A “Skripsi”
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training in a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of S.Pd. (Bachelor of Arts) in English Language Education
By
NURULIA DWI FEBRIANI NIM. 107014000760
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS
’
TRAINING
”
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH
”
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
i
Through Reciprocal Teaching Technique (A Classroom Action Research at the
First Year of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok). Skripsi, Departement of
English Education Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training “Syarif Hidayatullah” State Islamic University Jakarta. Advisor: Nida Husna, M.Pd., M.A.TESOL.
Key words: Reading Comprehension, Reciprocal Teaching Technique, and A Classroom Action Research.
ii
Through Reciprocal Teaching Technique (A Classroom Action Research at the
First Year of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok). Skripsi. Jurusan Pendidikan
Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Tarbiyah dan Keguruan, Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. Pembimbing: Nida Husna, M.Pd., M.A.TESOL.
Key Words: Reading Comprehension, Reciprocal Teaching Technique, and A Classroom Action Research.
Berkenaan dengan pembelajaran bahasa Inggris, murid-murid selalu dihadapi dengan teks berbahasa Inggris di sekolah, tapi ada permasalahan dalam hal itu. Murid-murid mengalami kesulitan jika guru menyuruhnya membaca, contohnya, mereka sulit untuk menelaah tentang inti dari text tersebut dan guru tidak membangun pengetahuan siswa tentang bacaan pada saat awal. Untuk memperoleh murid-murid paham dengan teks bacaan dibutuhkan rangsangan di dalam otak dan tanggapan yang benar. Oleh karena itu, dalam penelitian ini, peneliti akan mencoba untuk mengaplikasikan teknik pengajaran reciprocal. Teknik ini ditujukan untuk mengetahui apakah mengajar membaca melalui teknik
reciprocal teaching dapat meningkatkan pemahaman murid-murid. Kemudian
iii
In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent and the Merciful.
All praise be to Allah, the Lord of the Worlds. The Almighty God for his blessing, guidance, love, and help who has bestowed upon the writer in completing this „skripsi’. Peace be upon Muhammad SAW, the last messenger of Allah, and to all his families, companion and followers.
The writer is extremely grateful to ALLAH SWT. He has blessed her with his power, strength at all times until she can accomplish this paper. She realized without His blessing, the writer is not able to complete this final task.
Her special thanks go to Mrs. Nida Husna, M.Pd., M.A.TESOL., as the advisor, for all her advice and guidance. This is an incredible moment to share with her to complete this research paper.
She also bestows her gratitude to all people who have helped and contributed to her study at Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University.
1. All lectures of English Education Department
2. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., as the chief of English Education Department
3. Neneng Sunengsih, M.Pd., as the secretary of English Education Department
4. Nurlena Rifa’i, M.A.,Ph.D, as the dean of Faculty of Tarbiya and Tearchers’ Training
5. H. M. Hamzah, as the Headmaster of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, for permitting the writer in doing the research
6. Subbanul Khatib, S.Pd.I., as the English Teacher of Mts Hidayatul Umam, for helping and giving guidance to the writer when doing research at the classroom
iv
order to be patient and strong to face many barriers when she was working on this duty.
9. A number of students at English Education Department for generation 2007, especially B class, thank you for sharing knowledge and filling many special memories with her. The next is for her best friends from 34 Senior High School whom she cannot be mentioned one by one, thank you for giving many spirits to finish it soon
10.For her big family thank you for your praying and supporting the writer. Especially for her brother, who always accompany and help her whenever she needs. Be the best doctor!
11.To Sister Rela, Yuning and my friend Nurhalimah, thanks for the time for sharing information and knowledge that given to her
12.The last to everyone whom she has not mention yet, thank you very much for all of your support.
May Allah bless them well, Amin.
Jakarta, November 2011
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...iii
TABLE OF CONTENT ... v
LIST OF TABLE ...viii
LIST OF FIGURE ... ix
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION A. The Background of the Study ... 1
B. The Limitation of the Study ... 5
C. The Formulation of the Study ... 5
D. The Objective of the Study ... 5
D. The Significance of the Study ... 5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Reading 1. The General Concept of Reading ... 6
2. The Purpose of Reading ... 9
3. The Kinds of Reading ... 11
B. The Descriptive Text 1. The Definition of the Descriptive Text ... 15
2. The Purpose of the Descriptive Text ... 16
3. The Structure and Language Feature of the Descriptive Text ... 17
C. The Reciprocal Teaching Technique 1. The Definition of the Reciprocal Teaching Technique ... 20
2. The Purpose of the Reciprocal Teaching Technique ... 21
vi B. The Subject and the Object of the Study
1. The Subject of the Study ... 26
2. The Object of the Study ... 26
C. The Time and the Place of the Study ... 26
D. The Writer’s Role on the Study ... 26
E. The Research Design ... 27
F. The CAR Procedure ... 29
1. Planning Phase... 29
2. Acting Phase ... 29
3. Observing Phase ... 30
4. Reflecting Phase ... 30
G. The Technique of Collecting Data ... 30
H. The Technique of Data Analysis ... 31
I. The Criteria of the Action Success ... 32
K. The Validity ... 33
CHAPTER IV: RESULT AND DISCUSSION A. Before Implementing the Classroom Action Research ... 35
1. The Result of the Interview before CAR ... 35
2. The Result of the Observation before CAR ... 37
3. The Result of the Pre-Test ... 38
B. The Implementation of the CAR ... 38
C. The Discussion of the Data After Classroom Action Research ... 49
vii
A. Conclusion ... 58
B. Suggestion ... 58
BIBLIOGRAPHY... 60
viii
The Result of Students’ Participation at the First Meeting on the First Cycle ... 41
The Result of Students’ Participation at the Second Meeting on the First Cycle 42 The Result of Students’ Participation at the First Meeting on the Second Cycle 47 The Result of Students’ Participation at the Second Meeting the Second Cycle . 48 Schedule of The Research ... 64
The Student’s Reading Score of Pre-Test, Post-Test I, and Post-Test II ... 65
Observational Notes for Needs Analysis (Before CAR) ... 68
Observational Notes for Needs Analysis Cycle I ... 69
Observational Notes for Needs Analysis Cycle II ... 71
The Blueprint test of Pre-Test ... 77
The Blueprint test of Post-Test I ... 78
The Blueprint test of Post-Test II ... 79
ix
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers the general account of the present study. It consists of the background of the study, the limitation of the study, the formulation of the study,
the objective of the study and the significance of the study.
A. The Background of the Study
Nowadays, English becomes a very important language as an international
communication tool. As an International language, it has commonly used in
various aspects of life such as in culture, economics, business, politics etc.
Therefore, knowing and studying English become necessity for most people
worldwide to communicate and to get information around the world.
In many non-English speaking countries, English becomes a foreign language
or a second language. In Indonesia, English is a foreign language. It is taught
formally from elementary school up to university level.1 This has been stated in
Act of The Republic of Indonesia number 20, year 2003 on National Education
System, article 37 verse 1 and 2 in which language is one of the compulsory
subjects in elementary, secondary and higher education curriculums. In addition,
according to The Explanation in the article 37, the learning material for language
focuses three languages, those are Bahasa Indonesia, local language and English
1
Act of the Republic of Indonesia on National Education System (National on Education System), (Jakarta, 2003), p. 22.
as a Foreign Language.2 It means that English has been admitted as one of the
foreign language subjects that should be taught in Indonesian school.
Pusat kurikulum, Balitbang Depdiknas, Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran
Bahasa Inggris SMP dan MTs 2003 also stated that3:
Kurikulum ini kembali menekankan perlunya penguasaan tata bahasa karena tujuan pembelajaran di sekolah menengah adalah menyiapkan lulusan untuk masuk ke SMA. Belajar bahasa Inggris di SMP adalah untuk belajar dalam konteks penggunaan bahasa yang serius. Targetnya adalah memberikan kemampuan berbahasa Inggris yang berterima di tingkat
internasional. ……….
In other words, learning English is needed in Indonesia. Therefore, English is
an essential subject to be learned at school in Indonesia.
Furthermore, mastering the language well, people need to learn four skills in
language, they are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. From those skills,
reading is one of English skills in which the Standard of Competency stated that
its purpose to comprehend many various meaning brought by the written text that
has objectives in communication, text structure and specific linguistic.4 It means
that students need to be trained in order to have a good reading skill.
Meanwhile, in Junior High School in Indonesia, based on Education National
Curriculum 2004, there are so many texts that the junior high school students need
to master. Those are descriptive, narrative, spoof/recount, procedure, report, and
anecdote.5 In other words, students have to know and comprehend those kinds of
texts.
Based on the reality, most of the English test items contain those reading
texts. It means that, if the students do not understand about the text in a test, they
will be difficult to fulfill the passing grade. For instance, on test items of National
Examination year 2010, in which contained more than five texts that have various
2
Act of the Republic of Indonesia on National Education System (National on Education System), (Jakarta, 2003), p. 50.
3
Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris SMP dan MTS, (Jakarta: 2003), p. 11. 4
Standar Kompetensi Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris SMP dan MTS, … p. 16.
5
genres such as narrative, descriptive, procedure, report, and recount.6 In this sense, students must have a good reading skill to fulfill the passing grade.
In fact, teaching students to read is not easy thing. Based on the writer’s
observation on September 14th 2011 at first year students of MTs. Hidayatul
Umam, Cinere, Depok there are some problems faced by students in reading
activities at classroom, for example, students have known how to pronounce the
words, but it occured without understanding the meaning. In that condition for the
diligent students, they looked up the dictionary and found the the meaning the
difficult words, but not for the lazy ones. Then, they actually know the meaning
of words but they got difficulties to convey the meaning to the whole paragraph.
Moreover, during reading activity in teaching and learning process, often students
were loose their focus and consequently they talked to their friends for other
bussinesses and considered reading a text was not interesting activity in learning
English.
On the other hand, the problems appeared during the teacher was reading the
text, the students just listened and repeated the teacher’s reading but they did not
understand what was conveyed in the reading text that was read by the teacher. In
this condition, teacher did not build students’ background knowledge what the
reading text initially. After finishing read the text, the teacher had the students
translate the text, only a few students did the task. In addition, while translating
the text, only a few students came to the teacher’s desk and asked the difficult
words, but not for others. They would rather talk with their friends than finish
their task. In this case, between students and teacher did not integrate their
understanding about text collaboratively in the classroom. Those problems are
barrier for students to improve their reading skill. Thus, based on the reality, the
teacher needs a new strategy of learning reading text activity in order to students
become active, enjoy and comprehend about the main point of reading text.
In teaching reading text in MTs. Hidayatul Umam, there are so many types of
texts learned as stated in their own KTSP. Those are narrative, descriptive,
recount, anecdote, report and procedure. In this study, the writer focuses on
6
descriptive text because based on the test result they got difficulties to
comprehend a text consequently almost students get low score. Therefore, the writer would like to help students’ reading comprehension on descriptive text. Desciptive text is a kind of types describing a particular person, place or things.7
It means that the goal of the text is to help the readers depict a person, place or
things.
To improve students MTs. Hidayatul Umam on reading descriptive text
comprehensively, the writer proposes one technique. The technique is named
reciprocal teaching, which has been developed by Annemarie Pallinscar and Ann
Brown in 1984.8 Reciprocal teaching technique becomes an instructional procedure designed to enhance students’ reading comprehension of a text.9
In
other words, the teacher is an instructor for the process, explaining and drawing a
conclusion about the text together with the students.
Farris (2004) also said that this technique consists of four strategies in series
such as, prediction, questioning, seeking clarification, and summarization by
cooperatively.10 In this technique, the sequence of the reciprocal teaching is
implemented through cooperative learning. Furthermore, the advantages of this
technique in facilitating comprehension are enduring and well worth the effort
between teacher and students.11 In this sense, all the parts in the classroom
understand about the text are going to discuss. Here, the writer’s basic
interpretation is students need to learn how to build their prior knowledge in the
reading text and to keep their attention on what they are reading.
Based on the background above, the writer would like to take a research study under the title: “Improving Reading Comprehension through Reciprocal Teaching Technique” (A Classroom Action Research at the First Year of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok).
7
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Type in English III, (Sydney: Macmillan, 1998), p. 26.
8
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc Graw-Hill Companie, 2004), p. 340.
9
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading… , p. 340. 10
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading… , p. 341. 11
B. The Limitation of the Study
In this study, the writer would like to implement reciprocal teaching technique
in reading comprehension at VII-5 class of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere. Then
the writer focuses on reading comprehension on descriptive text. In addition, the
writer applies her study in a classroom action research.
C. The Formulation of the Study
Based on the background above, the writer states the problem of this research as follow: Can reciprocal teaching technique improve the students’ reading comprehension at the VII-5 class of MTs. Hidayatul Umam Cinere?
D. The Objective of the Study
Based on the formulation above, the objective of the study is to describe how
the application of reciprocal teaching technique can improve students’ reading
comprehension of descriptive text at VII-5 class of MTs. Hidayatul Umam,
Cinere, Depok.
E. The Significance of the Study
The writer hopes the result of this study, firstly for the writer and the English
teacher at the MTs. Hidayatul Umam, by implementing this study is expected to
be able increase their knowledge and become more creative in learning reading
text at classroom. The second is for students, it is expected to improve their
bravery to ask a question, to show their argument and to build their thinking skill.
The third is for the institution of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok, it is
hoped to get the advantages for improving the education quality. The last is for
other researchers, in which the results are hoped as an alternative suggestion and
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this chapter, the writer would like to describe some theories related to the
study. The theories focus on the general concept of reading, the descriptive text,
and the reciprocal teaching technique.
A.
Reading
1.The General Concept of Reading
Reading is regarded as one of English skills that need reader’s interpretation
from text. In this sense, Nuttal viewed that reading essentially focuses on
meaning, especially delivering meaning from writer to reader.1 It means that, the
reading activity builds thinking collaboratively among the reader, the writer, and
the text. That assumption is in line with Zamelman, Daniels, and Hyde who defined that “….. the essence of reading is a transaction between the words of an author and the mind of a reader, during which meaning is constructed.”2 Those explanations above showed that reading activity makes the reader’s mind active to get the gist from text.
Moreover, according to Aebersold and Field claimed that “Learning to read starts by exploring what happens when readers read-that it is, when they conscious
1
Christine Nuttal, Teaching Reading Skill, (London: Macmillan Publisher, 2005), p. 3. 2
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc Graw-Hill Companie, 2004), p. 320.
pay close attention to, think about the elements in, or identify the interaction taking place in the reading process.”3
In this sense, the reading process is as an
individual process that takes place inside reader’s mind in order to monitor,
analyze, discuss, and modify the text.
Other researchers, Alderson and Bachman assumed that the nature of reading
separated into two, those are the process of reading and the result of that process,
named product.4 Thus, in other words, their perspective about reading activity is
divided into two, the process of reading, and the product of reading. In addition, they explained that “During the reading process, not only looking at print, deciphering in some sense the marks on the page „deciding’ what they „mean’ and how they relate to each other.”5
It means that while the process of reading takes
place, reader could reach many speculations in their mind about the written text
that they read. Meanwhile the term product, they added that the product means the
understanding of particular text the reader to reach it, to put it another way.6
Based on those statements above, it is clear that reading is a skill that needs an
understanding for making meaning with text.
Furthermore, concerning about understanding in reading, Paris and Hamilton
stated that “Reading comprehension is only a subset of an ill-defined larger set of
knowledge that reflects the communicative interactions among the intentions of
the reader/listener, the contex/situation of the interaction.”7 Thus, comprehension
means the series of action concurrently putting and building sense by using
interaction and participation with the written text. It is in line with Smith and
Robinson who stated that “reading comprehension means the understanding,
evaluating, and utilizing and ideas gained through an interaction between reader
3
Jo Ann Aebersold and Mary Lee Field, From Reader to Reading Teacher, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 95.
4
J. Charles Alderson and Lyle F Bachman, Assessing Reading, (Cambridge: 2000), p. 3. 5
J. Charles Alderson and Lyle F Bachman, Assessing Reading, …, p. 3. 6
J. Charles Alderson and Lyle F Bachman, Assessing Reading, …, p. 4.
and author.”8 Here, the reading comprehension involves mental operations applied
by the reader.
Another explanation that reading comprehension is the main function in which
people can communicate through a text, as Parris and Hamilton explained that:
Understanding the meaning of the printed words and text is the core function of literacy that enables people to communicate message across time and distance, express themselves beyond gestures, and create and share ideas. Without comprehension, reading words is reduced to mimicking the sound of language, repeating text is nothing more than memorization and oral drill and writing letter and characters is simply copying or scribbling.9
The explanation above describes the role of comprehension when reading a
text that could express and create many ideas. In other words, it explains how
essential the comprehension to decode the text.
Furthermore, Aebersold stated “To become better reader, students need to become aware of how they are reading and what they could do to improve comprehension.”10
This notion means, reader has to realize about what the topic
as they read comprehensively. Understanding the meaning is also related to
conceive the background knowledge initially.11 Where Farris pointed out that
activating prior knowledge is a basic for building comprehension. That is why, the
reader does not only understand about the text but also he or she activates the
background knowledge.
It is in line with Anderson who claimed “Activation background knowledge is essential to successful to reading comprehension process.”12Based on Anderson’s viewed, to read a text comprehensively needs understanding from reader’s
background knowledge to support the perception of reading text.
8
Nila B. Smith and H. Alan Robinson, Reading Instruction for Todays Children, (Englewood Cliffs: 1980), p. 205.
9
Scott G. Paris and Ellen E. Hamilton, “The Development of Children’s Reading
Comprehension”, in Susan E. Israel and Gerald G. Duffy, Handbook of Research on Reading Comprehension, (New York: Taylor and Francis Group, 2009), p. 32.
10
Jo Ann Aebersold and Mary Lee Field, From Reader to Reading Teacher, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 95.
11
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc Graw-Hill Companie, 2004), p.321.
12
Concerning about the comprehension and background knowledge, Anderson
also wrote in his book:
“Eskey (1986) stated that “comprehension is always directed and controlled by the needs and purpose of an individual and crucially depends on that individual’s … background knowledge“(p.6). He further states that “reading comprehension is most likely to occur when students are reading what they want to read, or at least what they see some good reason to read” (p.6). 13
Based on the explanation above, it means that before reading the text, the
reader focuses with his/her goal where it is related with his/her background
knowledge.
At this point, forming background knowledge as the first step of the reading
process is considered as an important thing. Here, Farris also stated that
One of the strategies for a teacher to master is that of activating prior
knowledge or background knowledge in their students. You will find it is an integral part of several teaching strategies in the upcoming pages, including the Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) and K-W-L-Plus.14
In this sense, Farris illustrated that background knowledge is the component in reader’s mind to anticipate about the upcoming text will tell about.
Based on those explanations, reading is a complicated process in
understanding the meaning. However, comprehending and developing background knowledge initially are the significant strategy to get the writer’s purpose.
In sum up, reading comprehension is the process to grasp meaning of the text
from writer that involves experience and prior knowledge that the reader has. This
process also can be harmonious with the purpose of reading.
2. The Purpose of Reading
Reading printed words has different purposes. Reader can know and satisfy
within if they read the information, as they need. It means that, the reader will
have expectation of what they are going to read before them actually to do so.
13
Neil J. Anderson, Exploring Second Language Reading: Issues and Strategies, (Provo: Heinle and Heinle Publishers, 1999), p. 38.
14
Grellet said that there are two main reasons for reading, they are reading for
pleasure and reading for information (to find out something or in order to do
something with the information you got).15 Based on that explanation, pleasure means that the reader reads any literary to make reader’s feeling happy, otherwise, reading for information means the reader look for information that has been
expected previously.
In addition, the purpose of reading according to Grabe and Stoller,
it has been classified into four purposes, they are:
1. Reading to search for simple information and reading to skim
It is common reading ability, here the reader scan the text to find out a
specific piece of information or a specific word. Meanwhile, reading to
skim is the strategy to form the general idea using basic reading
comprehension and guesses the important point.
2. Reading to learn from text
It happens in academic and professional context, it also requires
remembering the main idea and the supporting idea, making a relation with the reader’s knowledge. This activity could bring stronger inference because it is to help remember information.
3. Reading to integrate information, write, and critique text
This skill needs critical evaluation where the reader integrate and decide
the information that she/he wants. Then, it involves abilities such as
composing, selecting, and making critique from the material.
4. Reading for general comprehension
It can be done by fluent readers very fast and automatically in the
processing word, and effective coordination in many process of the text.16
15
Francoise Grellet, Developing Reading Skills, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 4.
16
Briefly, the purpose of reading is varies. The reader has some purposes to
achieve it. Based on those purposes, it is also necessary to look kinds of reading
in which there is a relationship about the kinds of reading.
3. The Kinds of Reading
When reading printed words, the reader not only pays attention the purpose of
reading but also he/she knows the kinds of reading. According to Mikulecky and
Jeffries, they revealed that the differences kinds of reading skill, as following:
a. Reading for Pleasure
Reading for pleasure is the reader read a text whatever he/she
wants. It could be fiction or nonfiction. This activity brings the
reader enjoy and fun.
b. Reading Comprehension Skill
Reading comprehension is the activity when the reader’s brain, the text, and the reader’s eyes can engage strongly to build a connection. Next, this condition makes the reader studies about
what she/he reads and remembers about it. In this notion,
Mikulecky and Jeffries divided into ten parts.
1. Scanning
Scanning is the high-speed reading. The reader has
information that she/he need it earlier after that she/he
skip the unimportant words.
2. Previewing and predicting
Previewing means the reader look and find out information at book’s cover. In this condition, the reader will have a prediction and then make some “educated guess” about this book.
3. Vocabulary Knowledge for Effective Reading
The strategy if the reader does not know the meaning of
vocabulary is trying to guess what it means. It can be
4. Topics
Finding the topic of the passage is the others strategy to
read for meaning. It gives an advantages to use a
question the topic the text are reading about such as
what is the general idea?, What is this?
5. Topics of Paragraphs
In a paragraph contains sentences that have same aspect
related to the text.
6. Main Ideas
The main idea of a paragraph gives the reader topic of author’s idea. The expresses always appears in a complete sentence include the main idea and the topic.
7. Pattern Organization
Mickulecky and Jeffries classified four common
patterns while reading comprehension, they are, first,
list of related ideas, sequence, comparison/contrast and
cause effect.
8. Skimming
Getting the general sense of a passage or a book fast
could save the reader’s time.
9. Making Inferences
Some reading passages do not stated the topic.
Therefore, the reader has to make the inference by
guessing and finding the clue.
10. Summarizing
Summarizing from the important key points is to retell
of a reading text and to make shorter form.17
c. Thinking Skill
17
In thinking skill, when the reader reads an English Text, he/she is
forced to think English. Then, the reader must know the
complexity of the text such as the length, English syntax, and
English semantic and or logical connection.
d. Reading Faster
By reading faster, the reader will be efficient and become more
enjoyable.18
Meanwhile, According to Harmer there are two kinds of reading
related to its purpose, those are intensive reading and extensive reading.19
a. Intensive reading
The notion intensive reading, Harmer defined that the reading
activity focuses to learn composition of the text which is the variants of
the text depends on the purpose of the reader.20 In other words, studying
the construction of the text, which has a certain purpose by the reader, can
be read intensively.
Moreover, Nuttal explained about intensive reading as the activity
that need a guidance to make the students understand the text which is the
reading goal is not only understanding the text but also knowing more
detail about words are produced.21 This explanation stated that intensive
reading need a guidance that could make students interpret deeply about
text.
In Addition, Nation articulated, “Intensive study of reading text can
be a means of increasing learners’ knowledge of language features and their control of reading strategies.”22
Here, this explanation said that
beside detail information that the reader gets through it, intensive reading
18
Beatrice S. Mikulecky and Linda Jeffries, More Reading Power, (New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1996), p. 1.
19
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, (Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 2007), p. 99. 20
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach… , p. 99. 21
Christine Nuttal, Teaching Reading Skill, (London: Macmillan Publisher, 2005), p. 38. 22
also makes the reader improves his understanding about language features
that are focus on the language that is being used.
In summary, intensive reading is reading a text that the reader must
pay attention more deeply about the language features. Then, it also needs
guidance to help and force the reader to understand it.
b. Extensive reading
After discussing the intensive reading, now this term will focus the
extensive reading. Harmer explained that “the term extensive reading
refers to reading which students do often (but not exclusively) away from
the classroom.”23 It means that, the time for reading as usual and can be
done wherever the students are beside the classroom.
Meanwhile, Nuttal wrote a slogan: “The best way to improve your knowledge of a foreign language is to go and live among its speakers.”24
It
is assumed that going to go other countries, which have different
languages, is the best way to improve our knowledge, but many people are so hard to reach that chance. Later, Nuttal wrote, “The next best way is to read extensively.”25
Hence, there is an alternative to improve knowledge
by reading extensively in that language.
Moreover, concerning this notion, According to Nuttal, she added
extensive reading is focused on understanding in the longer text and then it
can be easier because this activity can be done outside the classroom and
in any kind of the literary.26 However, extensive reading concentrates in
larger text and can be read outside at the class time.
Later, according to Nation, extensive reading “fits into the meaning-focused input and fluency development strands of a course, depending on the level of the books that the learners read.”27
It means that,
23
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English, (Essex: Pearson Education Limited, 2007), p. 99. 24
extensive reading concentrate in meaning and the progress of
understanding the book that the reader chooses.
Furthermore, Nation added “During extensive reading learners should be interested in what they are reading and should be reading with
their attention on the meaning of the text rather than on learning the language features of the text.”28
In this sense, the reader can choose the
literature, as he/she likes because the objective of extensive reading is
dealing with the meaning of it. The same argument by Day and Bamford
(1998) added that “characteristic extensive reading as involving a large
quantity of varied, self selected, enjoyable reading at a reasonably fluent
speed.”29 It is obviously in extensive reading emphasize that the reader can
access, enjoy the literature which he/she has chosen wisely.
Therefore, to summarize, extensive reading is a kind of reading in which
the reader can focus for the value of story in a book not for the specific
items of the text.
In short, the reader has to decide whether she/he wants to read as her/his
attention on the meaning of the text or learning the language feature of the text.
Thus, it makes the reader focus on the process of reading. Moreover, making
interpretation a text, the reader has to understand various text types. Here is one
type of text that has related with is descriptive text.
B. The Descriptive Text
1. The Definition of the Descriptive Text
There are many kinds of text that students have to be mastered in Junior High
School. One of them is descriptive text. According to Anderson and Anderson, “Descriptive text describes particular person, place, or things.”30
It means that it is
designed specifically about a person, a place, or things. In addition, they stated,
28
I. S. P. Nation, Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing, (New York: Taylor and France Group, 2009), p. 50.
29
I. S. P. Nation, Teaching ESL/EFL…, p. 50. 30
“its purpose is to tell about the subject by describing its feature without including personal opinions.”31 For they own think, they consider descriptive text’s objective is to write the real particularly of a thing without argument privately.
In addition, according to Pardiyono, descriptive text gives descriptions from
the living or non-living things to the reader.32 In other words, this text can tell an
object that is still alive and not. Moreover, Clouse added that description gives a
significant point of view because it transforms our feeling and extends our
experiences.33 Here is the essential’s aspect of description is telling about
something or someone particularly which bring the reader’s perception change and spread the reader’s knowledge widely. In this notion, Wishon and Burks stated that description provides sense of opinions, for instance, smell, sound, feel,
look of things.34 In descriptive text, it illustrates that there are senses can be
written in the text.
Furthermore, they stated, “description helps the reader, through his/her imagination, to visualize a scene or a person, or to understand a sensation or an emotion.”35
It is thus important to make readers know and understand the real
sense that is being described in descriptive text.
In sum up, descriptive text is a text which can tell the characteristic of
something or someone living or nonliving for the purpose that the reader could
interpret it well.
2. The Purpose of the Descriptive Text
Getting closer to the purpose of descriptive text, Fink et al (1988) said that the
purpose of description is to imagine the reader by using a picture of a person,
31
Mark Anderson and Kathy Anderson, Text Type in English III, (Sydney: MacMillan, 1998), p. 26.
32
Pardiyono, Pasti Bisa! Teaching Genre-Based Writing, (Yogyakarta: Andi Yogyakarta, 2007), p. 33.
33
Barbara Fine Clouse, The Students’ Writer, (New York, The Mc-Graw Hill Companies, 2004), p. 142.
34
George E. Winshon and Julia M. Burks, Let’s Write English, (New York: Litton Educational Publishing, 1980), p. 128.
35
subject, or setting.36 In short, it is allowed by using picture so that the reader can
visualize it.
Other purposes proposed by Barbara as following, first, to amuse, to give
many impressions, to understand with experience, to help for reader with the
misconception subject written about, to make a fresh value for the familiar and to
convince the reader about something.37 In this way, descriptive text’s objective is
conveying feelings about they are describing, to entertain the reader and to inform
detail information of something.
In sum up, the purpose of descriptive text is to get the reader imagine within
the story to get pleasure and information.
3. The Structure and Language Feature of the Descriptive Text
Reading text describing about person or things has a characteristic in its
organizing. According to James, who classified become two aspects in a
description text, they are Identification and description.38 Here are the
explanations.
a. Identification
Identification introduces the thing as the first step in the beginning
structure of descriptive text. Thus, in the identification section, the reader
identify what is the object will appear. It is in line with Pardiyono stated
that identification introducing the thing is as a first step to begin the
descriptive text.39 In short, identification is introducing the first part in this
text initially. Another term of identification explained by Sudarwati and
Grace mentioned that it contains name, occupation, profession, and
36
Lila Fink, et. al. , Choices a Text for Writing and Reading. (New York: Little, Brown and Company Limited, 1983), p. 41.
37
Barbara Fine Clouse, The Student Writer, (Mc. Graw-Hill Companies, 2002), p. 143. 38
Peter James, Real English 1 for Senior High School Grade X, (Jakarta: Erlangga, 2006), p. 122.
39
career.40 It means, in this part indicate and state initial information what is
being describe.
b. Description
Sudarwati stated that this section explained about physical features,
the personality, and the way he/she dresses.41 This part sets the description
itself about any features of the object. In addition, according to Wardiman
et al explained that the part of description is to describe the character.42 It
means that this part contains the figure that the writer describes.
Here is the schematic structure:
Figure 2.1 The Schematic Structure of the Descriptive Text
In another side, Pardiyono proposed that language features
combining descriptive text have purpose to realize the information or
40
Th. M. Sudarwati and Eudis Grace, Look Ahead An English Course for Senior High School Students Year X, (Jakarta, Erlangga, 2007), p. 135.
41
Th. M. Sudarwati and Eudis Grace, Look Ahead…, p. 135. 42
Artono Wardiman, et. al. , English in Focus, (Pusat Pebukuan Depdiknas: 2008), p. 16. Tawangmangu Waterfall
Tawangmangu waterfall is one of the most interesting places of interest in Karanganyar.
It is located not far from Solo. It is about 30 kilometers east of the city. It is very easy to get the place by public lake. The falling water looks very fantastic, and the beauty of the nature around the lake is so astonishing. There is a small river nearby, to where the water then flows.
Located in the middle of pinewoods, the lake is always wonderful to admire, in addition, there are many funny and tame monkeys climbing the trees on the left and right sides of the sidewalk down to the lake.
Identification
effective message based on the use of grammar. It works to make the idea
delivers to the reader properly. The language feature included in the
descriptive text as following:
1. Phrase formation : noun, verb, adjective and adverb
2. Tense, using present tense in giving descriptions
3. Conjunction is to add the information, to compare or to
contradictory.
4. Sentence, the appropriate sentences give more information about
thing being described.
5. Pronoun, to show that something is in particular
6. Passive, sentence using passive verb is also to reveal the
information.43
Here is the example of language features in descriptive text related to the story
above:
No. Linguistic Feature Example
1. Noun Phrase Falling water, interesting places
2. Verb phrase is located
is not polluted.
3. Simple present Tense The water falls more than 30 meters down into a small lake.
The falling water looks very fantastic
4. Conjunction in addition, there are many funny and tame
monkeys climbing the trees….
Bus is the cheapest, but taxi is the most convenient.
5. Pronoun It is very easy to get the place by public
transports.
It has cool weather most of the time.
There are many funny and tame monkeys climbing the trees
43
6. Passive voice It is not polluted.
(Adapted from Pardiyono, 2007)44
Figure 2.2
Language Features of the Descriptive Text
C. The Reciprocal Teaching Technique
1. The Definition of the Reciprocal Teaching Technique
Before implementation of reciprocal teaching technique, it is necessary to know how the reciprocal teaching technique is. Based on Farris’s description, she stated that:
Developed by Annemarie Pallincsar and Ann Brown (1984), reciprocal teaching is one of the most carefully researched, prominent strategies. In this cooperative learning procedure, the teacher and the students work together to develop an understanding of the text. There are four thoughtfully
integrated comprehension strategies at the core of this approach, prediction, questioning, seeking clarification, summarization.45
It means that, reciprocal teaching technique is a process to comprehend text
by using four steps which is done by the teacher and the students to built their
speculation about the text.
Meanwhile, Cambridge Advance Learners’ Dictionary defines „reciprocal „ as “a reciprocal action or arrangement involve two people or groups of people who behave in the same way or agree to help each other and give each other advantages.”46
In other words, reciprocal is regarded as an interaction between
two people or more gain same purpose cooperatively. Meanwhile teaching derived from word teach, it is defined as “to give someone knowledge or to train someone.”47
In this sense, reciprocal teaching means an activity consists of two
people or groups by giving or training them to reach the same perspective.
44
Pardiyono, Pasti Bisa! Teaching Genre-Based Writing, (Yogyakarta: Andi Yogyakarta, 2007), p. 43- 56.
45
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc Graw-Hill Company, 2004) , p. 340.
46
Walter, Elizabeth. Cambridge Advance Learner’s Dictionary Third Edition, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), p. 1187.
47
Approaching to word technique is defined as “a way of doing an activity needs skill.” It means that knowing one of the skills is the main point to operate an activity.
Pamela J. Farris viewed that
As with other cooperative learning effort, it will take time to learn reciprocal teaching. Careful supervision and the practice will help students to master the steps in an educationally interactive dialogue. The benefits of reciprocal teaching in facilitating comprehension are enduring and well worth the effort on everyone’s part.48
Because through reciprocal teaching, in this case, teachers demonstrate the process, navigate the students’ work, scaffolds experiences as needed and provide feedback. Based on the explanation above reciprocal teaching technique is a
technique using four strategies cooperatively. This step can be implemented
during the students and the teacher read a text or story to develop their
comprehension about it.
2. The Purpose of the Reciprocal Teaching Technique
Pallinscar and Brown stated that, while students and teacher apply reciprocal teaching procedure, its purpose that “The teacher prompts and shapes the students’ participation by using corrective feedback.”49
It means that, the teacher
as guidance to maintain the activity and to give respond correctively in the
classroom.
Moreover, Farris researched that “Careful supervision and practice will help students to master the steps in an educationally interactive dialogue.”50 In this
point, students can develop their understanding the steps within the dialogue
between the teacher and the students.
Furthermore, Cotterall said that, “firstly the strategy training allows them to
gain confidence and expertise as they apply the four strategies to a variety of
48
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc Graw-Hill Company, 2004) , p. 341.
49
Annemarie Pallincsar and Anna Brown, “Reciprocal Teaching: A means to a Meaningful
End”, in Jean Osborn, et. al. , Reading Education: Foundations for a Literate America, (Urbana-Champaign: D.C. Heath and company, 1985), p. 299.
50
texts.”51
Using the reciprocal teaching technique, students could build their
confidence for many kinds of texts. She also explained that the purpose of this
interaction notion is to engage students’ attention to the meaning of the text; it
could bring students to identify the kind of problem they are finding, and to seek
clarifications in a text. In short, by dialogue between students and the teacher will
help the students concentrate and identity the text.
Meanwhile, Cotteral assumed that “reciprocal teaching involves students in
using the target language to debate ideas and interpretations, encouraging them to
call on their knowledge of the world, their previous experiences of reading and their knowledge of L2 to help them make sense of the text.”52
In this sense,
reciprocal teaching also invites the students to predict and think in target language
as they read in text.
To conclude, the purpose of reciprocal teaching technique is to build
comprehension and give corrective feedback used by teacher and students
cooperatively in dialogue.
3. The Strategy of the Reciprocal Teaching Technique
Knowing how the process of the reciprocal teaching technique is an important
point. Palinscar and Brown explained that
The primary instructional technique employed to teach the four activities is an interactive dialogue in which the teacher explicitly models each of the four activities. The students follow the teacher’s model by engaging in the same activities. The teacher prompts and shapes the student’s participation by using corrective feedback.53
51Sara Cotteral,” Reciprocal Teaching: A problem Solving Approach to Reading”,
Guidelines a Periodical for Classroom Language Teachers 12 (1991) : 31-39.
52Sara Cotteral,” Reciprocal Teaching: A problem Solving Approach to Reading”,
Guidelines a Periodical for Classroom Language Teachers 12 (1991) : 32.
Furthermore, Farris stated that the steps consist of four steps as followed:
1. Prediction
At the beginning, students and teacher see the aspects for instance the title
of the story, the introduction, and headings. After that, teacher let the
students activate a prior knowledge to predict about the text. The students are encouraged to speculate freely what the author’s might discuss. Moreover, according to Palinscar and Brown, they illustrated that the
teacher first asks the students to predict the title what might be included in the text to be read.”54
In other words, the teacher asks initially about the
title and the teacher has the students reveal predictions about it. In
addition, they added, the teacher notes and refers to them as the class proceeds through the text.”55
It can be shown when the teacher writes the students’ prediction and gives a clue when the interaction
2. Questioning
The next step students read silently in order to know the main idea of the
paragraph. After reading, they formulate about the unclear section of this paragraph. Moreover, Farris stated, “As a check on the comprehension of what they are reading, students at that time formulate the question about the content.”56
Here is after reading the students proposed the question
about the reading passage to make sure their understanding.
3. Seeking clarification
Later, teacher and students find out the answer in the text that they feel
confuse. The participation both teacher and together to seek a clarification
during the group discussion is the step to ensure the reader engage with
the text. In addition, Palinscar and Brown stated that these step purposes to
54 Annemarie Pallincsar and Anna Brown,”Reciprocal Teaching: A Means to a Meaningful End”, in Jean Osborn , et al, Reading Education: Foundations for a Literate America , (Urbana-Champaign: D.C Heath and Company, 1985), p. 300.
55 Annemarie Pallincsar and Anna Brown,”Reciprocal Teaching: A Means to a Meaningful End”, in Jean Osborn , et al, Reading Education: Foundations for a Literate America, …, p. 300.
56
make anything potentially confusing the text clarify.57 In this term unclear
aspect in the text which make students confuse was revealed for order that
students could understand. The aspect when the clarifying process Farris
stated, both teacher and students concern about the vocabulary, unusual
expressions, concepts or other information that might be confusing. This
activity concern linguistic aspect and many things related to the text.
4. Summarization
The last step is the students’ focus what is the significant part about the
whole story. 58Here, the students pointed out the main focus of the text.
Furthermore, Farris added that in this case initially teacher as a leader
summarizes the text and the next explanation come from a group leader
chosen involving the main part the text.59 It means, teacher is not only the
summarizer but also students, too.
In short, the four steps of reciprocal teaching technique above explained in
classroom cooperatively between teacher and students. Its purposes are to
encourage students to predict and to ask questions about the text or story.
57 Annemarie Pallincsar and Anna Brown,”Reciprocal Teaching: A Means to a Meaningful End”, in Jean Osborn , et. al. , Reading Education: Foundations for a Literate America,
(Urbana-Champaign: D.C Heath and Company, 1985), p. 300.
58
Pamela J. Farris, et. al. , Teaching Reading a Balance Approach for Today’s Classrooms, (New York: The Mc. Graw-Hill Company, 2004), p. 341.
59
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents the method of the research, the subject and the object of
the study, the time and the place of the study, the research design, Classroom
Action Research (CAR) procedures, the technique of collecting data, the
technique of data analysis, the data validity, and the criteria of the action success.
A. The Method of the Research Study
The Method used in this study is Classroom Action Research (CAR).
According to Gay, Classroom Action Research (CAR) is concerned with a local
problem and is conducted in a local setting.1 It means that researcher has to
observe and identify the problem at the classroom. In addition, he stated, “the
purpose of action research is to solve classroom through application of the
scientific method.”2 It means that, in the study the researcher also has to provide
the solution and an effort about the problem that concern in teaching learning
process.
1
L. R. Gay, Education Research: Competencies for Analysis an Application, (Columbus: Merril Publishing Company, 1986), p. 8.
2
L. R. Gay, Education Research: Competencies for…, p. 8.
B. The Subject and the Object of the Study 1. The Subject of the Study
The subject of study is the writer as the teacher. In the action, this
study is performed by the teacher in the classroom with an emphasis on
improvement of process and practical learning.
2. The Object of the Study
The object of the study is first, the VII-5 class students of MTs.
Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok, academic year 2011/2012. The number of
VII-5 class consists of 37 students. The second is the reciprocal teaching technique to improve students’ reading comprehension in terms of descriptive text. The last is the result of students’ achievement in learning reading skill of
descriptive text at the VII-5 class of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere, Depok.
C. The Time and the Place of The Study
This research spent four (4) months started from July up to October 2011. The
place is at grade VII-5 of MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere academic year
2011/2012.
D. The Writer’s Role on The Study
In the study the writer is not only as the observer, she arranges the schedule
together with the teacher. In the action, the writer also makes lesson planning and
the assessment or test before Classroom Action Research (CAR) pre-test and after
classroom Action Research (CAR) post-test in each final cycle. On the other side
as the teacher, she carries out the action based upon the lesson planning has been
arranged. Furthermore, the writer also collects and analyzes data then reports the
E. The Research Design
The writer uses a classroom action research designed by Kurt Lewin model.
The cycle contains four phases; they are planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. Figure 3.1 Kurt’s Lewin’s Action Research Design
(Rido Kurnianto, et.al. , 2009)
Perencanaan Ulang Refleksi
(Reflecting)
Observasi (Observing)
Tindakan
(Acting) Perencanaan
(Planning) Identifikasi
Masalah
Siklus I
Siklus II Tindakan
(Acting) Observasi
(Observing) Refleksi
Based on the Kurt Lewin’s action research design above, the writer would like to describe the implementation of classroom Action Research (CAR) in the first
cycle and the second cycle, as following:
Figure 3.2 The Phases and The Cycles of Classroom Action Research modified by the writer
Planning After observing the
PLANNING.After observing, interviewing, and navigating the pre-test, the teacher & the writer collaborate to prepare the schedule, make instruments, lesson planning, observational guidelines, and the post-test I.
ACTING. The teacher applied the lesson containing of reading descriptive text by using reciprocal teaching technique. In the end of the meeting of the first cycle, the teacher gave a post-test I.
Observing. The teacher and the writer observe the teaching learning process in the classroom, it is included the students response, the teacher performance, and the class situation. Reflecting. After
applying the technique, the writer and the teacher discuss about the barriers occurred, calculate the post-test I score and withdraw a conclusion for making modification for next cycle.
Siklus I
PLANNING. After knowing the barrier in the cycle 1, the writer and the teacher collaborate to prepare some instruments, modification of reciprocal teaching technique, new lesson planning and preparing the post-test II
ACTING. The teacher realized the lesson plan that contains of reading descriptive text by using
reciprocal teaching technique.
Showing the new instrument, explaining slowly and clearly and the end of the meeting, the teacher gets students complete post-test II.
Observing. The teacher and the
writer observe the students’ response,
teacher performance, and the class
situation whether using some
modification there is improvement on
their readingcomprehension.
students’ test result has not completed the the KKM yet of the action success, the cycle would be continued to next cycle.
F.The CAR Procedures
Based on the research design above, there are four steps in each cycle:
planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. After, the writer, the teacher, and the
students accomplish cycle I, and then there might be found a new problem. They
have to continue the next cycle with the same phase of the first cycle. Here are the
descriptions in every phase.
1. Planning Phase
In this phase, after the writer and the teacher observe the class and
the writer interviews the teacher. Then, the writer identifies and diagnoses
students’ reading problem occurred in the class. At the time, the writer
analyses the data that have been identified through observation, interview
and makes conclusion. Afterward, the writer and the teacher arrange the
plan to conduct the classroom in turn. Next, the writer makes lesson plan
based on the research used syllabus at that school and designs the project
or activity that she has been planned for students by preparing lesson plan
and applying lesson in VII-5 grade class at MTs. Hidayatul Umam, Cinere.
The lesson planning also describes teaching procedures, media, and
resources in every cycle.
2. Acting Phase
The second phase, the writer and the teacher collaborate to carry
out based on arranged the action. It starts the process of learning the issue
being researched. In this phase the teacher and the writer collaborate to
conduct learning teaching process, in which while the teacher are teaching
and implementing the technique, the writer observes the class condition
and the problem appeared, and vice-versa. Related with the allocation
time, the writer and the teacher take the action phase for two weeks within
two cycles. Every cycle contains two meetings, which is listed in schedule
3. Observing Phase
When the action phase, the writer also observes the process of
classroom action research of learning reading skill (descriptive text) by
using reciprocal teaching technique. When observing, the writer notices
and notes all of activities in the classroom. It is regarded on class situation, students’ response, the teacher performance. In this phase, the writer also collects the data from post-test and the result of students’ activity.
4. Reflecting Phase
In this phase is carried out after the teacher and the writer have
finished the action, then they realize and find about the problem appeared
when the plan has been implemented. In this case, if there still might have
found problems and the criteria that decided has not reached yet.
Consequently, the writer and the teacher have to prepared and arranged for
the next cycle.
G. The Technique of Collecting Data
There are two types of collecting data: qualitative and quantitative data.
Qualitative, field note the description of students’ activity, teacher performance in
the classroom and interview to be given for the teacher. In collecting the
quantitative data, the writer uses pre-test and post-test.3 The explanation as
follows:
a. Observation
In this case, the writer uses the unstructured or opened
observation directly in the classroom and gets the description about students’ activity and participation in learning process and the teacher’ performance. This process is when the implementation of CAR, reading activity and students’ participation in applying
reciprocal teaching technique.
3
b. Interview
The writer interviews the teacher before applying classroom
action research. It is to know general description about process of learning reading skill, to know the students’ difficulties in reading skill, to know the students’ situation in reading activity, and the method or any strategies usually implemented by the teacher in
teaching reading. The writer also interviews the teacher to know
his reaction toward the suggestion of reciprocal teaching technique
after classroom action research.
c. Test
The writer used test to get the data result about process of
learning reading skill. The tests are pre-test, post-test I, post-test II.
The form of the test is multiple-choice item. The pre-test is given
before implementing reciprocal teaching technique. It is to evaluate
their skill on reading comprehension at first. On the other hand, the
post-test is implemented after using reciprocal teaching technique.
The test is held on the end meeting in each cycle.
H. The Technique of Data Analysis
The analysis qualitative data used in this study is the observation of the students’ activities during teaching learning process, and the interview before and after Classroom Action Research (CAR). In this case, the writer collected all data
that have gained. To analyze the statistical data, the writer puts on the average of students’ reading score per action in one cycle; it uses the formula as follow:4
M : mean
4
Anas, Sudijono, PengantarStatistik Pendidikan, (Jakarta: PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, 1987), p. 82.
∑ X M =
