By:
Hikmah Irfaniah NIM: 207014000517
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS’ TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY JAKARTA
iii
Jl. Ir. H. Juanda No.95 Telp: (62-21) 7443328, 7401925 Ciputat 15142 Jakarta Email: Uinjkt@Cabi.net.id
SURAT PERNYATAAN KARYA SENDIRI
Saya yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini,Nama : Hikmah Irfaniah
Tempat/Tanggal lahir : Jakarta, 8 Oktober 1984 NIM : 207014000517
Program Studi : Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris
Judul Skripsi : An Error Analysis in Making WH-Question (A Case Study at the Second Years of SMK Purnama Mandiri Jakarta)
Dosen Pembimbing : Drs. Syauki, M. Pd.
Dengan ini menyatakan bahwa skripsi yang saya buat benar-benar hasil karya saya sendiri dan saya bertanggung jawab secara akademis atas apa yang saya tulis. Pernyataan ini dibuat sebagai salah satu syarat menempuh Ujian Munaqasah.
Jakarta, 31 Juni 2014 Mahasiswa Ybs.
iv
Second Year of SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal. Skripsi of English Education at Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers’ Training. Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, 2014.
Key Word: Error analysis, Wh-question.
The objective of the research is to see the types of error and to identify the cause of error made by the students in making wh-Questions. The subject of this study was consisted of 37 second year students of SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal, Ciputat, Tangerang Selatan.
The method used in this study was qualitative research in a form of descriptive analysis. The data was obtained from observation of teaching-learning activity and test which are given to the students. The test was consisted of 20 item numbers that are divided into 10 items of translating and 10 items of making wh -questions. The test was conducted twice in the different time to identify the error.
The result of this study showed that there were 268 errors made by the students. 60 errors or 22.4 % are omission of helping verb, 52 errors or 19.4 % are archi-form of helping verb, 55 errors or 20.5 % are archi-form of verb, 79 errors or 29.5 % are archi-form of question word, and 22 errors or 8.2 % are misordering of helping verb. Those errors are caused by interlingual transfer and intralingual transfer. Based on the results, it can be concluded that the ability of the students in making wh-questions was still low.
v
Second Year of SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal. Skripsi, Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan. Universitas Islam Negri Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2014.
Kata Kunci: Error analysis, Wh-question.
Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk melihat jenis-jenis kesalahan dan mengetahui penyebab terjadinya error dalam pembuatan kalimat wh-questions. Subjek penelitian ini terdiri dari 37 siswa kelas 2 SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal, Ciputat, Tangerang Selatan.
Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah penelitian kualitatif, dengan menggunakan bentuk analisis deskriptif. Data yang digunakan didapat dengan cara mengobservasi kegiatan belajar-mengajar dan tes yang diberikan kepada siswa. Tes yang diberikan terdiri dari 20 item yang terbagi menjadi 2 bagian: 10 item untuk menterjemahkan dan 10 item untuk membuat kalimat pertanyaan. Untuk membedakan antara mistake dan error, maka tes dilakukan sebanyak 2 kali.
Hasil penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa total error yang dibuat oleh siswa sebanyak 268 error. 60 error atau 22.4 % adalah omission of helping verb, 52 error atau 19.4 % adalah archi-form of helping verb, 55 error or 20.5 % adalah
archi-form of verb, 79 error atau 29.5 % adalah archi-form of question word, dan 22 error atau 8.2 % adalah misordering of helping verb. Error-error tersebut disebabkan oleh interlingual transfer dan intralingual transfer. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, dapat disimpulkan bahwa kemampuan siswa dalam membuat kalimat tanya wh-question masih lemah.
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completing this “Skripsi”. Please and blessing be upon our Prophet Muhammad, his families, his companions, and his followers.
On this opportunity the writer would like to express her gratitude to her beloved parents: Siti Muslimah and Hasan Ismail, SH, her beloved sisters: Nur Irfaniah, Miftah Irfaniah, and her lovely brothers: Ahmad Zaki Irfan, Fahmi Irfan,
Zulfah Reza, Ridwan, and to all her big families who always give their endless support, love, favor, prays to finish her study.
This skripsi cannot be completed without a great deal of help from many people, especially Drs. Syauki, M. Pd as her advisor who always gives his valuable time, help, guidance, correction, and suggestion for the completion of this skripsi.
Her deepest gratitude also goes to those who have helped her in finishing this skripsi, among others:
1. All lecturers and staff in English Education Department who had given their support and cooperation.
2. Nurlena Rifa’i, MA. Ph.D, the Dean of Tarbiyah Faculty and Teachers’ Training. 3. Drs. Syauki, M.Pd., the Head of English Department and Zaharil Anasy, M.Hum,
as the secretary of English Department.
4. Humaedi, M.Pd., as the Principal of SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal Ciputat, for his permission to allow the writer do the observation at his school and Inayati, S.Pd as the English Teacher of Second Year Class for her great help and cooperation.
vii support, pray, and trust.
8. All the people who helped the writer to finish her study that she cannot mention one by one.
May Allah, the Almighty bless them all, Amien.
Jakarta, June 2014
viii
THE ENDORSEMENT SHEET ... ii
SURAT PERNYATAAN KARYA SENDIRI ... iii
ABSTRACT ... iv
ABSTRAK ... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ... viii
LIST OF TABLES ... x
LIST OF APPENDICES ... xi
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION A. Background of the study ... 1
B. Identification of the Problem ... 4
C. Scope and Limitation of the Study ... 4
D. Formulation of the Study ... 5
E. Objective of the Study ... 5
F. Significance of the Study ... 5
CHAPTER II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK A. Error Analysis ... 6
1. Mistakes and Error ... 6
2. Types of Error ... 7
3. Source of error ... 10
ix
1. The Understanding of Grammar ... 15
2. Sentences ... 16
3. Types of Sentence ... 17
4. Interrogative Sentences ... 18
CHAPTER III : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Place and Time of Research ... 31
B. Population and Sample ... 31
C. Method of Research ... 31
D. Procedure of Collecting Data... 32
E. Instrument of the Research ... 32
F. Technique of Collecting Data ... 33
G. Technique of Analyzing Data ... 34
CHAPTER IV : RESEARCH FINDING A. Data Description ... 35
B. Data Analysis ... 59
C. Data Interpretation ... 74
CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION A. Conclusion ... 75
B. Suggestion ... 76
BIBILOGRAPHY ... 79
x
Table 4.2 The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect Answer in ..… Simple Present Tense
Table 4.3 The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect Answer in ….. Present Continues Tense
Table 4.4 The Distributions of the Students’Incorrect Answer in …..
Simple Past Tense
Table 4.5 The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect Answer in ..… Simple Future Tense
Table 4.6 The Frequency of Error in Making Simple Present Tense… Table 4.7 The Errors of WH-Question in Simple Present Tense ….… Table 4.8 The Frequency of Error in Making Present Continues ……
Tense
Table 4.9 The Errors of WH-Question in Present Continues Tense … Table 4.10 The Frequency of Error in Making Simple Past Tense …… Table 4.11 The Errors of WH-Question in Simple Past Tense ……….. Table 4.12 The Frequency of Error in Making Simple Future Tense…. Table 4.13 The Errors of WH-Question in Simple Future Tense …….. Table 4.14 The Frequency of Error in Using Question Word in ……… WH-Question
36
41
48
54
60 61 62
xi
Appendix 2 Description of Error in Present Continues Tense ……... 96
Appendix 3 Description of Error in Simple Past Tense ……….. 112
Appendix 4 Description of Error in Simple Future Tense ………..… 129
Appendix 5 Observation Guide ………... 148
Appendix 6 Distribution of Item Number Test ………... 150
Appendix 7 Test 1………. 151
Appendix 8 Test 2 ……… 155
1
background of the study, identification of the problem, limitation of the study, formulation of the study, objective of the study, and significance of the study.
A. Background of the Study
English is widely known as a lingua franca, and it is learnt as a target language in all over the world. In Indonesia, English are taught based on the School-Based Curriculum or KTSP. According to KTSP, students have to obtain the base competency that refers to four functional skills: listening, reading, speaking, and writing. one of the base competency that students of second year of Junior High School in listening and speaking is responding and expressing meaning in the simple transactional and interpersonal conversations accurately, fluently, and acceptable to interact with surroundings involved of actions and
speeches of asking service, asking things, asking facts, and asking opinion.1 Therefore, the students have to be able to make questions correctly. Question is not only related to listening and speaking skills, but also reading and writing. The students have to be able to understand the question in order to answer the question after reading or answer the English test.
In teaching learning activity, question has an important role. Gunning states that “question can be used to develop concepts, build background, clarify reasoning processes, and even lead students to higher levels of thinking.”2 According to Encyclopedia of Linguistics questions have some didactic functions. In higher cognitive level, it can be functioned to ask students’ response about knowledge they previously learned, to ask them recalling factual information, to
1
Kementrian Pendidikan Nasional RI, Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia Nomor 22 Tahun 2006 tentang Standar Isi untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah.
2
T. G. Gunning, Creating Literacy Instruction for All Children, (Needham Height: Allyn & Bacon, 2000), p. 260, citated by Alice M. Scales and Li-Bi Shen, An Investigation of Questions in
check or test the students about information, and to seek more information from the teachers by them.3 Therefore, the students are able to get information they need from the teacher by using the question, and the teacher is able to get information that is needed from the students.
What have been explained above is the important of question as general. Since question has different types, it also has different functions and structures in both English and Bahasa. According to Greenbaum there are two major of interrogatives, they are: yes/no questions and wh-questions, “yes/no questions are generally intended to elicit the reply yes or no. Wh-questions expect a reply that supplies the information that the wh-word indicates as required. They are called
wh-questions because the wh-words generally begin with wh-, the exception being
how.4 For the objective in gaining more detail information wh-questions is more likely to be used rather than yes/no questions. Nevertheless, wh-questions have more complicated structure than the structure of yes/no questions.
Wh-questions are also known in Indonesian language or Bahasa. There are some distinctions between the sentence structures of wh-question of Bahasa and
English language. The structures in both languages are: 1. The structure of wh-question sentence in English:
Question Word (what, where, who, whose, whom, why, how) + Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb + (rest of the sentence).5
2. The structure of wh-question sentence in Bahasa:
Question Word (apa, dimana, siapa, mengapa, bagaimana) + Subject + (rest of the sentence).
3
Phillip Stazny (Ed), Encyclopedia of Linguistics, vol. 2, (New York: Fitzory Deaborn, 2005), p. 889.
4
Sydney Greenbaum , The Oxford English Grammar, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 46-47.
5
Below are the example of wh-question sentences in both English and Bahasa: Table 1.1
The Examples of WH-Question Sentences in English and in Bahasa
Function English Bahasa
Asks about
something
What are you doing now? Apa yang sedang kamu lakukan sekarang?
Asks about place Where will you go tomorrow?
Kemana kamu akan pergi
besok?
Asking about person as a subject
Who is your English teacher
Siapa guru bahasa Inggris
kamu?
Asking about possession
Whose purse is this? Siapa pemilik dompet ini?
Asking about person as an object
Whom was your mother talking with yesterday?
Dengan siapa Ibu kamu
berbicara kemarin?
Asking about reason Why do you like this song? Mengapa kamu menyukai lagu ini?
Asking about way How did you make this cake?
Bagaimana kamu
membuat kue ini?
Asking about time When will she do her
homework?
Kapan ia akan
mengerjakan PR-nya
Based on the structures above, it can be seen that there are some distinctions between wh-question sentences in English and Bahasa. First, the kinds of question words for asking about people, in English there are who, whose, and whom while in Bahasa the question word which used is only siapa, whether the question asks
about the subject, the object, or possession. Second, there is no auxiliary in Bahasa. In making wh-question there is a helping verb (auxiliary) inversion. Since Bahasa does not have, learners might be distracted to use does or is and do or are
English does. The tenses are related to the helping verb used in the wh-question; therefore it is also become a problem for the students. Those distinctions might be a trigger for students to make errors in making wh-question.
Based on the importance of wh-questions in gaining information, and the distinctions between English and Bahasa Structures which are explained above, the writer would like to conduct the research about “An Error Analysis in Making WH-Questions (A Case Study of the Second Year Students of SMP
Islam Al-Syukro Universal)”.
B. Identification of the Problem
Based on the background of the study above, the writer identified some problems related to the study:
1. The structure of English sentence is related to the tenses. The tenses are related to the time. The application of the structure is based on the time that is described in the sentence. Bahasa, in the other hand, has no tenses. The structure of sentence in bahasa can be used generally and it is not related to
the time that is described in the sentence. Therefore the learners find the English sentence is more complex to make and to use than Bahasa.
2. English sentence has other distinctions from bahasa. English sentence has some parts such as: auxiliary, article, and different forms of verb. While in Bahasa, there is no auxiliary, article, and the verb is only has one form. These distinctions might make the students are missing to use the article or auxiliary, and choose the wrong form of the verb.
3. Both of English and Bahasa have many question words. In English, one question word can be used to ask different purposes, while in Bahasa one question word has only one function. For example:
English: what (asking about thing), what time (asking about time).
C. Scope and Limitation of the Study
The scope of the study is the students’ errors in making wh-question. In order to make the study focus, the writer made limitation for the tenses which are used in this studey are: simple present tense, present continuous tense, simple past tense, and simple future tense. The question words that used in this study are: what(for asking thing), where (for asking place), when (for asking time), why (for asking reason), who (for asking people as subject), whom (for asking people as object), whose (for asking possession), which (for offering alternatives) and how (for asking ways).
D. Formulation of the Study
Based on the background of the study above, the formulation of the study as follows:
1. What are the types of errors made by the second year students at SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal in making wh-questions?
2. What are the causes of errors made by the second year students at SMP Islam
Al-Syukro Universal in making wh-questions?
E. Objective of the Study
Based on the formulation of the problem above, the objectives of the study are to see the type of errors made by the second year students at SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal in making wh-questions and to see the causes of the students’ errors in forming wh-questions.
F. Significance of the Study
28
In this chapter consists of research methodology, which is including place and time of research, population and sample, method of research, procedure of collecting data, technique of collecting data and technique of analyzing data.
A. Place and Time of Research
This research was taken place at SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal. This school is located in Jl. Otista Raya, Gang H. Maung No. 30, Ciputat 14511, Tangerang Selatan, Banten. It was conducted from April 21st 2014 until April 25th 2014.
B. Sample
This study used purposive sampling. The sample of this study is the second year students of SMP Islam Al-Syukro. The selection of the sample based on the the relation between the students of the second year of Junior High School and the base competency that should be obtained by them, as stated in KTSP that one base
competency of second year of Junior High School is responding and expressing meaning in the simple transactional and interpersonal conversations accurately, fluently, and acceptable to interact with surroundings involved of actions and speeches of asking service, asking things, asking facts, and asking opinion.1
C. Method of Research
The method of this research is a qualitative method and has descriptive analysis in describing the research findings. Margono states that qualitative research is procedural research resulting in descriptive data orally or textually
1
from people and their observable behavior.2 The objectives of this study are to see the errors of second year students in making wh-questions and the causes of those errors. Therefore, this research is a case study. Bogdan states “a case study is a detailed examination of one setting, or asingle subject, a single depository of documents, or one particular event”.3 the types and the causes of error made by the second year students, therefore this study uses qualitative methods.
D. Procedure of Collecting Data
In collecting data, the writer started with observing the teaching-learning activity in the classroom. The objects of this observation are the teacher, the material and the students. The teaching-learning activity was observed on April 21st 2014. Then, the writer gave the students tests about wh-questions they had learned. These tests are given twice at the different time and date. The first test was conducted on April 23rd 2014 and the second test was conducted on April 25th 2014. The tests are given to gain the data about the most error that students made in making wh-questions.
E. Instrument of the Research
In collecting data of the research, the writer used two Instruments for different purposes. The instruments are:
1. Human
The main instrument in qualitative research is human. In this case, the writer is the instrument who collecting the data while observation was conducted. The purpose of the observation is to find out whether any induced error from teacher or learning materials. Induced error caused by teacher could be the wrong explanation, the wrong examples, teaching aids, etc., that are given by
the teacher. The writer observed the teaching and learning activity are helped with observation guide as guidance.
2
S. Margono, Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan, Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2010, p. 36.
3
2. Tests
The purpose of these tests is to get data of errors. From this data the writer may able to know what kinds of error the students made. The test consists of 10 items of translation and 10 items of transformation.
F. Technique of Collecting Data
This research used two techniques in collecting the data, they are: 1. Observation
The observation was conducted to observe the teaching and learning activity in the classroom. The technique of the observation is non-participant observation which the writer are outside the subject, the writer only stood as an observant. Since the objective of the observation is to find out the induced error, The focus of the observation is the explanation of the teacher about the material and the content of the book which is used by the students.
2. Tests
The tests are given to the second year students of SMP Islam Al-Syukro Universal. In order to distinct the error from mistake, the tests were given twice in the different date and time. Below is the distribution of the item numbers of wh-question test:
Table 3.1
The Distribution of the Item Numbers of WH-Question Test
Activity Indicators Test Item
Test 1 Test 2
Translating wh-questions
Translating wh-questions in Bahasa to English in simple present tense.
Section A: 1, 3, 5
Activity Indicators Test Item
Test 1 Test 2
Translating wh-questions in
Bahasa to English in present continous tense.
Section A:
2, 10
Section A:
2, 10
Translating wh-questions in Bahasa to English in simple past tense.
Section A: 6, 8, 9
Section A: 6, 8, 9
Translating wh-questions in Bahasa to English in simple future tense.
Section A: 4, 7
Section A: 4, 7
Creating wh-questions
Creating wh-questions in simple present tense based on the given answer.
Section B: 1, 4,
Section B: 1, 4,
Creating wh-questions in present continous tense based on the given answer.
Section B: 2, 7, 9
Section B: 2, 7, 9
Creating wh-questions in simple past tense based on the given answer.
Section B: 3, 5,
Section B: 3, 5,
Creating wh-questions in simple future tense based on the given answer.
Section B: 6, 8, 10
Section B: 6, 8, 10
G. Technique of Analyzing Data
P = x 100%
The data are taken from test analysis was conducted by arranging the data obtained systematically. This was done to make easier for the researcher to write the research report. The data gained from the test dealing with what kinds of errors did the students make in making wh-question.
In order to support the result of data, the writer also used the formula, such as:4
P = Percentage
F = Frequency of false answer N = Number of sampling
4
33
This chapter consists of data description that describe the result of test and the result of observation, data analysis and data interpretation.
A. Data Description
1. Result of Test
Wh-question is question beginning with wh-words (who, whom, whose, what, which, where, when, why, and how) to get information more detail. The students are tested in making wh-question in four different tenses. Below is distribution of the test items:
Table 4.1
Material Display within the English Test Items
No Tenses
Number of Items
Test 1 Test 2
1 Simple Present Tense A1, A3, A5, B1, B4 A1, A3, A5, B1, B4
2 Present Continues Tense A2, A10, B2, B7, B9 A2, A10, B2, B7, B9
3 Simple Past Tense A6, A8, A9, B3, B5 A6, A8, A9, B3, B5
4 Simple Future Tense A4, A7, B6, B8, B10 A4, A7, B6, B8, B10
Based on the table 4.1 there are two sections in each test which are given to the students, they are: section A, translating wh-question from Bahasa into English and section B, making wh-question based on the given answer. There 20 items are tested to the students in four different tenses.
Below are the distribution of errors based on the identification of incorrect answers made by the students in simple present tense, present continues tense, simple past tense, and simple future tense (see Appendix 1 page 82, Appendix 2 page 95, Appendix 3 page 111, and Appendix 4 page 128):
a. Simple present tense
Table 4.2
The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect answer
in Simple Present Tense
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi simple present tense.
b. Present continues tense
Table 4.3
The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect answer
in Simple Present Continues Tense
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi 35.1 % of the total students who made errors in making wh-question in simple present continues tense.
c. Simple past tense
Table 4.4
The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect Answer in Simple Past Tense
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
Description: Ad = Adverb, HV = Helping Verb, M = Modal, P = Preposition, PP = Personal Pronoun, QW = Question Word, V = Verb
d. Simple future tense
Table 4.5
The Distributions of the Students’ Incorrect answer
in Simple Future Tense
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
S
Addition Misformation
S
Addition Misformation
Mi
2. The Result of Observation
The observation was conducted on April 21, 2014. The objects of the observation are the teaching-learning activity and the material which is used by the students in learning wh-question. The objective of this observation is to find out whether there is context of learning as the cause of error. The observation of teaching-learning activity was taken place in the classroom of 8A and 8B.
According to observation guide (see appendix 5 page 135-136), there are four points which were being evaluated, they are: teacher’s performance in conveying professional attributes, teacher’s behavior in establishing set, using question, and providing clear instructions.1 The result of observation is the teacher showed good performance and behavior, such as: in conveying professional attributes, the teacher appeared knowledgeable of the topic, of learners, and of pedagogy. In establishing set, the teacher captured students’ attention and related new information about simple past tense to what students had learned previously about simple present tense, present continues tense, simple future tense. In using question, she used the question effectively. In providing clear instruction, the teacher used pauses to reinforce important points or to allow learners to ask questions. The students were attentively listening to the teacher’s explanation about wh-question in different tenses.
The learning material that is used by the students is English book. The English book is “Contextual English VIII”, published by Quantum. The result of the observation shows that both teaching-learning activity and the English book do not mislead the students to make some errors.
B. Data Analysis
1. Simple Present Tense
Based on the data description above, the frequency of error which students made in simple present tense is described as follow:
1
Table 4.6
Frequency of Error in Making Simple Present Tense
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P*
Omission Helping Verb
22 59.5 % 9, 14, 18, 25, 27, 31, 37
18.9 %
Addi tion
Double Marking
- - - -
Regularization - - - -
Simple Addition
- - - -
Mi
sfor
mation
Regularization - - - - -
Archi-form Helping Verb
15 40.5 % 1, 7, 13, 22, 26
13.5 %
Alternating form
- - - -
Miselection - - - -
Misordering - - - -
2 Types 1 37 100 % 12 students 32.4 %
*POS = Part of Sentence, FOE = Frequency of Error, POE = Percentage of Error, P = Percentage of Students.
Table 4.7
The Errors of Wh-Question in Simple Present Tense No.
Items Omission Of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A1(1) What color__ your bag? 27 What color is your bag?
A3(1) What __ your school’s name? 27, 37 What is your school’s name?
A5(1) Where your Grandpa and Grandma live?
9, 18, 14, 25, 27, 37
Where do your Grandpa and Grandma live?
B8(1) Whose painting __ very beautiful?
31 Whose painting is very beautiful?
A1(2) When the lesson start every day?
9, 18, 14, 25, 27
When does the lesson start every day?
A3(2) Why __ all of Museum in Jakarta close on Monday?
9, 18, 14, 25, 27, 37
Why do all of Museum in Jakarta close on Monday?
B1(2) Who__ the architect of Statue of Liberty?
27 Who is the architect of Statue of Liberty?
No.
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A5(1) Where is your Grandpa and Grandma live?
Where are your Grandpa and Grandma live?
1, 13, 22, 26
7
Where do your Grandpa and Grandma live?
A (1) When did the lesson start every day?
When is the lesson start every day?
7
26
When does the lesson start every day?
A3(2) Why does all of Museum in Jakarta close on Monday?
Why are all of Museum in Jakarta close on Monday?
When did the lesson start every day?
1, 13, 22
7
26
No.
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A5(2) Who is you classmates? 1, 13, 22 Who are you classmates?
Based on the table 4.7 above the errors which the students made are the omission of the helping verb. They did not put auxiliary as a helping verb in
wh-question. The archi-form of helping verb is made because the students put the incorrect helping verb in the wh-question. The helping verb they use in the sentence is not appropriate for the subject or the tenses.
2. Present Continues Tense
Below is the table contains with the frequency of error which students made in simple present tense:
Table 4.8
The Errors of Wh-Question in Present Continues Tense
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P*
Omission Helping Verb
11 26.2 % 16, 27, 36 8.1 %
Additi
on
Double Marking
- - - -
Regularization - - - -
Simple Addition
- - - -
Mi
sfor
mation
Regularization - - - -
Archi-form Helping Verb
Verb
23
8
54.8 %
19 %
1, 11, 12, 26, 31, 32, 35
8, 31, 35
18.9 %
8.1 %
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P* Alternating
form
- - - -
Miselection - - - -
Misordering - - - -
2 Types 3 42 100% 12 Students 37.8 %
*POS = Part of Sentence, FOE = Frequency of Error, POE = Percentage of Error, P = Percentagr of Students.
Based on the table 4.8 in making wh-question in present continues tense, the students made two types of error, they are: omission and archi-form. There are 11 omissions of helping verb or in percentage 26.2 % of the total errors, they are made by 3 students or in percentage 8.1 % of the total students. There are 23 archi-forms in helping verb or in percentage 54.8 % of the total errors, it is made by 7 students or 18.9 % in percentage of the total students. The errors of archi-form in verbs are made 8 times or in percentage 19 % of the total errors, they are made by 3 students or in percentage 8.1 % of the total students.
Table 4.9
The Reconstruction of Error in Making Present Continues Tense No.
Items Omission of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A1(1) Whom __ your teacher talking with?
16, 27 Whom is your teacher talking with?
B2(1) Where __ you studying? 27, 36 Where are you studying?
A2(2) Whose__you studying with? 16 Whom are you studying with?
B7(2) How __ your friends writing their tasks?
16, 27, 36 How are your friends writing their tasks?
B2(2) Where __ your Father working?
No.
Items Omission of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
B9(2) Whom __ the reporter interviewing?
27 Whom is the reporter interviewing?
No.
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A10(1) What is your friends doing?
What do your friend doing?
1, 26, 31
32
What are your friends doing?
B2(1) Where do you studying? 1 Where are you studying?
A2(2) Whom is studying with you
Whom is you studying with?
Whom is study with you?
1, 11, 26, 31, 32
12
35
Whom are you studying with?
B7(2) How do your friends writing their tasks?
11, 12, 35 How are your friends writing their tasks?
B7(2) Which pen do you use?
What kind of pen do you use? 12
11, 26, 31, 32, 35
Which pen are you using?
B2(1) Where are you study?
What are you study?
8
35
Where are you studying?
No.
Items Archi-form of Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
B9(1) What is your teacher do now? 31, 35 What is your teacher doing now?
A2(2) Whom is study with you? 31, 35 Whom are you studying with?
B7(2) Which pen did you use?
What kind of pen did you use?
8
31, 35
Which pen are you using?
B9(2) Who is the reporter interview with?
Based on the table 4.9 above the errors which the students made are the omission of the helping verb. They did not put auxiliary as a helping verb in
wh-question. The archi-form of helping verb is made because the students put the incorrect helping verb in the wh-question. The helping verb they use in the sentence is not appropriate for the subject ot the tenses.
3. Simple Past Tense
The following table is the frequency of error which students made in
simple past tense:
Table 4.10
The Frequency of Error in Making Simple Past Tense
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P*
Omission Helping Verb
27 28.7 % 15, 16, 25, 27, 29, 30,
36
18.9 %
Additi
on
Double Marking
- - -
-Regularization - - -
-Simple Addition
- - -
-Mi
sfor
mation
Regularization - - -
-Archi-form Helping Verb
Verb
14
44
14.9 %
46.8 %
4, 8, 17, 26, 32
1, 2, 3, 4, 15, 16, 19, 20, 25, 27, 29,
35, 36
13.5 %
35.1 %
*POC = Part of Sentence, FOE = Frequency of Error, POE = Percentage of Error, P = Percentage of Students.
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P*
Mi
sfor
mation
Alternating form
- - -
-Miselection - - -
-Misordering Helping Verb
9 9.6 % 12, 14, 18 8.1 %
3 Types 2 94 100% 22 Students 67.5 %
*POS = Part of Sentence, FOE = Frequency of Error, POE = Percentage of Error, P = Percentage of Students.
Based on the table 4.8 in making wh-question in simple past tense, the students made three types of error, they are: omission, archi-form, and misordering. There are 27 omissions of helping verb or in percentage 28.7 % of the total errors, they are made by 7 students or 18.9 % of the total students. The archi-form of helping verb is made 14 times or in percentage 14.9 % of the total errors, they are made by 5 students or in percentage 13.5 % of the total students. There are 44 archi-forms of verb or in percentage 46.8 % of the
total error, they are made by 13 students or in percentage 35.1 % of the total students. The misorderings of helping verb are made 9 times or in percentage
9.6 % of the total errors and they are made by 3 students or 8.1 % of the total students. Based on the table above, It can be seen that there are 28 errors which made by 21 students, therefore there are 7 students who made two types of error.
Table 4.11
The Errors of Wh-Question in Simple Past Tense No.
Items Omission of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A6(1) Why __ your friends not come last night?
16 Why didn’t your friends
No.
Items Omission of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A8(1) Whose party __ you come this morning?
B5(1) Why __ China won the Badminton Championship?
Why __ China win the Badminton Championship?
15, 16, 25, 27, 29, 30, 36
22
Why did China win the Badminton Championship?
B5(1) Why __ China win the Badminton Championship?
22 Why did China win the Badminton Championship?
A6(2) Where __ you and your Dad go fishing last week?
30 Where did you and your Dad go fishing last week?
A8(2) Whose gift __ you bought yesterday?
15, 16, 25, 27, 29, 36
Whose gift did you buy yesterday?
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A6(1) Why your friend do not come last night?
Why do your friend didn’t come last night?
4
17, 26, 32
Why did not your friend come last night?
A9(1) How do you go to school this morning?
26, 8 How did you go to school this morning?
A6(2) Where are you and your Father went fishing last week?
Where do you and your Father go fishing last week?
4, 32
17
Where did you and your Father go fishing last week?
A8(2) Whose gift do you bought yesterday?
No.
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A9(2) Whom is you called last night?
Whom is you call last night
4, 17, 32
26
Whom did you call last night?
No.
Items Archi-form of Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A6(1) Why your friends did not coming last night? Why didn’t your friends coming last night?
Why did your friends not coming last night?
3, 19
29
35
Why didn’t your friends come last night?
B5(1) Why China can won the Badminton Championship?
Why can China won the Badminton Championship?
Why China won the
Badminton Championship? 1
2, 20, 36
3, 4, 15, 16, 19, 25, 27, 29
Why did China win the Badminton Championship?
A6(2) Where are you and your Father went fishing last week?
4, 35 Where did you and your Father go fishing last week?
A8(2) Whose gift that you bought yesterday?
Whose gift you bought yesterday?
1, 20, 22
2, 15, 16, 25, 27, 29, 35, 36
No.
Items Archi-form of Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A9(2) Whom is you called last night?
4 Whom did you call last night?
5B(2) Why Mia left her dictionary? 1, 2, 3, 4, 15,16, 19, 20, 22, 25, 27, 29, 35, 36
Why did Mia leave her dictionary?
No. Items
Misordering of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A6(1) Why your friends do not come last night?
12, 14, 18 Why did not your friends come last night?
B3(1) Why you didn’t go to anywhere yesterday?
Why I didn’t go anywhere yesterday?
12, 14
18
Why didn’t you go to anywhere yesterday?
B3(2) Why you didn’t watch the
football match? 12, 14, 18
Why didn’t you watch the football match?
Based on the table 4.11 above the errors which the students made are the omission of the helping verb. They did not put auxiliary as a helping verb in
wh-question. The archi-form of helping verb is made because the students put
the incorrect helping verb in the wh-question. The helping verb they use in the sentence is not in past form. The misordering of helping verb is made because the students are influenced with the sentence in declarative form.
4. Simple Future Tense
Table 4.12
The Frequency of Error in Making Simple Future Tense
Types of Error POS* FOE* POE* Samples P*
Omission - - -
-Additi
on
Double Marking
- - -
-Regularization - - -
-Simple Addition
- - -
-Mi
sfor
mation
Regularization - - -
-Archi-form Verb 3 18.7 % 24 2.7 %
Alternating form
- - -
-Miselection - - -
-Misordering Helping Verb
13 81.3 % 4, 27, 36, 37
10.8 %
2 Types 2 16 100% 5 Students 13.5 %
*POS = Part of Sentence, FOE = Frequency of Error, POE = Percentage of Error, P = Percentage of Students.
Based on the table 4.9, in making wh-question in simple future tense, the students made two types of error, they are: archi-form and misordering. There
Table 4.13
The Errors of Wh-Question in Simple Future Tense No.
Items Archi-form of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A7(1) Where are you going your holiday?
24 Where will you spend your holiday?
A4(2) How do you go to Candi Prambanan this holiday?
24 How will you go to Candi Prambanan next holiday?
B6(2) When is your Father goes to Bandung?
24 When will your Father go to Bandung?
No. Items
Misordering of Helping Verb
Sample
Error Reconstructions
A7(1) Where you will spend your next holiday?
24, 36 Where will you spend your next holiday?
B6(1) When the students will have English test?
24, 27, 37 When the students will have English test?
A4(2) How you will go to Candi Prambanan next holiday?
36, 37 How will you go to Candi Prambanan next holiday?
B6(2) When your Father will go to Bandung?
24, 27, 36 When will your Father go to Bandung?
B8(2) How your Mother will order the ticket?
36, 37 How will your Mother order the ticket?
B10(2) When the people will bring umbrella?
27 When will the people bring umbrella?
Table 4.13
The Frequency of Error in Using Question Word in WH-Question Types of
Error Sentences of Error
Sample of
Error Reconstruction
Archi-form of Question Word
A2(1). Who is your teacher talking with?
Who your teacher talking with?
Who is the teacher talking with?
Who your teacher that you talking with? teacher talking with?
A4(1) Who will you invite to your birthday party?
Who will you invite your party
Who will your invite your birthday party invite to your birthday party?
A4(1) Who will you play football with?
Who will play football with you?
7
8
A4(1) Whom will you play football with?
B1(1) Whose is the author of The Lord of The Ring?
27 B1(1) Who is the author of The Lord of The Ring?
Types of
Error Sentences of Error
Sample of
Error Reconstruction
Archi-form of Question Word
A2(2). Who is study with you?
Whose studying with you?
29
18, 24, 27, 37
A1(2) Whom are you studying with?
A8(2) Who did present you buy yesterday?
3,6 A8(2) Whom present did you buy yesterday?
A9(2) Who did you call last night?
Who are you calling last night?
3, 8, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 27, 37
6, 7
A9(2) Whom did you call last night?
B1(2) Whom the architect of Statue of
Liberty?
Whom is the architect of Statue of Liberty?
Whom is the architect of Statue of Liberty?
9
23, 28, 33
25
B1(2) Who is the
architect of Statue of Liberty?
B9(2) Who is the reporter interview with?
Whose is the reporter interviewing?
Whose the reporter interviewing?
9
24
29, 31, 33, 35
B9(2) Whom is the reporter interviewing?
C. Data Interpretation
1. Types of Error
Based on the previous explanation in data description and data analysis, the second year students of SMP Islam AL-Syukro Universal have made different types of error in making wh-questions. Since each student has a different understanding about the tenses which they have learnt, therefore the students made different types in each tenses. Below are the types of error made by the students in making wh-questions in simple present tense, present
continues tense, simple past tense and simple future tense: a. Omission
The students made 22 omissions of helping verb or 59.5 % of the total errors in simple present tense and they made by 7 students or 18.9 % of the total students. There are 11 omissions of helping verb or 26.2 % of the total errors in present continues tense and they made by 3 students or 8.1 % of the total students. And there are 27 omission of helping verb or 28.7 % of the total errors in simple past tense and they made by 7 students or 18.9 % of the total students.
b. Archi-form
The students made 15 archi-forms of helping verbs or 40.5 % of the total errors in simple present tense which made by 5 students or 13.5 % of the total students, there are 23 archi-forms of helping verbs or 54.8 % of the total errors in present continues tense which made by 7 students or 18.9 % of the total students , there are 14 archi-forms of helping verbs or 14,9 % of the total errors in simple past tense which made by 5 students or 13.5 % of the total students, and there is also 3 archi-form of helping verb or 18.7 % of the total errors in simple future tense which made by 1 students
or 2.7 % of the total students.
in simple past tense which made by 13 students or 35.1 % of the total students.
The archiform of questions are made 79 times by 22 students or 59.5 % of the total students. This error are made in the four tenses are tested to the students.
c. Misordering
The students made 9 misorderings of helping verb or 9.6 % of the total errors in simple past tense which made by 3 students or 8.1% of the total
students, and there are 13 misorderings of helping verb or 81.3 % of the total errors in simple future tense which made by 4 students or 10.8 % of the total students.
Referring to the types of error above, the types of errors that the students committed most is archi form of question word, and the least types of errors that the students committed is in misordering of helping verb.
2. Causes of Error
Based the types of error which students made in making wh-questions, it can be inferred that the causes of error are as follows:
a. Interlingual Transfer
Interlingual transfer is the influence of the native language in learning second language. It can be seen by the omission of the helping verb which made by the students. For example:
Student 27: Sentence error : What color your bag? Reconstruction : What color is your bag? Student 36: Sentence error : Where you studying?
Reconstruction : Where are you studying?
The helping verb might be omitted because there is no auxiliary which stands as helping in wh-question in Bahasa. When students made wh -questions in English, the structure of their native language is applied. The interlingual transfer is also caused the error in using question word, especially question words for asking about people. For example:
Student 23: Sentence error : Whom is the architect of Statue of Liberty? Reconstruction : Who is the architect of Statue of Liberty? Student 8 : Sentence error : Who will you invite to your birthday party?
Reconstruction : Whom will you invite to your birthday party?
Student 24: Sentence error : Whose is the reporter interviewing? Reconstruction : Whom is the reporter interviewing?
Since in Bahasa the question word for asking about people is only one;
siapa, the students are confused to determine whether they have to use question words; who, whom or whose.
b. Intralingual Transfer
Intralingual transfer is the imperfectness in learning second language and causes overgeneralization. It can be seen by the three errors that the students made in making wh-question:
The first is the archi-form of the helping verbs. When the students learn about the presence of auxiliary in English sentence, they try to apply it without knowing the appropriate auxiliary should be used as helping verb in wh-question. In these cases, the students didn’t know if they should use “is” or “are” as helping verb in wh-question in present continues tense, “did” as helping verb in simple past tense, and “will” as the helping verb in simple future tense. For example:
Student 7: Sentence error : Where is your Grandpa and Grandma live? Reconstruction : Where do your Grandpa and Grandma
Student 32: Sentence error : What do your friend doing? Reconstruction : What is your friend doing? Student 26: Sentence error : Whom is you call last night?
Reconstruction : Whom did you call last night?
Student 24: Sentence error : When is your Father goes to Bandung? Reconstruction : When will your Father goes to Bandung? The second is the archi form of verb. The archi-forms of verb in present continues tense are made because the students are influenced by the form of verb 1 in the simple present tense. They forget to use “verb +
ing” in the sentence. Meanwhile, the archi-forms of verb in the simple past tense are made because the students overgenerate the form of verb 2 as in declarative sentence. When the students made wh-question in simple past tense, they did not invert the verb 2 into verb 1. For example:
Student 31: Sentence error : What is your teacher do now? Reconstruction : What is your teacher doing now? Student 15: Sentence error : Whose gift you bought yesterday?
Reconstruction : Whose gift did you buy yesterday?
The last, is the misordering of helping verb. It is made because the students overgenerate the structure of declarative sentence where auxiliary is placed after subject. In making wh-question they should place the helping verb after the question word. For example:
Student 12: Sentence error : Why you didn’t go to anywhere yesterday? Reconstruction : Why didn’t you go to anywhere yesterday? Student 36: Sentence error : How your Mother will order the ticket?
Reconstruction : How will your Mother order the ticket?
6
major sub chapters: A. Error Analysis and B. Grammar. Sub chapter A discusses about the difference between mistakes and error, types of error, source of error, the meaning of error analysis, the steps of error analysis, and the significance of error analysis. Subchapter B discusses about the understanding of grammar,
sentences, types of sentence, and interrogative sentence.
A. Error Analysis
1. Mistakes and Error
According to LeTorneau, “mistake is a random or accidental deviation from what one intends to do; an error is systematic deviation from what one intends to do”.1 It is stated in Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistic that:
Learner makes a mistake when writing or speaking because of lack attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance. Whereas, an error is the use of linguistic item in a way that a fluent or native speaker of the language regards it as showing faulty or incomplete learning. In other words, error occurs because the learner does not know what is correct, and thus it cannot be self-corrected”.2
Brown states, “a mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or a “slip” in that is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. Mistakes, when attention is called to them, can be self-corrected. An error is a noticeable deviation from the adult grammar of a native speaker, reflects the competence of the learner. It cannot be self-corrected”.3
1
Mark S. LeTourneau, English Grammar, (Fort Worth: Harcourt College Publishers, 2001), p. 482.
2
J.C. Richards. et al, Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Essex: Longman: 1992, citated by Vacide Erdogan, Contribution of Error Analysis to Foreign Language Teaching, Mersin University Journal of Faculty of Education. Vol. I, Issue 2, December 2005, p. 263.
3
James defines error in a very loose way as an “unsuccessful bit of language”.4
According to Dulay, Burt and Krashen, “error is the flawed side of learner speech or writing. It is part of conversation or composition that deviates from some selected norm of mature language performance.”5
From the statements above, it can be concluded that a mistake is a deviation that is made accidentally caused by some aspect of performances and can be self-corrected, while error is a systematic deviation in language performance caused by the incompetence of learners to perform the language, and it cannot be
self-corrected.
2. Types of Error
According to Heidi Dulay, Burt, and Krashen there are four types of errors, they are omission, addition, misformation and misordering:
a. Omission, characterized by the missing of an item that must appear in a well-structured utterance. For example:
She is write an essay. She is writing an essay.
b. Addition, characterized by the occurrence of an item which must not appear in a well-structured utterance. There are three types of addition errors: double marking, regularization, and simple addition.
1) Double marking: the presence of certain items which are not required in some linguistic construction, but are required in others. As in
He didn’t broke the vase.
There are two verbs of past tense in the sentence, to make it well-structured it should be:
He didn’t break the vase.
4
Carl James, Errors in Language Learning and Use: Exploring Error Analysis, (London: Longman, 1998), p. 1, citated by, Amaya Mendikoetxea, Susan Murcia Bielsa, Paul Rollinson,
Focus on Errors: Learner Corpora as Pedagogical Tools, (New York: Continuum, 2010) p. 181.
5
2) Regularization: the presence of a marker that typically added to a linguistic item, to exceptional linguistic items that do not take a marker. For example:
Verb : put putted Noun : sheep sheeps
3) Simple addition: the presence of linguistic item other than in a double marking or regularization. For example:
Right here In right here
c. Misformation, characterized by the use of the incorrect form of morpheme or structure. There are three types of misformation: regularization, archi-forms, and alternating forms
1) Regularization: are those in which an irregular marker is placed by a regular one, as in singed for sang or mouses for mice.
2) Archi-forms: the use of one member of a class of forms to represent others in the class. For example:
I went to the library yesterday My friend gave I some books.
3) Alternating forms: the use of various member of a class with each other, it is caused by the development of the learner’s vocabulary and grammar. For example:
Linda lost his purse. Linda lost her purse.
d. Misordering, characterized by a morpheme or group of morphemes which are incorrectly placed in an utterance.6 For example:
Who is your teacher English? Who is your English teacher?
6
According to James, as citated by Sakoda, errors are categorized into omission, over-inclusion, miselection, misorder, and blend:
a. Omission, where some element of a word is omitted which should be present. b. Over Inclusion, where some element is present which should not be there. c. Miselection, where the wrong item has been chosen in place of the right one. d. Misorder, where the elements presented are correct but wrongly sequenced e. Blend, where there is not just one well defined target, but two.7
Based on The classifications above, it can be inferred that errors can be
classified into error of omission for the absence of some item, error of addition for some item that should not be there, Misformation for form of morpheme or structure that are wrongly used, Miselection for some item that wrongly selected, Misordering for the elements of utterance that are incorrectly sequenced, and blends for using two forms because of uncertainty in deciding which one is required.
3. Source of Error
According to Cowan there are four causes of grammatical errors, they are: a. Performance error: an error made by language learner indicate a process in
the act of speaking or writing, and not because the learner ignores the grammatical rules.
b. Imperfect learning: it means that a rule or the restriction that apply to that rule has not internalized by the learner.
c. Overgeneralization: it occurs when a grammar rule is applied to forms that do not take it.
d. Influence of the native language: it occurs when language learners produce language from transferring of grammar rules from their native language.8
7
James, op. cit., pp 41-54.
8
Meanwhile, Brown stated that causes of error are: a. Interlingual transfer
Interlingual transfer is the interference of native language in learning second language. Before the system of second language is familiar, the native language is the only previous linguistic system upon which the learner can draw.
b. Intralingual transfer
Intralingual transfer is manifested when learners have begun to acquire
parts of the new system. it makes students starts to generalized a rule within the target language.
c. Context of learning
Students often make errors because of the explanation that mislead them. This misleading could be given by teacher, faulty presentation of a structure or word in a textbook, or even because of a pattern that was rotely memorized in a drill but improperly contextualized.
d. Communication strategies
Communication strategies were related to learners’ learning styles. The strategies are produced by the learners become source of error.9
According to explanation above, the sources of error are interlingual transfer that is the influence of the native language in learning second language, intralingual transfer that is imperfectness in learning second language and causes overgeneralization, context of learning that is misleading from learning sources, and communication strategy that is the learning styles of a learner that leads to error.
4. Error Analysis
As what have been discussed in previous sub subchapter, error is concluded as a systematic deviation in language performance. Meanwhile, the term of error analysis is described in vary explanations. James describes an error analysis is
9
process of determining the incidence, nature, causes and consequences of unsuccessful language.10
Meanwhile, Ellis states that “Error Analysis consists of a set of procedures for identifying, describing, and explaining learner errors.”11
Brown states that “The fact that learners do make errors, and that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge of study of learner’s errors, called error analysis.”12
The writer concludes that an error analysis is a procedural method that can be applied in determining the deviation in language performance.
5. The Steps of Error Analysis
There are five steps in conducting an error analysis, they are: a. Collection of a sample of learner language
Researcher can collect the sample in two ways: researcher can specify the research question they intend to collect or make it broad sample by collecting different learners, different types of language and different conditions of production.
b. Identification of error
The basic procedure in identifying errors is as follows: first, prepare a reconstruction of the sample as this would have been produced by learner’s native speaker counterpart. Then, compare every utterance/sentence produced by learner with well-formed utterance/sentence constructed by the native speaker. Finally, identify which part(s) of learner’s utterance/sentence differs from the native one.
10
James, op. cit., p. 1.
11
Rod Ellis, Gary Barkhuzein, Analysing Learner Language, (Oxford: Oxford University Press,2005), p. 51.
12
