A Pragmatic Analysis Of Verbal Offers By Vendors In Pasar Brayan, Medan

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A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF VERBAL OFFERS BY

VENDORS IN PASAR BRAYAN, MEDAN

A THESIS BY:

Name

: DESY JUMIATI

Reg. No.

: 060721008

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH SUMATERA

FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH LITERATURE DEPARTMENT

MEDAN

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Alhamdullilah, I would like to thank to the Almighty God, Allah SWT for His infinite and blessing so I can accomplish this thesis in order to fulfill the requirements to get a degree for English Literature Department, Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatera.

On my success, it is not possible to get well without the help, supervision, guidance, and support of many helpful and respectable persons. I also would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to Drs. Syaifuddin, M.A.,Ph.D, Dean of Faculty of Letters, University of North Sumatera, Dra. Swesana Mardia Lubis, M.Hum as the head of English Literature Department and my deepest gratitude goes to Drs. Umar Mono, M.Hum as my academic supervisor who has spent his precious time in guiding and correcting this thesis. In particular, I also want to thank to all my lectures who have not only taught me to be a better woman but also given me valuable knowledge during the years of my study in Faculty of Letters.

Furthermore, to my co-supervisor, Dra. Roma Ayuni Lubis, M.A., thank you very much for giving me her time to correct this thesis.

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Finally, I thank to all my friends, whoever they are, who have helped me out in anyway, shape of form, encouragement, support, dedication, and friendship. Ika, Juli, Gita, Bo, and especially for Murtopo, thanks for your help. I cannot forget you all.

Last but not least, I realize that this thesis is still far from being perfect. Therefore, any constructive criticism and suggestion will be highly appreciated. I hope this thesis would be useful for the readers.

Medan, January 2008 The writer

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ABSTRAK

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ABSTRAK

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Analysis

Language plays important roles in our life. Everybody uses language to communicate with each other. It is also used to express our reaction to certain situation and to reveal our ideas, thoughts, feeling, or emotion. Human as a social creature uses language to build relationship with other. It is a wonderful ability for human to communicate using words and sequences of words which differentiates them from animal. That is why language is a complex human being phenomenon.

Blooch and Trager in John Lyons (1942:5) state that a language is a system of arbitary vocal symbols by means of which a social group so-operates. Hall (1968: 158) states that language is the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral- auditory arbitrary symbols.

Language is absolutely used to communicate. When using a word or a combination of words either in spoken or written, the main aim is to indicate something or some relations or even some ideas, and it can be shown or called as its meaning,

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the meaning of the speaker or writer try to reveal, communication is not working and misunderstanding will arouse.

The branch of Linguistics which deals with understanding of language as a system and especially to an understanding of meaning in a context is called Pragmatics. Pragmatics recognizes the importance of context and thus can reveal the meaning underlying a certain utterance. To construct the appropriate meaning in an exchange, the speakers and hearers need to negotiate with it, taking physical, and linguistic contexts as well as the meaning potential of the utterances into consideration.

Aitchison (1995:112) underlines that in a narrow sense pragmatics is concerned with how listeners arrive at the intended meaning of the speakers, whereas in the broadest sense it deals with the general principles followed by human beings when they are communicating with one another. The word principles implies regularity exists in the use of language in communication and

this regularity derives from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group.

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evidence; Maxim of Quantity, which expresses information, that is by making your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange; Maxim of Relation, which expresses relevance; Maxim of Manner, which expresses clarity and avoidance ambiguity of expression.

Brown & Yule (1984: 25) state that language as a means of communication basically serves two functions, namely transactional and interactional function. When language is used to transmit content or information, it is mainly transactional in nature. Conversely, it fulfills interactional function if it is spoken to establish or maintain social relationship.

Verbal offer is one of oral communication which needs transactional and interactional function. Verbal offers by vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan is interesting to be analyzed in order to observe that utterances much used by vendors there. They give information about what they are selling (transactional function) and to observe the act of vendors in attracting the customer’s intention so that an act of purchasing will expectedly follow from the verbal offers. Thus, it is obvious that the vendors try to establish a good social relationship with the customers (interactional function). Therefore, this analysis tries to reveal their utterances in offering their merchandise in order to get information whether they obey or violate Cooperative Principles proposed by Grice.

Below is one of examples of utterances taken from a vendor in Pasar Brayan, Medan:

Kue…. Kue….. which literally translated “Cake”

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The utterance above comes from a snack vendor who offers her snack by articulating the word kue, an English word meaning “cake”. Cake is one kinds of

snack. It is pronounced [kύe] with prolong last vowel [e]. Basically, the snack

vendor is still cooperating to communicate in transactional and interactional function. She gives information about what she sells to the customers (transactional function) and she tries to establish a good social relationship with the customers by offering her snack to the customers so, the customers understand about what she sells (interactional function).

The vendor has obeyed the four maxims proposed by Grice. By saying kue, she has obeyed maxim of quantity and relation because she has given

sufficient and relevant information to the customers about what she sells. Besides that, she has also obeyed maxim of quality because her information is true one. It is obvious that she really sells kue “snack” not other kinds of snack except kue. Moreover, by saying kue, she has obeyed maxim of manner because she has given unambiguous word. Kue or snack means small quick meal, usually eaten instead of or between main meals.

Many other utterances of vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan will be analyzed in next chapter.

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1.2 Problems of the Analysis

The focus of this thesis is to analyze verbal offers used by vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan. The writer has some questions as problems of the

analysis:

- How are the utterances uttered by vendors in transactional and interactional functions?

- Do they obey or violate the Cooperative Principles proposed by Grice?

1.3 Objective of the Analysis

Concerning the problems of analysis, the writer has some objectives or purposes to be obtained. They are:

- To analyze the utterances uttered by vendors in transactional and interactional functions.

- To analyze whether they obey or violate the Cooperative Principle proposed by Grice.

1.4 Significances of the Analysis

The objectives are expected to give some significance for the readers especially for those who are interested in studying verbal offers. The significances are:

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- The thesis will give clear information and understanding concerning the kinds of Gricean Maxims that emerged from the verbal offers uttered by vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan

- The thesis can be used as a reference for those who are interesting in doing further Linguistics research deal with Pragmatics study especially regarding to the verbal offers.

1.5 Scope of the Analysis

This analysis describes the verbal offers by vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan. The scope of this analysis is focused on the utterances by suit vendors, snack vendors, fruit vendors, cigarette vendors, and newspaper vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan whether they obey or violate the Cooperative Principles proposed

by Grice and its four maxims as follows: Maxim of Quantity, Maxim of Quality, Maxim of Relation, and Maxim of Manner.

1.6 Method of the Analysis

In writing this thesis, I use field research. There are four steps in analyzing the utterances uttered by vendors. Firstly, I select Pasar Brayan, Medan because it is a well-populated area in the town. It has a strategic location that is, on Jalan Pertempuran, Pulo Brayan, Medan. Besides, this location is near with my house

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Secondly, I find out the sample of population. Population is a large number of groups which we want to know. The part of population which can represent the whole population is called sample. I use Drawing Technique of Stratified Sample by Manasse Malo (1985: 158) that is a technique which use some steps to present the variety of sample. Through this technique, the drawing of sample will be clearer in representing the whole population.

Drawing Technique of Stratified Sample has some step, that is:

Step I : Arrange the sampling sketch based on its population, that is based on the kinds of merchandise which they sell:

• Suit vendors : 30 vendors • Snack vendors : 30 vendors • Fruits vendors : 20 vendors • Cigarettes vendors : 10 vendors • Newspapers vendors : 10 vendors

Total population : 100 vendors

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• Newspapers vendors :

100 10

x 20 = 2 vendors

Total sample : 20 vendors

Then, I write and use tape-recorder as my instrument to record their utterances secretly in getting the data. My duration in getting the data is two times in a week for two months.

No. Date of Research Time Activities

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Next, to make the data to be easier to be processed, I transcribe the data in written data in order to get clearer explanation about verbal offers.

Finally, the data analysis will be analyzed relates to Gricean maxims and then I draw some conclusion based on the result of the analysis.

1.7 Review of Related Literature

In supporting the idea of the analysis, I do not only create my opinion to accomplish the analysis, but also use and read some books relevant to the topic.

Cutting (2002: 14) has pointed out that “Pragmatics emerges as an independent field of the study primarily because Semantics frequently fails to provide sufficient explanations with regard to meaning. While Semantics caters for the literal meaning of an expression, it does not take the context in which it is uttered into account.”

Thomas (1995:20) also adds,

“Pragmatics, on the contrary, recognizes the importance of context, and thus can reveal the meaning underlying a certain utterances. To construct the appropriate meaning in an exchange, the speakers and the hearers need to negotiate it, taking physical, social, and linguistics context as well as the meaning potential of the utterances into consideration.”

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Aitchison (1995:28) underlines that in a narrow sense, pragmatics concerns with how listeners arrive at the intended meaning of the speakers, whereas in the broadest sense it deals with the general principles followed by human being when they are communicating with one another.

Yule (1996:25) is not much different from Aitchison’s theory, who states the word principles implies regularity exists in the use of the language communication, and this regularity derives from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group.

Grice (1989:29) proposed clearer understanding about the four maxims in his Cooperative Principles as follows:

1. Maxim of Quantity

a. Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

b. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. 2. Maxim of Quality

a. Do not say what you believe to be false.

b. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 3. Maxim of Relation

a. Be relevant. 4. Maxim of Manner

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CHAPTER II

A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF PRAGMATICS

2.1 Definitions of Pragmatics

A sub field of linguistics developed in the late 1970s, Pragmatics studies how people comprehend and produce a communicate act or speech act in a concrete speech situation which is usually a conversation. The ability to comprehend and produce a communicative act is called pragmatic competence which often includes one’s acts knowledge about the social distance, social status between the speakers involved, the cultural knowledge, such as politeness and the linguistic knowledge.

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define it in accord with the rapid advancement and development of the Pragmatics itself and language in general. Morris had given a very wide scope to Pragmatics in which it includes what is now known as Psycholinguistics, Sociolinguistics, and Neurolinguistics.

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Meanwhile, H. P Grice (1989:15) concerns with the nature of the relation of signs to interpreters, and in particular how a speaker manages to communicate a specific communicative intention to his or her interlocutor and how the interlocutor recognizes this intention. He formulated a set of maxims that guide the process by which the interlocutors recognize each other’s communicative intention.

However, most of the contributions restrict Pragmatics to linguistic communication in context. This is rooted in traditional rather than theoretical reason. It means that pragmatics must deal not only with the communicative uses of language but also the atmosphere of context. It also stresses the importance to study discourse as a phenomenon of human action and to view discourse as a form of manifestation of the interaction between organism and environment.

Based on the explanation above, we can conclude that Pragmatics focuses on human communication. Communication is not merely something that happens but it is functional form to give some effects on the environment of the speaker and hearer. When one focuses on the intentions, purposes, beliefs, and wants that a speaker has in speaking and on what a person is doing with words in particular situation, one focuses on what people use language to do.

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2.2 Scope of Pragmatics

Dr. Levinson (1983: 32) has provided a lucid an integrative analysis of central scope of pragmatics. They are:

1. Entailment 2. Deixis 3. Implicature 4. Presuppotion 5. Speech act

1. Entailment

Entailment is inferences that can be drawn solely from our knowledge about the semantic relationship in a language.

• Types of entailment: 1. one-way entailment

One-way entailment means the sentences are not true paraphrases each other.

e. g.: Harry saw a bear. Harry saw an animal.

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2. two-way entailment (mutual entailment)

Two-way entailment means the sentences which are paraphrases of each other.

e. g.: Anne is in front of Annie. Annie is behind Anne.

The examples above have meaning relationship between in front of / behind. We have a situation of two-way mutual entailment between the sentences in each other. These sentences are paraphrases of each other.

2. Deixis

In pragmatics and linguistics, deixis (Greek: δειξις display demonstration,

or references, the meaning “point of reference”) is a process whereby words or expressions rely absolutely on context. The origo is the context from which the reference is made. In other words, the viewpoint that must be understood in order to interpret the utterance.

e. g.; if Tom is speaking and he says “I”, he refers to himself, but if he is listening to Betty and says “I”, then the origo is Betty and the reference is to her.

Pro-form are generally considered to be deictics, but a finer distinction is often made between personal pro-forms such as I, you, and it (commonly referred to as personal pronouns) and pro-forms that refer to places and times such as now, then, here, there. In most texts, the word deictic implies the latter but not

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• Types of deixis 1. Person deixis

2. Discourse deixis: where reference is being made to the current discourse or part thereof. Examples: “that was a really mean thing to say”. This sentence is false. The last is an example of token-reflexive discourse deixis, in which a word in the utterance refers to the utterance itself.

3. Switch reference is a type of discourse deixis and grammatical feature found in some languages, which indicates whether the argument of one clause is the same as the argument of the previous clause. In some languages this is done through same subject markers and different subject markers.

4. Empathetic deixis: where different forms of the deictic are used to indicate the speaker’s emotional closeness or distance from the referent.

5. Place deixis: a spatial location relative to the spatial location of the speaker. It can be proximal or distal or sometimes medial. It can also be either bounded (indicating a spatial region with a clearly defined boundary, e.g. in the box) or unbounded (indicating a spatial region without a clearly defined boundary, e. g. over there). 6. Social deixis: is the use of different deictics to express social

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indicates the relative social status of the addressor and the addressee. For example, one pro-form might be used to address those of lesser social rank, another to address those of the same social rank. By contrast, absolute social deixis indicates a social standing irrespective of the social standing of the speaker. Thus, village chiefs might always be addressed by a special pro-form, regardless of whether it is someone below them, above them or at the same level of the social hierarchy who is doing the addressing. 7. Time deixis: is reference made to particular times relative to some

other time, most currently the time of utterance. For example, the use of the words now or soon, or the use of tenses.

3. Implicature

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Here are two implicatures: “I don’t like it” and “I’m not going”: 1. A: “We’re going to the movies”

B: “I’ve got an exam tomorrow”

Relation: the B’s exam is not apparently relevant to a discussion about going to the movies.

2. A: “Are you going to Steve’s barbeque?” B: “A barbeque is an outdoor party.”

Quantity: stating that a barbeque is an outdoor party is apparently both too informative (since people know that a barbeque is an outdoor party) and not informative enough since B has not directly answered the question.

4. Presupposition

In Linguistics, a presupposition is background belief, relating to an utterance, that:

• Must be mutual known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to be considered appropriate in context.

• Will generally remain necessary assumption whether the utterance is placed in the form of as assertion, denial, or question, and

• Can be associated with a specific lexical item or grammatical feature (-presupposition trigger).

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• Do you want to do it again?

Presupposition: You have done it already, at least once. • My wife is pregnant.

Presupposition: The speaker has a wife.

5. Speech Act

Speech act theory was first developed by J.L Austin in a series of lectures at Oxford University. His book “How to Do Things with Words” , is the first to introduce the idea of speech act, analyzing the relationship between utterance and performatives . A speech act is the action performed by language to modify the state of the object on which the action is performed.

Austin (1962:12) states,”… to say something, at least in all cases worth considering, i.e. all cases considered, is always and simply to state something”. It means what the speaker is doing is creating social realities within certain social context. Speech act also usually appear in the first person and use the simple present tense, indicative (for example: I promise I will come tomorrow). Speech act is not descriptive, instead they are pronounced to affect an actual situation, and they usually do not refer to past events.

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pronounce you husband and wife. While the constative utterance, under the name

of statement, has the property of being true or false, for example: I name the ship Queen Elizabeth.

• Types of Speech Acts

J.L Austin and John Searle identify three distinct levels of action beyond the act of utterances itself. Austin distinguishes the act of saying something, what one does in saying it and what one does by saying it and called these the locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. In addition, each type of illocutionary act can have different propositional contents. Therefore, propositional act is added in to the types of speech acts. So, they have developed four categories of speech acts.

1. Locutionary Act

Austin (1962:109) states, “Locutionary act, which is roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sense and reference, which is again roughly equivalent to ‘meaning’ in the traditional sense.” It means locutionary act which is also known as utterance act, is simply an act of uttering sounds, syllables, word, phrases, and sentences from a language. It is the basic act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression. From a speech act point of view, this is not very interesting act because an utterance act is not communicative, it can be performed by tape recorder or voice synthesizer

.

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Mostly we do not just produce well-formed utterances with no purpose. We form an utterance with some kinds of function in mind. This is the second dimension, or the illocutionary act. Illocutionary act is an act performed in saying something that is we talk about the relevant intention, function of force, and question ‘what is the act done for?’

All illocutionary acts are governed by two rules: regulative rules and constitutive rules. Regulative rules regulate or govern existing forms of behavior, while constitutive rules help to establish the existence of a kind of behavior that needs the rules.

3. Perlocutionary Act

We do not simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to have an effect. It is described in perlocutionaryact. It is an act performed by saying something. Depending on the circumstances, you will utter on the assumption that the hearer will recognize the effect you intended.

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Some typical examples of Perlocutionary act are: - inspiring

- impressing - embarrassing - misleading - irritating - encouraging

- persuading - intimidating - deceiving - amusing - frightening

Perlocutionary act seems to involve the effects of utterance act and illocutionary act on the thoughts, feelings, and actions of hearer, while illocutionary act does not

4. Propositional Act

Propositional act is an act of referring and predicating wherein speaker refers to something and characterizes it. Suppose that a speaker speech act utters the sentence.

Phil is smiling.

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2.3 Goals of Pragmatic Theory

In a pragmatic theory, what we mean by the goal here is more than merely a theory, but, it is concerned much with a function of the roles of grammatical description of a sentence, the context in which it was uttered, the full meaning of the utterances in the context in theory of Pragmatics.

Furthermore, the minimal requirements on a adequate pragmatic theory are as follows:

A Pragmatic Theory:

a. must contain a classification of speech act.

b. must contain analysis and definition of the various speech act.

c. must contain a specification of various uses of expression: it must say that: (i) expression e is standard (literally and directly) used to do X (in

context C).

(ii) expression e has n different uses.

(iii) expression e and e’ have the same use or user.

d. must relate literal and direct language use to such phenomenon as: (i) linguistic structure (semantics, syntax, and phonology).

(ii) the structure of the communication situation, the course of conversations and social institutions.

(iii) speaker-meaning, implication, (pragmatic presupposition, and understanding)

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and Anthropology. Philosophers have been mainly concerned with categorizing types of speech act and with defining each category. They have pursued goals (a) and ( b). Linguists have been mainly concerned with specifying which expression in the language have been uses or condition on uses. In short Linguists have been concerned mainly goals (c, i), (d, i), and (d, ii). Psychologists have been concerned with the investigation of how information concerning language use is processed, stored, and acquired. Finally, Anthropologists and Sociologists have been concerned with regularities between language use and social role, as well as the structuring of speech act into conversations. We can see from this that a successful pragmatics will require the cooperation of many disciplines. However, we will be concentrating mainly on Linguistics and Philosophical concerns.

2.4 Cooperative Principle Proposed by Grice

H.P Grice had worked with J.L Austin at Oxford in the 1940s and 1950s and his work on the Cooperative Principle and its related maxims arises from the same tradition of ordinary language philosophy. Grice’s theory is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning.

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communicate by conversation. Such of the rules were the convention that help speaker and hearer to prevent misunderstanding in the conversation.

Cooperative principle is a principle used in the analysis of conversation which status that speakers try to cooperate with each other when communicating, in particular, they try to be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear. Listeners normally assume that speaker is following these conventions.

The concept of cooperative principle expected amount of information provided in conversation, as one aspect of the general idea that people involved in a conversation. Therefore, people will cooperate with each other. For example, for reference to be successful, it was proposed that collaboration was necessary factor. In accepting speakers’ presupposition, listeners normally have to assume that a speaker who says ‘my motorcycle’ really does have the motorcycle that is mentioned and isn’t trying to mislead the listener. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from each other. In most circumstance, this kind of cooperation is only the starting point for making sense of what is said.

Grice proposed four maxims, the maxims of Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Manner. In analyzing the expression, there would be two cases whether it observing (obey) the maxims or non-observing of the maxims.

1. Observing (obey) the maxim

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Husband : “Where is the motorcycle key?” Wife : “it is in the drawer in the living room.”

The wife has answered clearly (manner), truthfully (quality), has given just the right amount of information (quantity) and has directly addressed her husband’s goal in asking the question (relation). She has said precisely what she meant, no more and no less, and has generated no implicature. Here, there is no distinction to be made between what she says and what she means, and there is no additional level of meaning.

2. Non-Observing of the Maxims

In his paper (1975:49) Grice was well aware, however, that there are very many occasions when people fail to observe the maxims. There are five ways of failing to observe a maxim.

Flouting a maxim Violating a maxim Infringing a maxim Opting out a maxim Suspending a maxim

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2.4.1 Maxim of Quantity

Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Violating Maxim of Quantity

A violating maxim of quantity occurs when a speaker gives more or less information than the situation requires. We have already seen one instance of a person giving less information than required by the situation, and the following examples operate in the same way:

1. A: “How are we getting there?”

B: “Well we’re getting there in Dave’s car.”

B gives less information than A needs, thereby generating the implicature that, while B and B’s friends have a lift arranged, A will not be traveled with them.

2. Bill is asking Jhon about Bill’s girlfriend. Bill :”Is he nice?”

Jhon :”She seems to like him.”

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and speaks only on the basis of the evidence he has). But the explanation is rather reasonable.

2.4.2 Maxim of Quality

Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false.

Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Violating Maxim of Quality

Violating maxim of quality occurs when the speaker says something which untrue or for which he or she lacks adequate evidence.

Example: B was on a long train journey and wanted to read her book. A was a fellow passenger who wanted to talk to B:

A: “What do you do?” B: “I’m a teacher.”

A: “Where do you teach?” B: “Outer Mongolia.” A: “Sorry I asked!”

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2.4.3 Maxim of Relation

Relation: be relevant. Violating Maxim of Relation

Violating maxim of relation occurs when the speaker says something which is not relevant.

Example: The speaker (Ann) has accidentally locked herself out of her house. It is winter, the middle of night and she is stark naked:

Bill : “Do you want a coat?”

Ann : “No, I really want to stand out here in the freezing cold with no clothes on.”

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2.4.4 Maxim of Manner

Manner: Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity.

Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.

Violating Maxim of Manner

The following is an example of violating maxim of manner.

This interaction occurred during a radio interview with an un named

official from the United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince, Haiti

Interviewer: “ Did the United States Government play any part in Duvalier’s departure? Did they, for example, activity encourage him to leave?”

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CHAPTER III

VERBAL OFFERS IN COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE

3.1 The Definition of Verbal Offers

Basically, verbal offer consists of two words, that is verbal and offer. Verbal (adj) is relating to, or associated with words: a detailed verbal description. It is concerned with words only rather than with content or ideas. It expressed in spoken rather than written words; oral (Wikipedia, 2005:1). According Password Dictionary (2003: 552) verbal (adj) is consisting of, or concerning spoken words. Verbal (adj) is relating of spoken, not written (Oxford Dictionary, 2003: 478).

Verbal has been used since the 16th century to refer to speak, as opposed to write. Communication and the usage cannot be considered incorrect. But, because verbal may also mean “by linguistic mean”, it may be ambiguous in some context. Thus, he phrase “modern technologies for verbal communication” may refer only to devices such as the telegraph, the teletype, and the fax machine. In such context it may be clearer to use the word oral to convey the narrower sense of communication by spoken means.

Meanwhile, offer (V, N, Tr) is say that you are willing to do something for somebody or give something to somebody, or make something available or provide the opportunity for something and the act of offering to do something or give something to somebody (Oxford, 2003:295).

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and conditions of the sale, including our name and the name of the party to whom the offer is made, the property’s address, any special provisions regarding fixtures, appliances, etc, the total amount of the purchase price being offered (including the amount of deposit you are putting down to bind the offer and the additional deposit to be paid upon the execution of the purchase and sale agreement), and any additional riders and deadline dates.

Preparing the Offer

When you are ready to make an offer to a seller or to the agent involved, do not offer more than you can afford. The offer should clearly outline all terms and conditions of the sale, including your name and the name of the party to whom the offer is made, the property's address, any special provisions regarding fixtures, appliances, etc., the total amount of the purchase price being offered (including the amount of deposit you are putting down to bind the offer and the additional deposit to be paid upon the execution of the Purchase and Sale Agreement), and any additional riders and deadline dates.

An Accepted Offer

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Tips for Successful Negotiations

When negotiating the price of a home with the seller, you must analyze all of the relevant factors and determine who has the stronger bargaining position. Potential factors include market activity, location and timing. If the local market is active with many other buyers interested in the home, the seller may have the better position. If your local market is not active and the seller needs to sell the home, you may be in a better position to negotiate. For negotiating tips, Provisions and contingencies can protect your interests in case any unforeseen problems or delays arise between having your offer accepted and closing your mortgage. Provisions and contingencies may be inserted by either the buyer or the seller.

The question of whether a communication constitutes an offer can be significant. An offer may bind the offerer to the terms offer if the recipient of the offer responds by accepting the offer and giving the offerer a partial payment. If the offerer accepts the payment, a deal has been struck, and the offerer is legallly obligated to follow through on the agreement. If the offerer fails to fulfill the terms of the offer, the offeree may seek a remedy in court.

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customer, “ I will sell you a dozen high-grade widgets for $100 each to be delivered to your shop on December 31”, a court would likely find such a communication sufficiently definite to constitute an offer. On the other hand, a statement such as “I am thinking of selling some widgets” would probably not be labeled an offer.

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3.2 The Definition on Non-Verbal Offer

Non-Verbal (adj) is relating to, or associated with gesture: a detailed non-verbal description. It is concerned with only act rather than with utterances. It relates to the lack using of language and involving little use of language in communication.

From the definition of verbal and nonverbal offers above, we can find out the differences between verbal and non verbal offers, namely:

Verbal Offers Non-Verbal Offers

Using spoken or oral communication Using gestures Concerned with words rather than

numbers

Concerned with numbers rather than words

More in verbal skill Lack

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CHAPTER IV

A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF VERBAL OFFERS BY VENDORS IN

PASAR BRAYAN, MEDAN

Verbal offers are such utterances and expression uttered in order to offer things as a communication to attract costumers. There are kinds of vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan, but five vendors who are creative to invent expression to promote their merchandise and to attract the customers.

These verbal offers below are the recorded utterances and expression that represent the whole verbal offers in Pasar Brayan, Medan.

4.1 Verbal Offers by Suit Vendors

These vendors turn out to be highly creative to invent utterances to offer the suit they sell and to attract the costumers. They manipulate words or phrases, resulting in surprisingly original expressions of offer. The analysis of utterances yields into 4 categories of expression, namely:

4.1.1 Mentioning the name of suit without any modification

These vendors prefer to mention the name of the suit in casual situation because they directly know the customers’ response. In this way, they usually greet the customers by addressing them with Kak “Miss”, Abang “Brother”, and Dek “Sister” as illustrated below:

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[2] Kaos Dek…? which literally translated: “T-shirt, Sister…?” (Appendix 2 no 18.)

[3] Celana Bang… which literally translated: “Trousers, Brother..” (Appendix 2 no 19)

[4] “Rok Kak…” which literally translated: “Skirt, Sister…” (Appendix 2 no. 20)

In [1] and [2], the vendors ask the customers whether they are looking for shirt or T-shirt, hoping to get “yes” or “no” answer from the customers. When the customers respond, it means that the communication exists and it is possible if they will buy it. Meanwhile, in [3] and [4], the vendor directly offers the suit to the customers, Celana, Bang “Trousers, Brother” and Rok, Kak “Skirt, Miss”, addressing a man and woman that passing through the stall.

In [1], [2], [3], and [4] the vendors utter the name of the suit by detailing the name of the suit. They sell the suit without performing any phonemic and morphemic modification.

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word. There is no implied meaning in shirt, T-shirt, shirt, trousers, and skirt. Kaos ‘T-shirt’ means one of suits worn on the upper part of the body. Kemeja ‘Shirt’ means a light shirt of knitted cotton with short sleeves. Celana ‘trousers’ mean outer garment for the lower part of the body, covering each leg separately, and rok ‘skirt’ means one of suits, worn by women, that hangs from the waist.

4.1.2 Mentioning the brand of the suit

In this way, the vendors try to attract the customers by asking the customers what they are looking for and mentioning the brand of the suit, as illustrated below:

[1] Cari apa Kak? NSB? Which literally translated:

“What are you looking for, Miss? NSB?”

(Appendix 2 no. 28)

[2] Angelica? (Appendix 2 no. 30)

[3] Darbose? (Appendix 2 no. 29)

[4] Iepe? (Appendix 2 no. 31)

In data [1], [2], [3], and [4], the vendors hope “yes” or “no” answer from the customers whether they want to buy or not. In data [1], the vendor tries to greet the customer by addressing Kak “Miss”. Besides that, the vendor asks the customer about what she is looking for and mentioning the brand of the suit.

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kinds of food, that is Nasi Bungkus in Indonesian. Angelica is like girl’s name. Meanwhile there is no meaning in word Darbose and Iepe.

These vendors also violate maxim of quantity because they are not informative because NSB, Angelica, Darbose, and Iepe cannot represent their intention. But, by drawing this implicature, the hearers can figure out on the meaning of that words and come to understand that NSB, Angelica, Darbose, and Iepe refer to the brands of something, that is the brands of suit. Therefore, this

relevant shows maxim of relation. They also obey maxim of quality because their information is true that they sell brands of suit. They do not sell other brands except brands of suit they mention.

4.1.3. Asking the customers to do something

In this way, the vendors try to attract the customers by asking them to do something, as illustrated below:

[1] Masuk Bu… which literally translated: “Come in, Mam…” (Appendix 2 no.8)

[2] Lihat Pak… which literally translated: “see, Sir…” (Appendix 2 no. 5)

[3] Sini Dek… which literally tarnaslated: “come here, Sister…” (Appendix 2 no.46)

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Most vendors try to show that they are polite in their utterances by addressing with Ibu “Mam”, Pak “Sir”, and Dek “Sister”. But, the word mari and sini “come here” is also smooth and polite because the vendors invite everyone

without exception

In [1], [2], and [3], the vendors ask and invite the customers to come to their stall to choose and see some suits. And in data [4], the vendor directly invites the customers to come. There is morphemic modification in her utterances, that is repetition in word mari….mari...”come here….come here…”

These utterances are clear and brief so that they obey maxim of manner, that intentionally purposed to get the customers’ responses and they hope there is transactional and interactional function between the vendors and customers.

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4.1.4. Not mentioning the suit at all, but using other words instead.

Here, the vendor does not provide any explicit statements about what she sells, that is T-shirt. She does not say T-shirt in offering to the hearers or customers. As illustrated below data:

[1]. Jual murah aja, baru buka dasar nih. (Appendix 2 no. 34)

In data [1], she still obeys maxim of quantity because her offer less informative than the other sellers. She also obeys maxim of quality and relation because what she says is true and she has adequate evidence. But, she does not obey the maxim of manner because in maxim of manner, she must avoid unnecessary prolixity in using words because in words jual murah aja, baru buka dasar nih is unnecessary prolixity. However, it is essential to emphasize that the

vendors are still cooperate by employing prolixity because the additional words play a significant role in attracting the customers in order to fulfill the interactional function of language.

By seeing the vendor sells the suit and hearing Jual murah aja, kak baru buka dasar nih, the hearers or customers are expected to be able to fill the gaps by

deriving implicature. That approximately read like:

“I sell T-shirt and I will give cheap price for you because I have just opened my shop. So, if you want to buy now, I will give the cheapest one for you”

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4.2 Verbal Offers by Snack Vendors

Verbal offers by snack vendors include in transactional and interactional function of language. Their utterances yield into 4 categories of expressions, namely:

4.2.1. Simply mentioning the word Kue

In this way, this snack vendor sells her snack by mentioning the word kue in simple way, as illustrated below:

Kue…. Kue….. which literally translated “Cake”

The utterance above comes from a snack vendor who offers her snack by articulating the word kue, an English word meaning “cake”. Cake is one kinds of snack. It is pronounced [kύe] with prolong last vowel [e]. Basically, the snack vendor is still cooperating to communicate in transactional and interactional function. She gives information about what she sells to the customers (transactional function) and she tries to establish a good social relationship with the customers by offering her snack to the customers so, the customers understand about what she sells (interactional function).

The vendor has obeyed the four maxims proposed by Grice. By saying kue, she has obeyed maxim of quantity and relation because she has given

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unambiguous word. Kue or snack means small quick meal, usually eaten instead of or between main meals.

4.2.2. Mentioning the name of the snack without any modification

In this way, two other vendors prefer to mention the name of the snack aloud to offer about what they are selling to the customers, as illustrated below:

[1] Sate kerang which literally translated: “shell-fish “sate” (Appendix 2 no. 67)

[2] Sate kerang, Panggang pulut, jengkol (Appendix 2 no.68)

In [1], the vendor utters only one name of all snacks that he sells although he sells many kinds of sate. In [2], the vendor utters all the names of snack she sells such as sate kerang, sate panggang pulut, and sate jengkol.

The two utterances above uttered without performing any phonemic and morphemic modification. Basically, the vendors have obeyed the four maxim proposed by Grice. By detailing the name of snack, they have obeyed maxim of quantity because they give exact information in communicating about what they sell to the customers.

Besides that, their utterances also obey maxim of quality and relation because their information is true. It is true that they sell sate kerang, sate panggang pulut, and sate jengkol not other kinds of snack. In addition, their

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4.2.3. Shortening words

Here, these vendors try to shorten words in offering their snack to the hearers or customers. By shortening words, they hope they can attract the customers or hearers so that, the transactional and interactional function can be built between the vendors and customers, as illustrated below:

[1] ho…..ho…..tempe. (Appendix 2 no. 65)

[2] bor…..bor…..bor…. (Appendix 2 no. 69)

In data [1] and [2], the vendors utter the name of snack they sell by performing phonemic modification. In data [1], it is pronounced [ho] with prolong the last vowel [o]. Actually, ho means tahu followed by another snack, that is tempe. The word tahu pronounced [tΛhυ], but he pronounces it become [tΛho].

Meanwhile in data [2], the vendor utters bor by prolonging the word. Actually, the vendor in data [2] has changed the letter [u] becomes [o] in uttering the word bubur or “snack”. In data [1] and [2], there is phonemic modification of vendors in offering their snack to the customers.

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maxim of relation. In addition, they also obey maxim of quality because their information is true that they sell tahu and bubur, but they use the shortened word to create creativity in offering their snack to the customers.

4.2.4 Mentioning the clipped form of the name of snack

Clipped form occurs when a word consisting of more than one syllable is reduced to shorter form (Yule, 1996:15). One of the vendors makes interesting use of this word-formation process. As illustrated below:

[1] tiwule (Appendix 2 no. 52)

[2] gatote (Appendix 2 no. 54)

The word tiwul and gatot are kinds of traditional Javanese snack. They are made of cassava, red sugar in which scrapped coconut is poured on it. In Javanese at Ngoko level, the suffix –e can be used to offer something to someone which means nya in Indonesian or define article “the” in English.

In data [1] and [2], the words tiwul and gatot seem to violate maxim of relation because these words do not relate to all the snacks they sell. Tiwul and gatot are like someone’s nickname in Javanese. Consequently, they could be an

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nickname, but the name of Javanese snack. The words actually consist of the roots or unclipped words [tiwul, gatot] and clipped forms [e] are combined become tiwule and gatote.

The words tiwul and gatot are very relevant to their snack so, they make true contribution by saying tiwul and gatot. Thus, the hearers or customers should interpret tiwul and gatot as the kinds of traditional Javanese snack.

4.3 Verbal Offers by Fruit Vendors

Fruit vendors turn out to be creative in inventing expressions to promote the fruit they sell and to attract the customers categorized into 2 expressions, namely:

4.3.1 Simply mentioning the word melon, semangka and their price

These vendors cry loudly while mentioning the price of the fruit to attract the customers’ attention, as illustrated below:

[1] “Melon melon tiga ribu” (Appendix 2 no 75).

[2] “Semangka seribu lima ratus” (Appendix 2 no. 78)

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But, this is one of their unique ways to attract the customers’ attention so that they will purchase them.

4.3.2 Mentioning the name of the fruit without any modification

In a casual situation, the vendors offer the fruit by this way. They offer everybody who passes through their stalls. They do not offer fruit in loud voice, but they just offer their fruit in low voice to everyone who passes through their stalls. In this way, they also still address the customers with Dek “Sister”, Pak “Sir”, and Kak “Miss” as illustrated below:

[1] Duku manis, Dek…. “Sweet duku, Sister…”

[2] Manis-manis nih dukunya “Sweet..sweet duku”

[3] Mau Dek jeruknya? “Orange,Sister?

[4] Jeruknya ya Kak? “Orange,Miss?”

[5] Jeruknya ya Pak? “Orange, Sir?”

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The vendors have obeyed maxim of quality because they have given sufficient or enough information about what they sell and their information is true relevant with what they sell (maxim of relation), namely they really sell duku. They also obey maxim of quality and manner because by saying duku, the costumers understand that the vendors give true information about duku manis, which means that the taste of duku is sweet.

Meanwhile, in data [3], [4], [5], the vendors ask the costumers whether they want to buy jeruk “orange” or not. By this question, the vendors hope some answers from the costumers such as “yes” or ”no”. When the costumers respond, it means that the transactional and interactional function of communication has occurred. Next it depends on the vendors whether they want to be aggressive in offering the fruit.

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4.4 Verbal Offers by Cigarette Vendors

Verbal offers by cigarette vendors can be shown in verbal and non-verbal offers. Many of them try to attract the costumers in verbal communication, but some of them try to offer their cigarettes by using non-verbal offers (non-verbal communication), that is by using gesture. The analysis of their expressions yields into 2 categories, namely:

4.4.1 Mentioning the word rokok without any modification

In this way, they say the word rokok in 2 ways, as illustrated below: [1] rokok rokok which literally translated: “Cigarettes”

[2] rokokrokokrokokrokok which literally translated: “Cigarettes”

In data [1], he utters rokok he sells without performing any phonemic and morphemic modification. Likewise, in data [2], the vendor utters rokok in unique way. He pronounces it in an exceptional fashion. He pronounces the word rokok four times in rapid succession, resulting in perception that he articulates only a single word, i. e rokokrokokrokokrokok, on part of the hearers.

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data [2] appears to violate maxim of manner. By repeating the word rokok and thus demonstrating prolixity, it can make false perception of costumers or hearers about what he sells.

4.4.2 Using gesture

This is the exception of verbal offers. Verbal offers actually do no use gesture in communication. Unlike, the other vendors, this vendor is very unique and attractive. He uses gesture to offer his cigarettes to the costumers. He uses middle and forefingers as gesture by showing the way or style of people smoking.

Actually, he violates the four maxim proposed by Grice because he does not use verbal communication in offering his cigarettes. However, on the part of the costumers it can result in the apprehension that the gesture is one of the ways of cigarette vendor to attract the costumers. By using gesture, it is relevant to his cigarettes that he is only the cigarette vendor. And also by showing the things he carries the cigarettes in the box, people will understand that the vendor is selling rokok or cigarette.

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4.5 Verbal Offers by Newspaper Vendors

Newspaper is one of mass-media to find out news. Almost every country uses newspaper as one of their ways to get information. In Pasar Brayan, Medan. I only find 2 newspaper vendors there. The analysis of their utterances yields into 1 category, such as:

4.5.1 Mentioning the word koran without any modification

In this way, they utter koran they sell without performing any phonemic and morphemic modification, as illustrated below:

Koran….koran…. which literally translated: “Newspapers” (Appendix 2 no. 95)

They give a stress tone in letter [O], “kOOran….kOOran….” to attract the costumers. By saying koran, they have obeyed maxim of quantity and relation because they have given sufficient and relevant information to the costumers about what they sell. They also obey maxim of quality because their information is true. It is right that they really sell koran “newspaper”. Moreover, by saying koran, they have given unambiguous word. Koran or “newspaper” means printed

publication issued daily or weekly, with news, advertisement, etc.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS

Conclusion

There are many kinds of vendors in Pasar Brayan,Medan. Many of them divided into suit vendors, snack vendors, fruit vendors, cigarette vendors, and newspaper vendors. They have their own ways to attract the costumers there. The analysis of verbal offers by vendors in Pasar Brayan, Medan shows that they offer their merchandise in various ways or modes. For example, suit vendors have four modes, by mentioning the name of suit without any modification, mentioning the brand of the suit, asking the customers to do something, and not mentioning the suit at all, but using other words instead. Snack vendors have four modes, by simply mentioning the word kue, mentioning the name of the snack without any modification, shortening words, and mentioning the clipped form of the name of snack. Fruit vendors have two modes, by simply mentioning the word melon, semangka and their price, mentioning the name of the fruit without any

modification. Cigarette vendors have two modes, by mentioning the word rokok without any modification and using gesture. Newspaper vendors have one mode, by mentioning the word koran without any modification.

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gesture, and drawing the appropriate implicature in order to fulfill the interactional function of language.

In some cases, the vendors do not understand the cooperative principle and its purpose, although unintentionally some of them obey Gricean Maxims. But, in offering their merchandise, they want to attract the costumers and make persuasive conversation so that transactional and interactional function can be built between the vendors and the costumers.

Suggestions

Having known the result of the analysis, I would like to suggest the readers to analyze “verbal offers” in other context such as in Psycholinguistics and Sociolinguistics.

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A Pragmatic Analysis Of Verbal Offers By Vendors In Pasar Brayan, Medan