s of this type a n d a c q u a i n t o u r associates a n d grow- ers of t h e facts. It is o u r responsibility to have this i n f o r m a t i o n firmly t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h o u r staff to t h e g r o w e r level. Field representatives of t o m o r r o w m u s t be capable of a b s o r b i n g this type of i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i n g it to his growers to h e l p t h e m with n e w ideas.
It may be e n t i r e l y o u t of my p r o v i n c e in suggesting this n e x t move, b u t I t h i n k we a r e a b i g e n o u g h i n d u s t r y , i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h in t h e e c o n o m y of this N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t , t h a t we should have facilities to train p e o p l e for t h e sugar beet in- d u s t r y . E v e n if we start w i t h short courses at o n e i n s t i t u t i o n , it w o u l d at least be a b e g i n n i n g . C o u l d we n o t send o u r y o u n g p e o p l e to learn t h e basic a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o b l e m s of such a special- ized industry? C o u l d w e n o t send o u r b r i g h t y o u n g technicians to get h e l p in t h e solving of processing p r o b l e m s ? I do n o t wish t o take away from t h e t h e o r y o f c o m i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e r a n k s since m a n y c o m p a n i e s h a v e r e m a r k a b l e self-training p r o g r a m s . T h e r e are smaller c o m p a n i e s , however, t h a t c a n n o t take ad- vantage of this a n d I believe t h e r e is a n e e d for such an o p p o r - t u n i t y .
I also believe t h a t t h e m a r k e t i n g of t h e c r o p needs special a t t e n t i o n . I m e n t i o n e d previously t h e wild fluctuations of p r i c e t h a t w e i n C a n a d a e x p e r i e n c e d u e t o world c o n d i t i o n s a n d n o t e in y o u r c o u n t r y you a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t excessive c a n e com- p e t i t i o n i n t r a d i t i o n a l beet sugar m a r k e t s . T h e r e i s n o use h i d i n g these p r o b l e m s a n d surely w e a s a n i n d u s t r y a r e b i g e n o u g h t o get t o g e t h e r a n d solve t h e m .
Before I close I w o u l d like to very sincerely express my p e r - sonal a p p r e c i a t i o n to o u r h a r d w o r k i n g secretary a n d his staff at t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of t h e Society for t h e i r loyal s u p p o r t . T h e d i r e c t o r s o f the Beet S u g a r D e v e l o p m e n t F o u n d a t i o n w h o m a k e available t h e i r staff to r u n t h e business of o u r Society deserve special c o m m e n d a t i o n .
O u r Society has a n u n i q u e c o m r a d e s h i p i n its m e m b e r s . T h e r e i s very l i t t l e secrecy a n d a l t h o u g h w e d o n o t n e e d t o boast of o u r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s , they have b e e n m a n y . T h e r e is a g e n u i n e desire to share t h e fruits of each o t h e r s research w i t h t h e i r friends.
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In this spirit I challenge all of you to continue the excellent progress that has been made by o u r members in the last few years. We have many problems, some of them more acute than others, b u t they can be solved.
Let us all u n i t e to preserve and improve this fine beet sugar industry which may be described as "an ever present force for economic stability" in a very i m p o r t a n t and large section of this N o r t h American continent.
Pests and Their Control
W . C . S H A W1
T h e W o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n s o f h u m a n s , domestic a n i m a l s , a n d wildlife c a n n o t exist today in a static e n v i r o n m e n t . M a n ' s sur- vival a n d his s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g d e p e n d directly on t h e efficiency a n d safety w i t h w h i c h h e changes his e n v i r o n m e n t a n d adjusts to it.
As t h e p o p u l a t i o n of m a n a n d domestic a n i m a l s increased, h e h a d t o r e p l a c e t h e n a t i v e vegetation w i t h p r o d u c t i v e a n d economical p l a n t s for food a n d fiber.
T h e vegetative shifts a n d o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes t h a t were necessary to i m p r o v e living s t a n d a r d s c h a n g e d m a n ' s en- v i r o n m e n t irreversibly.
W h e n n a t i v e vegetation is c o n v e r t e d to c u l t i v a t e d areas or w h e n c u l t i v a t e d fields a r e a b a n d o n e d , a s e q u e n c e of events occurs t h a t alters n o t only t h e p l a n t life b u t t h e p o p u l a t i o n s of o t h e r organisms. Diseases, insects, n e m a t o d e s , weeds, parasites, p r e d a - tors a n d o t h e r organisms often are b e t t e r a d a p t e d to large areas of specialized crops t h a n to t h e c o n d i t i o n s of u n d i s t u r b e d regions.
A significant p a r t of m a n ' s e n v i r o n m e n t includes m o r e t h a n 10,000 species of i n j u r i o u s insects, several h u n d r e d of w h i c h are highly d e s t r u c t i v e a n d r e q u i r e c o n t i n u o u s m e a s u r e s of c o n t r o l . T h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n 600 species o f weeds t h a t c o m p e t e w i t h crops for water, m i n e r a l n u t r i e n t s , light, space a n d o t h e r g r o w t h r e q u i r e m e n t s . M a n y weeds m u s t b e c o n t r o l l e d a n n u a l l y o n every acre of a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d . T h e r e are m o r e t h a n 1,500 p l a n t diseases, o n e or m o r e of w h i c h affect almost every c r o p variety.
Significant d a m a g e is also caused by m o r e t h a n 1,500 species of n e m a t o d e s a n d h u n d r e d s o f parasites, p r e d a t o r s , a n d o t h e r o r g a n - isms t h a t attack p l a n t s , a n i m a l s a n d m a n .
T h i r t y years ago o n e U . S . a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r p r o d u c e d e n o u g h food a n d f i b e r for his o w n n e e d s a n d n i n e others. T o d a y o n e farm w o r k e r p r o d u c e s e n o u g h for himself a n d 31 o t h e r s . One-fifteenth of o u r p e o p l e on farms, o p e r a t i n g only half as m a n y farms as 30 years ago, feeds a p o p u l a t i o n t h a t has g r o w n b y 5 0 % . A m e r i c a n s a r e fed b e t t e r t h a n ever before. Yet t h e y use o n l y a b o u t 1 9 % of t h e i r t a k e - h o m e pay for food. T h e s e
1 Assistant to the Chief, Crops Protection Research Branch, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.
Invitational paper presented at the American vSociety of Sugar Beet Technologists meeting February 21-24, 1966, Minneapolis, Minnesota. A set of 2 x 2 slides was used to illustrate the presentation.
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 11
levels of efficiency in production could not have been attained without the use of pesticides and other nonchemical methods of pest control.
One of the most i m p o r t a n t responsibilities of o u r D e p a r t m e n t is to develop more effective ways of protecting man, his food and fiber supplies and his forests from the ravages of pests. Pesticides are often the most effective, a n d in many instances the only weapons, that can be used to control certain pests.
In achieving these objectives, the D e p a r t m e n t has vital con- cern for—first—the health and well-being of people who use pesticides and of those who use products protected by their use, and—second—for the protection of fish, wildlife, soil, air, water and other values in man's environment. In keeping with this concern, it is the policy of the D e p a r t m e n t to design and imple- m e n t research, regulatory, and educational programs that en- courage the development a n d use of those means of effective pest control that provide the least potential hazard to man and his environment.
T h r o u g h such programs, the D e p a r t m e n t has been a major force in the effective and safe use of pesticides by farmers. T h i s is reflected in the productivity of o u r farms and forests and the excellent records of pesticide safety established by American agriculture.
T h e D e p a r t m e n t practices a n d encourages the use of bi- ological, cultural, ecological, physical, chemical and integrated methods of control. In using pesticides, emphasis is given to non-persistent and low-toxicity chemicals, whenever such pesti- cides are practical, safe and effective.
Scope of Programs
Recent congressional appropriations have made it possible to expand o u r research, regulatory and education programs (Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4).
Table 1.—USDA funds and areas of emphasis in all programs on pests and their control,1 F. Y. 1965.
Program activities
Research and education Pest control
Regulation and registration Facilities
Total
Funds
$ thousands 61,262.4 42,295.8 2,745.6 5,198.0 111,501.8
Percentage of total
54.9 37.9 2-5 4.7 100.0
1 The data reported in this table include all funds expended within the Department by all agencies, administered by the Department in cooperation with the States, and for extra- mural research, regulatory, extension and information programs on pests and their control.
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Table 2.—USDA research and education areas of emphasis on pests and their control, F. Y. 1965.
Percentage of
Research and education Total funds on Lines of work funds on pest control pests and control Conventional chemicals and equipment
Nonconventional chemical, biological, genetic
Basic ecology, physiology, biochemistry Toxicology, pathology, fate, effects Extension, Education
National Pesticide Information Center Coordination
20.8 39.5 24.8 6.5 6.9 0.3 0.4
11.4 21.7 13.6 3.6 3.8 0.1 0.2
Pecticide program activities Registration verification Residue sampling and analysis Enforcement activities
Funds for registration 48.8
6.1 44.6
Total funds on pests and control
1.2 0.2 1.1
C o n v e n t i o n a l c h e m i c a l
N o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c h e m i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l M o n i t o r i n g a n d e f f e c t s o n n o n t a r g e t s Q u a r a n t i n e a n d P r e v e n t a t i v e S u r v e y , d e t e c t i o n , m e t h o d s i m p .
37.1 9.3 1.7 2 6 . 9 2 5 . 0
14.1 3.5 0.6 10.2 9.5
Research
In o u r search for p r a c t i c a l a n d safe c o n t r o l methods, m a j o r e m p h a s i s i s b e i n g g i v e n t o —
(1) i m p r o v i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l chemicals a n d ways of a p p l y i n g t h e m so as to r e d u c e pesticide residues.
(2) d e v e l o p i n g a n d i m p r o v i n g n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l c h e m i c a l , biological, physical, c u l t u r a l , a n d r e l a t e d m e t h o d s of c o n t r o l . . . a n d
(3) d e v e l o p i n g p l a n t a n d a n i m a l resistance t o pests t h r o u g h b r e e d i n g .
We a r e also e x p a n d i n g basic knowledge of t h e biology, ecology, physiology, a n d b i o c h e m i s t r y of pests w i t h t h e h o p e of e s t a b l i s h i n g n e w f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s i n pest c o n t r o l .
Table 3.—USDA registration and regulatory activities on pests and their control, F. Y. 1965.
Percentage of
T a b l e 4.—USDA pest control areas of emphasis, F. Y. 1965.
Percentage of
Funds for Total funds on Methods of control pest control pests and control
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 13
In o u r research on pesticides, we are giving emphasis to developing a n d understanding of—
(1) their toxicology and pathology . . .
(2) their fate and the effects of their residues on soils, crops, a n d farm water supplies . . . a n d
(3) their effects on the composition and nutritional value of o u r food supplies.
New Approaches
Excellent progress is being made on new approaches to pest control. In these expanded programs, basic and applied research have been balanced. Let me m e n t i o n some of o u r approaches.
D e p a r t m e n t economists have completed a nationwide survey on the use of pesticides in agriculture—the first ever undertaken.
T h e results will soon be published.
In weed control research, scientists are developing highly selective chemical methods. To insure the safe use of conventional selective herbicides, researchers are emphasizing methods of ap- plication that avoid or minimize residues in the environment;
the use of e q u i p m e n t and techniques for precision application of herbicides to weeds or soils . . . low-volume techniques . . . granular formulations . . . and b a n d treatments. T h e y are ex- panding efforts to develop practices that require m i n i m u m amounts of herbicides at m i n i m u m frequencies, and using mix- tures of herbicides or combination treatments that include bio- degradable, nontoxic surfactants to reduce herbicide residue potentials.
T h e y are developing new formulations and herbicides that do not persist for excessive periods because plants metabolize them selectively, soil microorganisms degrade them, or other mechanisms in the soil deactivate them.
Scientists are also searching for new nontoxic, growth-regulat- ing chemicals that will stimulate weed seeds to germinate u n i - formly and thus increase the effectiveness of control practices.
T h e y are emphasizing the use of such devices as flaming and the rotary hoe for mechanical control, and insects and diseases for biological control.
In research on insects and other pests of man, livestock, crops and forests, increasing emphasis is being given to the develop- m e n t of highly selective a n d low-persistence pesticides, and to the use of sterility techniques, sex a n d food attractants, and re- pellants. These approaches p e r m i t the control of insects without exposing much of the environment to chemical treatment.
Many crop varieties that are resistant to diseases, insects, and nematodes have been developed, a n d scientists are working to develop more. T h e s e breeding programs—often taken for granted
JOURNAL OF THE A. S. S. B. T.
— a r e a m o n g the most effective pest control m e t h o d s ever de- veloped. If we did not have pest-resistant crops, the losses caused by pests would be m u c h greater.
Soil-inhabiting bacteria have been isolated that produce anti- biotic activity against fungi. Similar new approaches a n d ex- p a n d e d programs are being i m p l e m e n t e d on nematodes a n d their control.
Engineering programs to investigate the use of light, elec- tricity, heat, a n d mechanical devices for the control of pests of all kinds are being expanded. Basic research on droplet size, spray distribution a n d drift control is being emphasized. Engi- neering principles to increase pesticide selectivity, reduce residue potentials, a n d restrict the a m o u n t of o u r e n v i r o n m e n t exposed to pesticides are being investigated.
Pesticide Regulation
T h e U n i t e d States has the most comprehensive laws a n d en- forcement procedures in the w o r l d — t h e most painstaking tech- niques ever devised—for insuring the effectiveness and safe use of agricultural chemicals a n d protecting m a n a n d his total en- vironment. O u r regulatory personnel are constantly reviewing a n d improving these procedures.
T h r o u g h the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, a n d R o d e n t i c i d e Act, USDA is responsible for helping to assure the safety a n d effectiveness of pesticides shipped interstate. We work closely with the D e p a r t m e n t of Interior a n d Health, Education, a n d Welfare in activities involving pesticide registration a n d use.
State agencies perform similar functions w i t h i n t h e i r borders, a n d we cooperate with them.
A substantial expansion is u n d e r way in the registration effort and in enforcement activities to assure compliance with the law a n d to prevent m i s b r a n d i n g a n d a d u l t e r a t i o n of pesticides.
A great deal of progress has b e e n m a d e in t i g h t e n i n g up o u r registration a n d enforcement activities. R e c e n t i m p r o v e m e n t s in the labeling of pesticides r e q u i r e that key w a r n i n g a n d caution statements on the label be m o r e p r o m i n e n t , legible, a n d u n d e r - standable. In addition, the Federal registration n u m b e r is re- q u i r e d on all labels, so the buyer can tell w h e t h e r he's getting a Federally regulated product. Revised regulations also spell out precautionary labeling r e q u i r e d for the protection of fish a n d wildlife.
Pest Control Programs
In addition to its research a n d regulatory functions, the De- p a r t m e n t takes its place a m o n g t h e users of pesticides, in pest control a n d eradication programs carried out in cooperation with State agencies, growers a n d h o m e owners.
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 15
In these programs, the D e p a r t m e n t is emphasizing the use of—
(1) expanded quarantine programs to prevent the introduc- tion of alien pests . . .
(2) early survey a n d detection systems and improvement of control methods to reduce losses caused by pests . . . (3) conventional chemical control methods t h a t do not leave
excessive residues . . .
(4) nonconventional chemical a n d biological methods such as sex attractants . . .
(5) techniques to determine the effects of control practices on nontarget organisms . . . a n d
(6) intensive m o n i t o r i n g programs in areas of high pesticide use.
In these m o n i t o r i n g programs, workers sample and analyze water, soil, crops and nontarget organisms for pesticides. T w o types of programs are being conducted. First, all the Depart- ment's control programs that employ pesticides are being m o n i - tored. A n d second, we are m o n i t o r i n g representative areas of this country—such as the Mississippi Delta—that use large quantities of pesticides in normal farming operations. O u r m o n i - toring programs are planned a n d coordinated with related p r o - grams conducted by other agencies.
T h e s e expanded m o n i t o r i n g programs have introduced a new dimension into pest control. T h e y are yielding i m p o r t a n t in- formation on the impact of pesticides on man's total environ- ment—information that will be invaluable in designing research programs a n d controlling pests in the future. T h e data will also be valuable in designing education programs on the safe use of pesticides and other pest control methods.
Education and Information
Information has played a big part in the excellent safety record established by farmers in the use of pesticides.
In just the past two years, the D e p a r t m e n t has distributed millions of copies of safe-use literature to city dwellers. Its radio a n d television efforts for pesticide safety have been endorsed by the Advertising Council—support that has led to widespread a n d frequent use of these timely a n d i m p o r t a n t messages.
T h e award-winning motion picture, "Safe Use of Pesticides,"
is available from the lending library of every State Extension Service. A new film series covering many aspects of pests and their control is being prepared. Picture stories on the safe use of pesticides a n d on the regulatory responsibilities of the Depart- ment's Agricultural Research Service have been distributed to the newspapers, magazines and picture syndicates.
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W i t h o u t exception, every State Extension Service has con- ducted highly effective information a n d education programs at the State level.
Recently, the D e p a r t m e n t established a Pesticide Information Center in the National Agricultural Library in Washington, D . C , which publishes " T h e Pesticide D o c u m e n t a t i o n Bulletin."
T h i s biweekly will inventory and summarize all literature—in- cluding related science a n d technology—on pests and their control.
C o o r d i n a t i o n
T h e D e p a r t m e n t has developed mechanisms that will effec- tively coordinate, both within o u r D e p a r t m e n t a n d with o t h e r Federal Departments, o u r research, regulatory, control a n d edu- cational programs on pests, pesticides and pest control.
Primarily, these mechanisms provide an o p p o r t u n i t y for all the disciplines and agencies to plan, conduct a n d coordinate D e p a r t m e n t a l programs. T h e D e p a r t m e n t C o m m i t t e e also re- views and evaluates these programs to d e t e r m i n e their adequacy for providing effective pest control practices that will insure a d e q u a t e protection of the p u b l i c health, wildlife, soil, water, forests a n d other values in man's e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e committee also provides effective liaison with the i n t e r d e p a r t m e n t a l co- o r d i n a t i n g mechanisms that have been established.
T h e D e p a r t m e n t has m a d e significant efforts to coordinate programs on pests, pesticides, a n d pest control a m o n g D e p a r t - ments. T h e Secretary of Agriculture took the initiative in estab- lishing the Federal C o m m i t t e e on Pest Control (FCPC), which was organized jointly by the Secretaries of four D e p a r t m e n t s — Agriculture, Defense, Interior, a n d H e a l t h , Education a n d Welfare.
As one of its primary responsibilities, the F C P C reviews Federal pest control programs to assure that the methods to be used are effective a n d safe. T h e work of this C o m m i t t e e is ex- tremely valuable, a n d we are constantly reviewing o u r programs to d e t e r m i n e ways a n d means of s u p p o r t i n g it.
O u r efforts to date represent only a start in the right direction.
T h e r e is a critical need for i m p r o v i n g cooperation w i t h i n agencies, a n d d e p a r t m e n t s of the Federal government.
Procedures for clearing and releasing new information on pest control a n d pesticides need to be improved, so that the public may be continuously a n d fully informed. A major problem h e r e is the coordination of news e m a n a t i n g from one organization or agency that reflects on the responsibilities of other organiza- tions or agencies.
VOL. 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 17
At the Federal level, this difficulty is inherent in the pesticide a n d pest control responsibilities of the Departments of Agri- culture, H E W a n d Interior. But we are making progress on the complex problems posed by interdepartmental release of information, through new mechanisms that have established closer worker relationships a m o n g the three agencies, and par- ticularly through the actions of the Federal C o m m i t t e e on Pest Control and its Information Subcommittee.
Future Needs in Pest Control Technology
It is known that chemical pesticides will be found in very small amounts in organisms and other components of the en- vironment. T h i s fact made it necessary to set tolerances for pesticides.
It is also known that some pesticides accumulate in organisms through food chains a n d other environmental mechanisms. These facts clearly identify two problems in pest control technology.
T h e s e problems also help to identify some of the research needs of the future. O n e is for a better u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the long-term effects of low levels of pesticides on h u m a n health and on other living organisms.
Highly specific and highly selective pesticides will also be needed. T e c h n i q u e s to keep rates of application at low levels are essential. Chemicals that are biodegradable and do not persist for excessive periods must be developed. Integrated control tech- nology—including cultural, mechanical, ecological, chemical and biological methods—must be expanded as rapidly as possible.
We need to explore new approaches. More research is needed to p i n p o i n t weaknesses in the life cycles of pests. T h e need will greatly increase for engineering research particularly on the engi- neering principles involved in pest control. Application e q u i p - m e n t will require unusual precision. T h e appropriate pesticide will be applied in the m i n i m u m effective a m o u n t at the most effective time, at m i n i m a l frequencies and precisely on target organisms or areas.
If pest control methods of the future and their patterns of use are to possess the desired characteristics, State, Federal and industrial scientists will need to work together as a team in a well balanced and effectively coordinated program. If balanced programs, adequately supported, are maintained, the problems of the future can be solved a n d will n o t involve u n d u e risk.
T h u s , it seems that future progress will largely be deter- mined by:
(1) an understanding of the effects of chemicals on h u m a n health, plant and animal growth, soils, and the total en- v i r o n m e n t of man, domestic animals, and wildlife . . .
18 JOURNAL of THE A. S. S. B. T.
(2) an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the limitations and risks of c u r r e n t practices . . .
(3) the discovery or formulation of more selective, m o r e specific, m o r e efficient, safer, and more economical pesti- cides . . .
(4) the development of new approaches a n d m o r e effective biological, physical, cultural, ecological, a n d chemical techniques . . . a n d
(5) ingenuity in modifying a n d c o m b i n i n g these techniques a n d practices.
T h e rapid advances in pest control technology, and their acceptance by users, profoundly affect the p r o d u c t i o n of crops, forests a n d livestock, the m a n a g e m e n t of soil a n d water, a n d other values in man's e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e significant changes in technology that are sure to come will necessitate a constant re- view of agricultural research, regulatory, and educational ob- jectives and direction.
We must achieve and m a i n t a i n a fine balance. On the one hand, we must protect our health a n d comfort, and o u r capacity for p r o d u c i n g food and fiber, from the devastating hazard of pests. A n d on the other hand, we must protect all the i m p o r t a n t values in c u r e n v i r o n m e n t against the potential hazards of pesticides.
I am confident that we can—and will—do both.
Sugar and the Synthetics
N E I L K E L L Y1
I suppose there are many ways of looking at sugar as there are people in this room, b u t I shall m e n t i o n only two extremes.
On the optimistic side we can reassure ourselves that nothing has ever been able to replace sugar in mankind's diet. It remains overwhelmingly the most popular of sweeteners. No substitute has ever equaled its versatility a n d dependability, its quality and purity, its taste and flavor. As a food, it is cheap and plenti- ful. So sugar has been, is now, a n d always will be.
T h e o t h e r view is somber. It takes note of the expansion of facilities for producing synthetic sweeteners. It points to the prediction that one o u t of every seven bottles of soft drinks sold this year will be artificially sweetened. It points to the endless procession of new food products boasting their lack of sugar, to the steady d r o p in the price of major synthetic sweet- eners, and to the forty-year plateau of per capita sugar con- sumption in the U n i t e d States.
You can believe that everything is rosy with sugar, or that everything is dark. I do not suggest that you make a choice, because I d o n ' t intend to do so. Instead, I want to discuss with you today the actualities of sugar and synthetic sweeteners as the consumer sees them. We as sugar m e n need not panic about the future of this business, n o r should we be complacent about its present position. T h e problems are insistent b u t not insoluble.
But we should, as participants in the development of the in- dustry, understand clearly where we are.
Now forget for the m o m e n t that you are associated with the beet sugar industry, and j o i n me in looking at sugar through the eyes of a housewife as she walks through a good store. What's on her mind?
T o n i g h t ' s dinner, probably. Meals for the week-end. Ways to save money. Ways to protect h e r family's health and well- being. Does she give m u c h attention to the displays of sugar?
I think she does, because sugar packaging is becoming more a n d more attractive, and sugar is an essential in any normal household. Yet, she also notices a new breakfast cereal, pre- sweetened with a synthetic and brightly marked S U G A R FREE.
A r o u n d the corner, a m o u n t a i n o u s stack of diet drinks shouts
1 President, The Sugar Association, Inc., New York, New York. An invitational paper presented at the meeting of the American Society of Sugar Beet Technologists. Minneapo'is, Minnesota, February 23, 1966.
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NO C A L O R I E S . H e r e on the shelves, four or five different brands of synthetic sweetening agents—in drops, pellets, cubes, granules, i n boxes, i n bottles, i n j a r s — a l l l a b e l e d , N O C A L O R I E S , N O A F T E R T A S T E .
But o u r shopper is still half-a-store away from the checkout counter. More brain washing is to come. She still has to pass the no-calorie, low-calorie jams a n d preserves, the diet crackers, the minimum-calorie ice cream, the weight-saving candy, the low- calorie salad dressings, the canned vegetables, t u n a fish, canned fruits, soups, mayonnaise, seasonings a n d flavorings that promise her that happiest of dietary experience: eat—but stay thin . . . eat—and get thin.
Yet these are illusions, n o t h i n g more. On my desk at the office is a 450-page volume containing 73 scientific reports on weight reduction by every means u n d e r the sun, using drugs, juices, formula diets, pills, synthetic sweeteners or even starva- tion. T h e sum total of these dietary efforts is that most dieters just d o n ' t lose weight. A n d when they do knock off a few pounds, the chances are that they'll p u t it back on again within a reasonably short time.
Dieters get tired. Diet foods, by and large, are more costly than ordinary food. A n d even when they d e m a n d no p r e m i u m s in price, they almost always lack the flavor and satisfaction of sugar-sweetened foods. So-called sugar substitutes provide ab- solutely no n u t r i t i o n , no food value, no energy-replacement.
Moreover, we eat for h u m a n values as well as for n u t r i m e n t s — for pleasure and c o m p a n i o n s h i p as well as for tissue-building.
Sugar needs no apologies.
I d o n ' t have to tell you that there is n o t h i n g surprisingly new a b o u t chemical sweeteners. Saccharin was discovered a b o u t 90 years ago, and for many, many years it has been used by diabetics. Saccharin's unpleasant after-taste has always been a handicap to its general use, even though it is some 300 times sweeter than sugar. A b o u t 15 years ago a new a n d m o r e ag- gressively-promoted synthetic was introduced a n d it is this p r o d u c t that has m a d e possible the less distasteful diet beverages a n d the present flood of low-calorie foods.
T h i s chemical is calcium (or sodium) cyclohexylsufamate, commonly called cyclamate. It is 30 times sweeter t h a n sugar.
B u t when n i n e parts of cyclamate are mixed with one part of saccharin, the sweetness is additive, while the after taste of each seems to be reduced. T h i s nine-to-one c o m b i n a t i o n is marketed u n d e r such trade terms as Sucaryl, Sweet-Ten, Sweeta, a n d the like. A p o u n d of it is equivalent in sweetening power to 57
V O L . 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966 21
pounds of sugar. T h e c u r r e n t price of the m i x is $0.64 a p o u n d wholesale. R e m e m b e r that figure. If sugar had to compete with the synthetics on the basis of price alone, it would have to sell at a little m o r e t h a n a cent a p o u n d . I won't try to translate the cent-a-pound figure into the price of a ton of beets in, let's say, the R e d River Valley. It's too grim. But price, as you know, is only one factor in choosing a sweetener for table or kitchen use or for industrial food production. T h e synthetics simply cannot produce in other foods the qualities and attributes imparted by sugar.
Some non-chemists, myself included, have been known to refer to the synthetics as "coal tar derivatives." T h e largest manufacturer of the cyclamates objects to the term a n d describes his product as "a synthetic organic chemical manufactured from other synthetic chemicals." T h e chemicals used to make it are obtained—so one manufacturer says—from " p e t r o l e u m a n d minerals." If that description is an improvement on "coal tar derivatives," I'm willing to accept it. It still sounds nauseous to me.
Do we in the sugar business have a bone to pick with cycla- mates? We certainly do. Not because they're cheap, not because they are being insistently promoted as sugar substitutes, which they are not, b u t because the n a t u r e of the claims for cyclamate go beyond the limits of good sense and good n u t r i t i o n .
I have already m e n t i o n e d that artificial sweeteners just d o n ' t work. T h e y d o n ' t take off weight directly, of course, and they d o n ' t help people lose weight significantly, or permanently. I have referred to the scientific evidence on this point. I want to mention, specifically, one more authority. T h i s is the Food and N u t r i t i o n Board of the National Research Council—National Academy of Sciences. T h i s Board's Policy Statement on Artificial Sweeteners has this to say:
" T h e r e is no clear justification for the use of artificial sweet- eners by the general public as a weight-reducing procedure, even though sweet-tasting food is recognized as giving a psychological
"lift" to many individuals, and even though the substitution of a non-nutritive sweetener for sugar does decrease the calorie content of the food in question. It is emphasized strongly that the availability and consumption of artificially sweetened food- stuffs have no direct influence on body weight, nor are the foodstuffs in question of any importance in weight-reducing programs except as they are used in feeding regiments in which the total intake is supervised a n d controlled."
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T h e dieter who winds up h e r meal by slipping a synthetic into her coffee, even after a dessert of low-calorie canned fruits, is not, I assure you, on a "feeding regimen in which the total intake is supervised a n d controlled." She is m o r e likely on a kid-yourself regimen, despite the slim-waisted illustrations in the
"sugar-free" advertisements.
I may inadvertently have given you the impression that losing weight is close to impossible. T h a t is not so. Experts in n u t r i - tion, researchers in foods and physical growth, physiologists a n d physical chemsts agree that weight can be controlled, b u t almost always by a relatively simple formula: eat a little less, exercise a little more. N o r m a l persons whose intake of food is lower than their physical activity—lower in calories, that is—will lose weight. A n d the use of sugar is perfectly compatible with a weight reducing diet.
Eight m o n t h s ago the U n i t e d States Food and D r u g A d m i n - istration a n n o u n c e d that cyclamates could be considered safe at present levels of consumption. Yet this p o i n t — t h e safety of the cyclamates—remains a subject of debate. T h e r e is evidence that cyclamate sweeteners deserve closer a t t e n t i o n than this F D A clearance might suggest. We are not alone in t h i n k i n g so. N o t too long ago an i m p o r t a n t publication in the field of drugs a n d therapeutics, the non-profit "Medical Letter," urged that studies should be u n d e r t a k e n on the effects of the sweeteners on the h u m a n fetus and in persons with chronic disease. W h a t
" T h e Medical L e t t e r " d e m a n d e d was a reappraisal of the tox- icology of cyclamates, in pregnancy a n d lactation, a n d in sick persons as well as healthy. O t h e r publications with no ax to grind have made similar requests, on similar grounds.
For the past two years the Sugar Research F o u n d a t i o n has been sponsoring a detailed study of the physiological effects of the cyclamates. T h i s study is being conducted at the Wisconsin A l u m n i Research F o u n d a t i o n . Perhaps you saw news accounts of the first r e p o r t on this work. T h e y were published last October a n d they received a good deal of attention. W h a t the researchers found was that cyclamates i m p a i r the growth of experimental animals a n d stunt their young.
T e s t rats that received 5 percent cyclamate in their food grew 12 p e r cent less than animals on a n o r m a l diet. W h e n the p r o p o r t i o n of cyclamate was raised to 10 percent, i m p a i r m e n t of growth increased to 20 percent. Was this the result of lower food intake? N o t at all. Animals with cyclamate in their diets could eat as m u c h as they wished. A n d they ate m o r e of their ration u n t i l they consumed just as much, from a n u t r i t i o n a l point of view, as the control animals. Since the test animals
V O L . 14, No. 1, APRIL 1966
a n d those on n o r m a l diets received equal nourishment, the scientists concluded that the impaired growth of the test animals was caused by the chemical sweetener.
W h e t h e r these effects result from the chemical itself or from interference in the gastrointestinal tract remains to be deter- mined.
Diets of 5 percent and 10 percent of cyclamate are certainly not what might be called n o r m a l intake. Cyclamate manufactur- ers were quick to make this p o i n t in c o m m e n t i n g on the Wis- consin work. B u t the tolerance that is permitted food additives for use by m a n is well defined in this country. T h e rule of t h u m b is that an additive must be limited in foods to one-one h u n d r e d t h of the a m o u n t at which it is safe in test animals.
Anyone on a 1200 calorie a day diet w h o drinks two 12-ounce bottles of cyclamate sweetened beverage exceeds this r u l e of t h u m b . He is consuming the cyclamate at a rate of m o r e than 1 per cent of total intake of food.
T h e study of the cyclamates is being continued at the Wis- consin A l u m n i Research Foundation, and we have placed new studies at the Albany Medical College in New York State and at the H u n t i n g d o n Research Centre in England. Sooner or later we're going to have the answers, based on observed facts, checked and rechecked.
T h e chemical producers a n d diet food manufacturers have spent staggering millions of dollars to promote their products as health foods and, by insinuation if not by direct statement, to imply that sugar should be avoided. T h e y have not had their own way, for there are two sides to the a r g u m e n t and we have not hesitated to spell out the known facts of adequate n u t r i t i o n and diet sanity. Sugar's own campaign, we have good reason to believe, has been m a k i n g a d e n t in public attitudes toward the synthetics.
W h a t have we been saying? H o w have we been saying it?
I want to spend most of my r e m a i n i n g time discussing these matters. A n d I will be happy to answer your questions at the end of this period.
First, the organizational base of o u r efforts. T h e beet sugar industry showed foresight a n d industrial statesmanship, twenty- three years ago, when it joined with cane sugar producers in an all-industry association for the purposes of research and in- formation. Today, the Sugar Research F o u n d a t i o n sponsors a widespread series of studies into the uses and effects of sugar in food products a n d in non-foods, as well as the work on synthetics.
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Side by side with o u r research activities is Sugar Information, Inc.—conducting a day-in, day-out p r o g r a m of advertising, p u b - licity, publications a n d public relations that serves three p u r - poses: 1) Sugar Information takes the findings of Sugar Research F o u n d a t i o n , adds to them o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e data, a n d brings the results to the attention of editors, writers and publicists in many areas. 2) Sugar Information carries on a c o n t i n u i n g cam- paign to tell sugar's story to the general public. 3) Sugar In- formation serves to provide basic facts a b o u t sugar to students, schools, and publications that seek authenticated materials a b o u t o u r industry a n d its products.
So m u c h for what we do, in general. More i m p o r t a n t , how have we been doing it? If you are a reader of Life, T i m e , Good Housekeeping, Ladies H o m e J o u r n a l , M c C a l l ' s , R e d b o o k , Parents' Magazine, Look, Better H o m e s a n d Gardens, or Seven- teen, then you have seen Sugar Information's advertising. We've been telling i m p o r t a n t things a b o u t sugar to the readers of these publications, a n d before the present schedule is completed we will have reached m o r e t h a n three quarters of the homes in the U n i t e d States at least 14 times.
A m b i t i o u s as this advertising program may seem, it is far from matching the c o m b i n e d promotional impact of the chemical plants, food processors, bottlers a n d retailers who have been attempting, with some success, to m a k e "diet foods" a staple household commodity. T h e i r advertising outlets are not only magazines a n d major newspapers b u t also network television a n d radio, store displays and trade p r o m o t i o n .
Sugar Information's advertising is also aimed at the in- dustrial publications that are read by o u r customers and pros- pects. We beam o u r message to the beverage people, the candy people, the bottlers and canners. We try to produce, t h r o u g h o u r advertising agencies, copy that will be m e m o r a b l e , a n d that will m a k e readers stop a n d t h i n k . Yet we try to be light hearted. Some of these ads have been singled out for their creative excellence a n d power.
We are also engaged in a public relations program that takes m a n y shapes, for we are trying to reach and influence m a n y sections of the public. O n e part of this program is aimed at home economists. A n o t h e r part is concerned with teachers and teaching aids. A third section concentrates on editors of food pages, writers of syndicated columns, medical and science writers.
We also try to reach some publications "across the board"—as in the case of the Wisconsin work. We try to establish acceptable communications with women-—as home-makers and consumers,
