MYTHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON FIVE ALASKA
FOLKLORES
DHIAN SINTAPERTIWI NIM 105026000931
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
ADAB AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH
JAKARTA
MYTHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON FIVE ALASKA
FOLKLORES
A Thesis
Submitted to Adab and Humanities Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Letters Scholar
DHIAN SINTAPERTIWI NIM 105026000931
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
ADAB AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH
JAKARTA
ABSTRACT
Dhian Sintapertiwi, Mythological Perspective on Five Alaska Folklores. Thesis. Jakarta: English Letters Department, Adab and Humanities Faculty, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah, 2009.
The indigenous people of Alaska are believed to inherit many valuable lessons in life to generations through stories that are known as folklores. These Alaska folklores serve not only extraordinary stories to the people but also moral messages about appreciating life and nature. Myth as something absurd exists inside the folklores and makes these stories to be questioned whether deserve to be trusted or not. However, the point of having these folklores even for today is not to be doubted but to be used as lessons for human beings that man’s presence is just a small part of this world.
The research is aimed at finding out the relationships between man and nature. It is also aimed at finding the idea conveyed behind those relationships. It is the purpose of the research to figure out the interaction between traditional Alaska people and nature in reaching a harmonious life seen through the folklores. The analysis is conducted at five of chosen Alaska folklores using mythological perspective. It results in a perspective where man generally tends to treat nature with disrespect and nature is the victim of man’s action.
APPROVEMENT
MYTHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ON FIVE ALASKA FOLKLORES
A Thesis
Submitted to the Adab and Humanities Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Strata 1
DHIAN SINTAPERTIWI 105026000931
Approved by:
Advisor
Inayatul Chusna, M. Hum NIP. 150 331 233
ENGLISH LETTERS DEPARTMENT
ADAB AND HUMANITIES FACULTY
STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH
JAKARTA
LEGALIZATION
The thesis entitled “Mythological Perspective on Five Alaska Folklores” has been defended before Adab and Humanities Faculty’s Examination Committee, State Islamic University Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta on October 27th 2009. The thesis has been accepted as a partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Strata 1 (S1) in English Letters Department.
Jakarta, November 16th2009
Examination Committee
Chair Person, Secretary,
Dr.H. Muhammad Farkhan, M.Pd Drs. Asep Saefuddin, M.Pd
NIP. 150 229 480 NIP. 150 261 902
Members
Examiner, Examiner,
Elve Oktafiyani, M. Hum. Ummi Kultsum, M. Pd.
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of the university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Jakarta, November 16th2009
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises be to Allah SWT the real writer’s guide, who amazingly and mysteriously guides her in the process of making this thesis. Peace and salutation be upon the greatest prophet Muhammad SAW, his family, companions and adherents.
The writer would like to express her gratitude to her beloved parents Drs. H. Djapar Soetedjo and Hj. Etty Angganita (Alm.) for their constant love. She thanks to her beloved father for all his advices, supports and inspirations. She would like to thank her beloved mother, whom she will always love and miss for her entire life, for everything she gave and everything she did. May Allah SWT be with her…Amin.
The writer does not forget to mention thank you for her brothers and sisters in the family who always motivate her to do the best in life. She would like to thank to Cece, Andi, Doni, Indra, Gita and also to all of their own happy family for wishing and believing that she could finish her study well. She would have been so lost without them.
The writer especially expresses her deep sense of gratitude to her guide Inayatul Chusna, M. Hum. for her time and help at each and every point of her research work with patience and enthusiasm.
English Letters Department; Drs. A. Saefuddin, M. Pd., the Secretary of English Letters Department; and all lecturers of English Letters Department who have sincerely taught her during her study at UIN Jakarta.
Special thank is also dedicated to her friends at the year of study 2005, especially to the “2-Bis” and Shoim for the friendship and the love they give. She hopes these beautiful bonds of sisterhood would last forever. The writer would also like to thank to Ayrul Basri for his help, patience and understanding. She is so blessed for meeting and having him in her life.
In the end, the writer would like to say thank you once again for everyone who has supported her in life and might not be mentioned yet here. May Allah SWT bless us…Amin.
Jakarta, November 16th2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ... i
APPROVEMENT... ii
LEGALIZATION ... iii
DECLARATION... iv
AKCNOWLEDGEMENT ... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Focus of the Study ... 6
C. Research Questions ... 7
D. Significance of the Study ... 7
E. Research Methodology ... 8
1. Objective ... 8
2. Method ... 8
3. Technique ... 8
4. Analysis Unit ... 9
5. Research Instrument ... 9
CHAPTER II. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK ... 10
A. Myth ... 10
1. Definition of Myth ... 10
2. Characteristics of Myth ... 14
B. Mythology ... 17
1. Definition of Mythology ... 17
2. Mythological Perspective ... 19
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH FINDING AND DATA DESCRIPTION ... 23
A. The Relationships between Man and Nature Presented in the Five Alaska Folklores ... 23
1. The Ptarmigan Story ... 23
2. The Squirrel Shaman ... 26
3. How Selfishness was Rewarded ... 30
4. Crow Brings the Daylight ... 33
5. The Meeting of the Wild Animals ... 36
B. The Idea behind the Relationships between Man and Nature Based on the Five Analyzed Alaska Folklores ... 40
CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ... 48
A. Conclusion ... 48
B. Suggestion ... 49
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
As a part of literary work, folklore has its own characteristics. While other works such as novels and poems are mostly enjoyed in the form of writings, folklore was firstly enjoyed by listening to it. Long times ago where traditional people lived without knowing how to write and read, they expressed their life experiences by creating stories. This kind of literature was spread by transmitting it through words of mouth. And it kept spreading to the next generations until the way of writing was developed. Seeing the history above, Jan Harold Brunvard defines folklore in the statement below: “Folklore comprises the unrecorded traditions of a people, it includes both the form and content of these traditions and their style or technique of communication from person to person.”1
There are also other characteristics that folklore has as a literary work. Besides expressing life experiences of traditional people, folklore is an anonymous work that always has a moral message inside it. The combination of life experiences from traditional people and the moral message in folklore eventually form a belief that the existence itself is still doubted up to now. These traditional people (primitive) were not in the process of having intelligence as what modern people have today. Their closest relationship as human beings at that time was into nature. Therefore, they believed that nature had a very strong power
1
in life and if they did not get along with the nature well enough, they would be hurt. In this case, this kind of belief emerged as amyth.
From many understandings that put myth into definitions, one of the examples can be used as a suitable explanation of myth is that myth defined as the simplest thought of human effort in understanding the cosmos and the nature. According to Beth in Zeffry’s book; Manusia, Mitos dan Mitologi, there is an explanation about life, death and Gods are considered as supernatural things at certain age in the myth.2 Folklore was born at the time where traditional people lived with lack of knowledge in order to understand the world and all the things inside it including how the nature worked. Therefore, it is definitely correct that myth emerges as the reflection of traditional people thought. The myth in folklore can be seen from the events inside the story that show the relationship between man and nature. In this case, traditional people consider myth as one of the rules of living.
The indigenous people of Alaska are one of the examples of people who believe numerous taboo myths related between the life of human beings and nature. These myths are clearly seen from their several folklores. Alaska people believed that there would always be consequences for people violating the land and nature. 3 Like most Native American Indian people, Alaska people have traditionally regarded the land as both provider and protector. To them, the land
2
Zeffry,Manusia,Mitos dan Mitologi(Jakarta: University of Indonesia Press, 1998), p. 4.
3
Bachrudin Musthafa, Teori dan Praktik Sastra-Dalam Penelitian dan Pengajaran
and its resources are sacred and the connection between human actions and the earth’s welfare is clear.
For a better understanding, there are five folklores can be taken as examples to see how the traditional people of Alaska think about man and nature. They are The Ptarmigan Story, The Squirrel Shaman, How Selfishness was Rewarded, Crow Brings the Daylight and The Meeting of the Wild Animals. In brief, each story offers different conflicts and resolutions. However, it all depends on how the man (as character in the story) treats the nature first. Whether it is in good or bad manner, the nature has its own way to react differently. This kind of variation makes the stories become more interesting to read and enrich the way of thinking for people who read them.
The Ptarmigan Story tells how nature reacts when human beings do not appreciate its existence. Alaska people believe that nature should be treated well because nature is essential for their living. They need fur from animals to warm them up; they also need meat from animals to fulfill their hunger. Therefore, fathers in every generation have an obligation to tell their sons the rules for hunting animals. There are two characters that disobey the rule in this story. And it can be seen how these characters pay for what they have done to nature (the ptarmigan). A shaman4 can not even help to fix the situation. Death is a punishment in this story.
4
Based on Viola Wolcott’s article (available on
http://www.shamanicjourney.com/article/5956/what-is-a-shaman): The title “shaman” originated
There is the same rule of hunting animals but different consequence that the characters get in the story of The Squirrel Shaman. From three of young brothers who love to hunt and kill squirrels, there is one who gets the chance to see how animals feel towards this human cruel action. This character finds out that animals live like people where they have family, take care of their family and feel lost when their family members die. Nature that is represented by animals (squirrels) here offers a negotiation for human to be a great shaman in order to get their squirrel family come back to life. Since being a shaman was an honor with the highest position of human being, the character thinks the negotiation as something useful to pay for the guilt. In the end, the life of squirrels and the life of human beings become full of harmony in a very unique way to be understood.
The next story is Crow Brings the Daylight. It tells about Inuit5 people who beg to the crow for bringing daylight from the south. These people live in darkness for a very long time where hoping the sky turns into bright becomes very impossible. The crow itself is not so sure about the plan for helping those people because it is too old to do that. However, the pleadings of the people make the crow reconsider the plan again. After facing a difficult and a very long journey, the crow is succeeded bringing the daylight and the Inuit people are very happy. Even though the daylight only last for the next six months, the people are very thankful to the crow.
The last story is a very unique one. It isThe Meeting of the Wild Animals. It tells where the large animals hope for the best in life avoiding the Tsimshian6 people. They suggest for Him Who Made Us to give the winter colder than before so hunters keep staying in their house. However, the small animals deny the suggestion because they would be died in freeze, while the large animals like Grizzly bear have a thick fur for getting warm. The large animals ignore the denial and continue for a colder winter. Then, the small animals like porcupine dare them if the winter becomes colder, those large animals would die sooner because plants would be dead and they will have no food. The small animals still could get food inside the trees. The porcupine warns and tries to convince all the animals not to control the nature (Him Who Made Us) as their wish, everything has its own
5
According to ‘Amazing Native American History’, Inuit people are defined as the natives peoples of the Arctic land and they are better known by the name “Eskimo”, a mispronunciation of an Algonquian word meaning “eaters of raw meat”. They, however, prefer the term “Inuit”, which means “people” in their own language.
6
portion and in the right order. Since then, porcupine is well-known as a very wise animal.
All of these folklores describe how indigenous people of Alaska believe the power of nature and turn it into a taboo myth. Myths that basically create based on their traditional life experiences and teach them how to appreciate nature. Death could be the end for characters in the stories as a punishment after mistreating nature, but nature could also react in other ways to them as different consequences. From this understanding, the writer realizes how folklore and its uniqueness is an extraordinary ancient work that offers wisdom as a way of learning in life between human beings and the environment.
Considering all of the things mentioned above, the writer decides to use these five folklores of Alaska as the object analysis for her research. She is interested in the topic of mythological perspective for analyzing the folklores. Therefore, Mythological Perspective on Five Alaska Folklores is chosen as the title for her research.
B. Focus of the Study
analyze the idea found behind those relationships due to man and nature are tightly bound each other.
C. Research Questions
1. How do mythological events present the relationships between man and nature in the five Alaska folklores;
The Ptarmigan Story, The Squirrel Shaman, How Selfishness was Rewarded, Crow Brings the Daylight and The Meeting of the Wild Animals?
2. What is the idea conveyed behind those relationships?
D. Significance of the Study
E. Research Methodology
1. Objective
Based on the research questions above, the purpose of this research is to find out the relationship between man and nature in folklores where consequences of violating land are believed to happen for those who mistreat the nature. The stories themselves have variation in describing the conflicts and the resolutions, so each story may give a different result of analysis. In order to discuss further on this research, the writer would also analyze the idea behind those relationships due to man and nature are tightly bound each other.
2. Method
The writer uses qualitative method in her research. All collected data that support the writer in answering the research questions mentioned before will be written and explained in the way of descriptive writing.
3. Technique
4. Analysis Unit
The five folklores of indigenous people of Alaska that would be analyzed in this research are The Ptarmigan Story, The Squirrel Shaman which are taken from http://www.theliteraryreview.org/tlrsu-js.htm. The other three of Alaska folklores are How Selfishness was Rewarded, Crow Brings the Daylight and The Meeting of the Wild Animals which are taken from http://www.americanfolklore.net/folktales/ak1.html.
5. Research Instrument
The writer herself is the main instrument for this research. After choosing folklore as the object of analysis, she reads the chosen folklores through deep examination and searches for data that will support the process of the research. To make an efficient work, she marks important points by underlining or giving a check list either from the folklores or from the collected data in order to keep the research stay in focus.
6. Time and Place
CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Myth
1). Definition of Myth
What is actually the exact definition of myth? The word “myth” is notoriously difficult to define. No definition has been universally accepted.7It happens because myth has a very wide range to be discussed. Moreover, since the ancient time until nowadays, many experts contribute their ideas on defining myth. No definition could be judged right or wrong, because it could be applied as long as it is put on the right circumstances. The definition of myth has a long history to be defined with many contradictions, even for today. However, here are several examples can be taken for further understanding about myth:
- According to the etymology, the word of myth is taken from Greece “muthos”. It originally means ‘word’, ‘discourse’ or ‘speech’.8 It could also be meant as a narration of fantastic events with no proof or simply stories with no factual basis.
Supporting the idea above, Jacob E. Safra defines myth as“Muthos is the word for a story that tells about the deities and superhuman being. That
7
Luc Brisson,Plato the Myth Maker(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), p.vii.
8
story involved in extraordinary events understood as existing apart from ordinary human experience.”9
- A theologian Dan Cupitt defines myth as“So we may say that a myth is typically a traditional sacred story or anonymous authorship and archeptypal or universal significance which is recounted in a certain community and is often linked with a ritual…”10
- Luc Brisson in his book Plato the Myth maker explains myth as “Myth (which is inseparable from oral literature and tradition) is a message (or set of messages) that a social group considers to have received from its ancestors and that it transmits orally from generation to generation.”11
Three definitions above are represented just a few of explanation about myth. Each definition might be useful in certain applications. The first definition explains the etymology of the word ‘myth’ which is taken from Greece “muthos”. Supported by Jacob E. Safra addition, this definition could be acceptable because it reflects what most ancient Greece stories are all about. Most of the stories tell about the existence of God or Goddess with such an extraordinary event that no common human beings like us nowadays ever imagined happening. The scope for the definition of myth in this case is
9
Jacob E. Safra,Myth and MythologyinThe New Encyclopaedia Britannica(London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., 2002), vol.24, p.715.
10
Dan Cupitt,The World to Come(London: SCM Press, 1982), p.29.
11
quite small because the meaning of myth is mostly concerned with ancient Greece stories only.
The second definition explains myth and relates it into a form of religion. At the ancient times, a religion was firstly formed through the existence of myth as a traditional belief. There is no Christian, Islam, Hindu or Buddha yet. So, myth as a kind of story with anonymous authorship was considered as a sacred one. This story was their guide for living. It could also be said as a rule of life because it was often linked with a ritual in certain community. However, another source denies this explanation with the statement “Not all myths are linked with a ritual; not all myths are about Gods; and not all myths concern a time outside of historical time.”12
Myth in several other stories could possibly tell about the life experience of ordinary human beings. It could tell about their journey in facing life, so it is not definitely about extraordinary events. Myth is served in many variations outside of extraordinary figures such as Gods or Goddess because the essential of myth is to deliver the message of goodness and wisdom to people for generations.
The third definition shows how myth and oral literature have a very tight relationship where it seems no longer have any distinctions anymore. That is why the third definition is quite similar with the definition of folklore mentioned before (chapter I). Myth is a kind of moral message put into a story and it is delivered through generations in a social group as a role model in life.
12
The possible reason why myth is put into story is in order to make the existence of story becomes more useful and not only as a story to be told and heard.
Those and other definitions might be used in order to understand more about myth. If myth is directly related as a story (not as the element inside the story) such as folklore and legend, then it is possible to define myth based on the area where these stories come from. However, the variations of myth definition is considered as normal because as it is told of how wide the range of myth to be discussed. In this case, based on the definitions mentioned before, the writer could see a definition of myth according to her own conclusion and understanding. Myth is basically the result of traditional people thought about the process of life and all the elements around nature and its surroundings. Then, this myth is delivered through generations as an advice or moral message from the ancestors. Myth is eventually inseparable from literary work because story is the best media to make the myth becomes known and be heard. As what Zeffry said “The best way to deliver myth is through mite13such as folklore and legend.”14
13
InManusia, Mitos dan Mitologi, Zeffry uses mite as the result from the development of myth; where myth is defined as a form of thinking from traditional people in ancient time and mite is the form of stories contained with myth inside., p. 2.
14
2). Characteristics of Myth
Seeing from the existence of myth as an essential part of ancient stories, The New Book of Knowledgeconcludes myth into the following of four characteristics15:
- Myths tend to be stories about Gods or supernatural beings, which have powers and abilities greater than those of humans.
As what is stated on the previous definition of myth, this first characteristic reflects Jacob E. Safra explanation where the scope of myth is mostly concerned with ancient stories from Greece. They tend to tell about any extraordinary figures and events that are far from ordinary life.
- Myths usually tell about events set in the very distant past, often in the period before, or just after, human first appeared on earth.
This characteristic explains myth as a way to tell the events in a very ancient time. And the first people on earth experience these events as a way to understand and adapt themselves to the world. These people are with no doubt far from knowledge or any intelligence ability. So, the creation of this kind of story (with myth inside it) is not only used as a way for communication but also a lesson to share for the next generations.
- Myths are frequently origin stories, explaining how the world or particular things within the world first came to be or how human customs and ways of life were first established.
15
As the result of how first people on earth try to understand and adapt to the world, there are particular things finally emerge and can be seen through stories. How customs and way of life from traditional people are also formed for the first time. This is the sign for myth as a function to warn people about things that are and are not allowed to do. It is especially occurred for how man treats the nature.
- Myths are stories that were probably regarded as true and perhaps sacred by their original tellers.
All the events and way of traditional people life that are described in stories considered as true and sacred. In each social group, the stories are then delivered through generations because the myth inside the stories guides them to get through the life.
For the first, it is definitely correct how folklore and legend mostly contain the values of goodness and local wisdom for people in life.16 These stories always have a moral message that guide people from danger and consequences. For example, the theory of Oedipus Complexity in the field of psychology basically comes from traditional story where the romance relationship between a son and the mother is prohibited because it is morally not right.
The second thing, myth in stories also serves people with advice and things that are forbidden to do in life.17 All of these advices and warns for forbidden things are believed based on the taboo myth seen from the stories. Therefore, this kind of myth is often used by parents for teaching their children about things that they are allowed to do and things they are not allowed to do.
For the last thing, myth is usually appeared in stories to teach people for preserving the nature and the environment where they live in.18This myth tries to avoid people from wasting and destroying nature. The preserve ness of animals is also included in this case. Stories with this kind of myth mostly describe the consequences that people may get if they disobey the rule and mistreat the nature. It indirectly offers a positive threat so people will obey the message in the stories and therefore keep the world where they live in safe.
16
Meluruskan Mitos. (Online). http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/prprint.php?mib=beritadetail&id=26163. Accessed on July 15th, 2009.
17
Ibid.
18
In brief, a question that asks is all these myths deserved to be trusted or not is another problem outside from this discussion. The main point the writer tries to tell is even though these stories are doubted for existing with no touch of knowledge or intelligence, they eventually could give positive impacts to the life of people. The meaning behind all these myths basically try to teach people to appreciate what they have in life and all the elements inside the world. These myths are just simple thoughts from primitive society with huge and positive effects after all.
B. Mythology
1). Definition of Mythology
The attempt of understanding the myth on the previous session indirectly makes the attempt to understand mythology becomes quite easier on this session. The word of mythology is formed of two words: “mythos” and “logos”. In this case, “mythos” means something that correlates to the source of nature symptom occurrences that have not been given by knowledge and traditional understanding yet. Otherwise, “logos” means the effort of human being to approach the nature symptom that is stressed at rational things.19
The definition above shows how two words in contradictory meaning are put together. Mythos which means something irrational is being studied by logos which stresses at rational things. Mythos in the form of narrative writings (stories) is then analyzed with logos as scientific study. It is the
19
knowledge tries to clarify an absurd thing. “Mythos” that has not been touched by knowledge is being perfected by “logos” with the touch of rationality.
Luc Brisson in his book “Plato the Myth Maker” explains another analogy for this understanding:
The muthos/logos dichotomy can be interpreted not only as the opposition between falsifiable discourse and unfalsifiable discourse–the principal aspects of which were just described–but also as the opposition between narrative discourse–or, more simply, story–and argumentative discourse.20
The term of mythology itself is used in two ways. It sometimes is used to refer to a group of related myths; the entire set of myths told within a society is called that society’s mythology, and myths about the sea and sea creatures might be described collectively as marine mythology.21 This term means mythology is used to explain a collection of myth based on where the myth comes from (society) and what the myth describes (the scope).
Another term of mythology refers to the study of myth.22 It is a good start for mythology to be introduced, since many people become acquainted with myths by reading some of the hundreds of stories that have been collected in books. It is important to realize that most myths were not originally written and read but rather were remembered and passed along orally (by word of mouth) by skilled story tellers. Therefore, the writer concludes the term of mythology is used as the history and further development of myth.
Related to the previous discussion about how myth possibly creates a sort of theme in stories, mythology as the study of myth considers that it is very
20
Luc Brisson (1998),op.cit., p. 112.
21
The New Book of Knowledge(2004),op.cit., p. 568.
22
normal idea where stories could result in a very similar way as mentioned. About all the goodness values, local wisdom, forbidden things and advices are definitely occurred in stories because all traditional people, no matter where they live, must definitely share some common experience and react to those experiences in similar ways.
Traditional people as the first people on earth are challenged to understand the world and adapt themselves in order to have a stabile process of life. Myth which is then shared in stories such as folklore and legend show how man and nature attempt to live in harmony without hurting and giving disadvantages to each other. The traditional people who consider nature as something powerful and sacred try to get along with it well. Because they know and already experience how nature reacts over man’s actions.
2). Mythological Perspective
When mythology is applied to study and analyze a literary work, it certainly has its own perspective as a guide in order to keep a research stays in focus. Mythological perspective towards a literary work is not concerned with stories that explain origins so much as those that provide universal story patterns and recur with regularity among many cultures in many different times and places.23 Even though, the term of a myth in general is basically a story that explains how something came to be, but the perspective of mythology in literary work is not an attempt to clarify the issue.
23
In this case, the patterns of mythological perspective typically identify and analyze are those that represent common, familiar, even universal human experiences.24 Therefore, it is more likely as an intrinsic analysis. Human life experiences that are reflected in the story must be described where these people deal with conflicts in life. The process and the journey of human life which is included in this case are being born and dying, growing up and crossing the threshold into adulthood, going on a journey and even engaging in sexual activity.25
According to Brisson, myth is a privileged instrument for modifying the behavior of the inferior part of the human soul (Brisson, 1998:16). Therefore, there would be certain actions be done by these traditional people in order to balance out their lack of knowledge and their natural curiosity as human beings who want to understand the world. That is why, it is often seen how traditional people do some actions which are considered unusual as their attempt to work out with the nature. As what Brisson adds in his next statement:“The action proper to myth can be presented as extraordinary, like the effect of a charm or spell, or as ordinary, like the effect of persuasion in general.”26
The existence of reading spell or using a charm27is an extraordinary action from traditional people in the story. They consider nature as God or generally
24
as the creator of the world. They worship the nature and believe that nature would react on certain actions for what people have done. The effect of persuasion on statement above tries to explain even if there are no spells being read or other extraordinary events in the story, the main point of myth in stories is to persuade people to do exactly what the previous generations did in order to avoid any negative consequences.
Therefore, it is the reason why these stories along with the myth inside them are delivered through generations. It keeps happening to be this way not only because these traditional people attempt to preserve the tradition as a cultural heritage but also as a knowledge to learn for the next generations in getting through their life, so they would not be harmed by terrible consequences after doing something or else.
Stories with myth used as a message inside them would also be a great influence where human beings then tend to be more cautious in their life. As what Malinowski says “…Myth fulfills in primitive society culture as indispensable function: it expresses, enhances and codifies belief: it safeguards and enforces morality; it vouches for the efficiency and contains practical rules for the guidance of man.”28
In many stories, we would see how myth basically limits the actions of human beings. Myth positively guides people to avoid he things that would destroy the surroundings or even things that may cause terrible damage for
was small, a family might face starvation. To protect themselves from the many everyday threats, Arctic people carried small charms. Carved from stone or ivory or crafted from animal hides, each charm had a specific purpose. One charm might make the owner a good seal hunter, while another might drive away evil spirits.
28
them. However, as we know that stories vary into many kinds of conflicts. It is determined by human beings in the story, would they follow and obey the myth that tries to warn them or not?
In general, the resolutions or the ends of the stories count on how the nature reacts. Sometimes, nature and man live in harmony but in several other stories it shows how nature becomes the victim and acts viciously. It is all about the consequences that probably man would get for not appreciating nature. Myth tellers seem especially intrigued by the fact that small mistakes and minor events can have very large consequences.29
As a conclusion, mythological perspective is used to see how human life experiences are described in the stories. Because, the most important to get in this case is how religious beliefs, social customs and especially cultural attitudes are represented in the story.30
29
The New Book of Knowledge(2004),op.cit., p. 573.
30
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH FINDING AND DATA DESCRIPTION
In this chapter, the five Alaska folklores are about to be analyzed areThe Ptarmigan Story, The Squirrel Shaman, How Selfishness was Rewarded, Crow Brings the DaylightandThe Meeting of the Wild Animals. Based on the research questions mentioned in Chapter I, this chapter focuses on how the writer analyzes the chosen Alaska folklores. The main purposes of this chapter are to find the relationships between man and nature which are seen in the folklores through the mythological events inside them. The definition of nature in this case refers to the existence of animals because Alaska with its temperature has a small possibility for plants to live. So, it is specifically about the relationships between man and animals. Afterwards, the writer also tries to find the idea behind those relationships due to man and nature are basically inseparable in life.
A. The Relationships between Man and Nature Presented in the Five Alaska
Folklores
1. The Ptarmigan Story
it means that the tradition is a very important aspect in life. And if one ever disobeys, it is believed that the person would get terrible consequences.
When young boys are trained to hunt and fish, one of the first lesson they are taught is to respect and care for the game they hunt. If animals are mistreated, then they may no longer allow themselves to be killed for food and clothing, and the Eskimo would certainly die of hunger or freeze to death. (http://www.theliteraryreview.org/tlrsu-js.htm)
As everybody knows that a story must have a conflict to tell. In this story, the conflict comes from two characters of young brothers. It starts because of their curiosity when they check ptarmigan snares one day. Their curiosity will lead them into a great misfortune of life. As watching the ptarmigan, one of the brothers speaks to the other: “I wonder if ptarmigan can fly straight without eyes?”.
From this question, we could see how the character thinks beyond a proper sense that people ever imagine. The boys see the trapped bird as something useful to be played with and they step out of line for what their fathers had told them. This question turns into an action where they poke the bird’s eyes out with a small branch. The bird is thrown into the air and it definitely can not fly straight. Seeing the bird keeps crashing into the hillside and bushes, the boys laugh aloud. For these two brothers, the bird has successfully entertained them. They truly forget about their father’s advice and what is believed when nature is mistreated.
it is struggling to keep alive. Because of their non-sense curiosity, they throw the bird again into the air. This time, they feel disappointed because the bird has no power to fly anymore. The bird feels a great pain over these two boys action. For these brothers, it is no longer funny toy anymore. There is nothing to do to play with the bird. After hurting the bird until it is nearly dead, the boys leave it without taking it home for food and go checking out another snare. They still do not realize what they actually have done.
So far, the writer could conclude that nature is believed as something sacred for Alaska people. Ancestors consider nature as the provider where people live because they allow taking nature as positive advantages. But once man treats it wrong, nature also has something much more powerful that no men would even be able to fight against it. In this story, the two boys reflect a disobedience type of people. They disregard their fathers’ advice and underestimate the belief given by their ancestors about nature’s power. Therefore, the story ends tragically“That night the two boys, who had shown such great disrespect to the ptarmigan, died in terrible agony.”
great consequences that people may get over their actions. Death is the deserved punishment from nature to the boys who have hurt and shown a great disrespect to the ptarmigan. Therefore, this story generally shows how man and nature do not interact in a good and harmonious way. However, there is always a lesson for man to get even though the death has to take part.
2. The Squirrel Shaman
Since the point of the analysis is to see the relationships where man and nature interact in stories, The Squirrel Shaman might offer a different perspective of nature from The Ptarmigan Story. In this story, squirrels are taken as the representative of nature. And a young Tsimshian boy will experience something big in his life. The story starts with the statement below: In a small village upon the Skenna River31, three young brothers would hunt and kill squirrels. They hung the tiny furs to dry and collected the tails. Together they had killed so many squirrels that they had to go farther and
farther away from home to find more.
(http://www.theliteraryreview.org/tlrsu-js.htm)
Slightly, there would seem nothing wrong with the boys. They hunt squirrels for taking the positive benefits. They use the furs and they collect the tails. However, what becomes a problem in this story is that they hunt squirrels in an unstoppable way where they have to go farther each day hunting them. From this explanation, we could get a point where man through these characters reflects a figure of someone who does not care about the
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balance of nature.
Animals as part of the nature probably exist not only because they have their own life process in the world but also exist to sacrifice in fulfilling man’s needs. Animals are allowed to be killed by man in order to be used as food or clothes. Hunting is the way that man can do. However, this story shows how these boys do not consider hunting as a sacred thing anymore. While hunting seems believed as something sacred for the ancestors because it is a process where man takes essential thing from nature, these boys see hunting as something to enjoy. What seems wrong here is because these boys kill squirrels indiscriminately and automatically destroy the balance of nature for leaving none of squirrels to be alive. It is true that they treat the dead squirrels in proper way by hanging the furs and collecting the tails, but they are not in food crisis for killing so many squirrels everyday. They turn out to be wasteful people for killing squirrels in the name of having fun in hunting these poor animals.
Then, the story guides the readers to understand nature’s point of view. There is one day where one of the boys goes hunting by himself and has a chance to meet the chieftain of squirrel people and his granddaughter:“I have been waiting for you to come. Why have you killed all of my people? All of my children and grandchildren are gone except for my favorite granddaughter who led you to the Great House32. Why have you done this?”.
The young man does not know what the chief talks about. He never kills a
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person, or even people. All he could do is only defending himself towards chief’s accuses. But, he finally understands what the chief tries to say: “I am the chieftain of the Squirrel people. You and your brothers have killed all of my children and now theirs skins hang outside your house.”
The boy feels in a deep guilt. For all this time, he and the other two boys never realize how many squirrels they have killed. Even if they kill them for the reason of fulfilling daily needs, they still have killed too many squirrels. The boy understands then how people have destroyed nature indiscriminately for the sake of their own needs and fun. They do not know how similar nature and man get through the life on earth. As what the boy states in this statement: “We did not know that you live like people. We did not know that you love your children and grandchildren. I am sorry…”
A negotiation is finally made between the chief and the boy. It is hoped that the dead squirrels would come back to life and the boy would be a great shaman as the return. However, he has to get through a magical event with full of pain to his own death in order to pay what the people have done the squirrels;“…The old man began to work his powerful magic. He took the boy outside and tied his limbs to the tree. Then he pushed sharp needles with string through his skin and pulledthem tight in every direction…”.
become a great shaman. The role of shaman is truly noble where he is believed as a healer and spiritual leader. The writer concludes that this painful ritual is done to purify the boy’s soul, so by the time he is brought back to life he deserves to be a great shaman with no mistakes in the past.
The writer sees something different occurs in the story. There is what we call as forgiveness here. It does not happen on the previous story, because death occurs in The Ptarmigan Story. But in this story, man and nature can interact to one another in an understandable way. Death does not turn out as the final consequence, there is a better solution found here where man and nature look for the best of both sides.
Therefore, the story ends through this way:
That night, after they arrived with their dead brother, a magic filled the entire village and all of the dead squirrels come back to life…After all of the squirrels were returned, the spirit of the young man flew back into his dead body and returned him to life. From that time on, he was a great and powerful shaman and the Tsimshian did not kill squirrels.
its own life where it is described that squirrels have family and children to be loved. In the end, by putting the boy in a painful ritual, both nature and man get the best result in the story. The chieftain gets back his people and the boy does not only get lesson about life but also then become a shaman for the good of Tsimshian people.
3. How Selfishness was Rewarded
Alaska people have thousands of stories that describe how man and nature try to get along each other. And each story is served in an interesting variety to readers. It happens in the story of How Selfishness was Rewarded where another different perspective of nature is offered in the story.
A young warrior came to the coast with his wife and mother one summer and settled in the place where Sitka33 stands now. It was a summer of hardship for the family because the fish stayed away and the game had moved far away over the mountains. The warrior set traps and laid nets in the water and wandered many miles hunting for food, but he found nothing. (http://www.americanfolklore.net/folktales/ak1.html)
The statement above explains how the characters face starvation as their biggest problem during summer. The coast is empty and hunting seems very difficult to do for getting disappointed results. The people start losing energy and strength but the warrior’s wife seems having stable power for not losing any vigor on each miserable day. So, what is the secret beyond the healthy girl?
Apparently, this girl uses magic spell to get fish and she eats them while
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everybody sleeps tight at night. A conflict starts to emerge when the warrior’s mother sees what the girl does at night:
The starving old mother saw her son’s wife crouched near the fire and she heard the girl eagerly chewing the hot fish. The old mother cried out for her son’s wife to give her a morsel, but the girl was selfish and told the old woman that the fish she smelled was just a dream. When the old mother begged for just a single bite of fish, the girl denied her request.
This girl acts very selfish towards her family who are suffered from terrible hunger. She puts herself in a high priority and she does not care about what happens in her surroundings. The spell she uses is only for her own good. Luckily, the warrior knows what to do as a plan after hearing what the old mother tells about what she saw. He tries to find out about what his wife does every night. When his wife wakes up and does her routine collecting and cooking fish for herself, the warrior follows his wife’s movement and when the spell is used he tries to memorize the words, “Unbeknownst to her, the warrior had followed his wife. He took care to memorize the strange words of his wife’s spell, and then slipped quickly back to the lodge and into his blankets before she returned.”
Different from the previous two stories, How Selfishness was Reward shows a different case about man’s action towards nature. It is not harmed as what happened in The Ptarmigan Story and it is also not destroyed indiscriminately as what told inThe squirrel Shaman. The point of this story is how nature is taken for its advantages by one person and it is used selfishly over the suffering that other people have.
discovered, she decides to escape to the woods. Things get worse when her husband follows her and keeps calling out her name. She is afraid of her husband’s wrath. And suddenly, something strange happens to her:
…she felt her body growing smaller and smaller. She gasped in fear as she realized that the magic she had used so selfishly was turning against her in punishment for the crimes she had committed against her starving family. She felt feathers sprouting from her arms and face, and when she cried out, the only sound she could make was a soft hooting noise.
She is then changed into an owl. The spell she has been using now turns against her because of her selfishness. Transformation34 into an animal figure is her punishment.
This story shows how nature tries to teach man for being fair to others instead of being selfish. The girl in the story takes nature as something good for herself only while her family holds their hunger everyday. The selfishness has taken over her completely. The disrespect she shows to the old mother and the lie she keeps from her husband have proven that she becomes careless and heartless to people around her. The writer sees the transformation of the girl as a punishment in the form of a curse where nature pays for what she has done into life time learning. The transformation itself also has a positive function for people to learn that nature keeps it promise for those who mistreat or violate to it. So, once again, nature has shown its powerful rage in a different way towards man’s action.
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Based on the Amazing Native American History, the transformation itself firstly
happened in Inuit legend. It was known that Sedna as a young woman acted against her father’s
4. Crow Brings the Daylight
For the previous analysis, it is clear to see how the stories tend to show nature as something vicious to pay what the man has done to it. However, Crow Brings the Daylightcould be one of happy ending stories from Alaska. Even though the story begins with a pessimistic tone for Inuit people hope that will come daylight in the north and their feeling of disbelieve to the noble role of a crow.
Long, long ago, when the world was still new, the Inuit lived in darkness in their home in the fastness of the north. They had never heard of daylight, and when it was first explained to them by the Crow, who traveled back and forth between the northlands and the south, they did not believe him. (http://www.americanfolklore.net/folktales/ak1.html)
Then, things start to change as people finally believe in their heart to the crow for bringing daylight to the north. These people hope daylight comes to the north so they will not be blanketed in the darkness anymore and could see the beauty of the world.
Soon the yearning for daylight was so strong that the Inuit people begged Crow to bring it to them. Crow shook his head. "I am too old," he told them. "The daylight is so far away. I can no longer go so far." But the pleadings of the people made him reconsider, and finally he agreed to make the long journey to the south.
The statement above is one of the real evidences how Alaska people truly rely on the existence of nature. They believe nature as a very powerful thing that could help people's life and deserve a big respect for its sacrifice.
the beauty of daylight are right in front of the crow. The crow even misses the daylight and how it shines the world brightly and makes everything is formed in beautiful colors. But the crow realizes that it can not bring this daylight. It is beyond his strength because the daylight is all over the sky. Then, he tries to get rest after an exhausting journey in a nearby village. He sees a warm and cozy place to rest inside a lodge. When he looks around the lodge, "Crow looked around him and spotted a box that glowed around the edges. Daylight, he thought..."
Then, he sees a boy is playing alone. The crow turns himself into a speck of dust, so he can take the glowing ball he thinks as daylight with the help of the little boy. When it is possible to get it, the crow turns himself into his natural form and flies back to the north straightly. We could see from brief explanation above how the figure of the crow does full efforts for bringing daylight to the north where Inuit people wait happily. Seeing how he strives for helping people, he deserves a big respect and people should be thanked to him. Therefore, the crow arrives in the north, and all Inuit people are still hoping and waiting for the daylight to come. Will these people manner properly to what the crow has done to them?
In the far north, the Inuit saw a spark of light coming toward them through darkness. It grew brighter and brighter, until they could see Crow flapping his wings as he flew toward them. The people gasped and pointed and called in delight....The people laughed and cried over their good fortune. But Crow told them that the daylight would not last forever. He had only obtained one ball of daylight from the people of the south, and it would need to rest for six months every year to regain its strength. During that six months period, the darkness would return.
hope seeing the north into a bright and beautiful place with its colors finally comes true. However, with the explanation from the crow about the non lasting daylight, the Inuit people keep thanking to the crow for the daylight he brings. It may not last forever, but it is enough because since they lived in the north there is nothing but darkness to see. And the crow changes everything for the people. They treat the crow kindly and they never forget the sacrifice that the crow has given to them.
In his old age and weak health, the crow still goes for the long journey to the south for making Inuit people’s hope comes true about daylight. Fortunately, Inuit people realize and remember the crow’s help as a heroic thing. It takes a lot of courage and energy for the crow to do this tough journey, but the happiness of all Inuit people seems motivating him to accomplish the journey sincerely.
clothes. But, nature is not taken or used only for object over people's need. It should be treated wisely. Therefore, it is necessary to know that nature does not allow being mistreated. When people treat the nature kindly, it lets to live side by side with man in full harmony. However, when it is hurt, the previous three stories are already enough for lessons in life.
5. The Meeting of the Wild Animals
While the other stories describe how nature reacts over man’s actions,The Meeting of the Wild Animals serves in a very unique way where nature (represented by animals) express their feelings towards the existence of man. The story tries to tell how all animals around the upper of Skeena River in Prairie Town fear for their life survival over the Tsimshian people who are truly very good hunters.
ask Him Who Made Us to give us more cold winter and keep the hunters in their own houses and out of our dens.” (http://www.americanfolklore.net/folktales/ak1.html)
These animals try to find a better way to save their life from the hunt of Tsimshian people. Hiding in their dens is no longer a good idea because the hunters’ even chase into these animals dens while hunting. So, begging for nature to give colder winter seems a perfect solution. The meeting results in great deal where all big animals agree to the Bear’s suggestion. Then, another meeting is held to hear what the small animals think about the idea. Porcupine, as the representative delivers his opinion:
“Friends, let me say a word or two in response. Your strategy is very good for you, because you have plenty of warm fur for the most severe cold. But look at these little insects. They have no fur at all to warm them in winter. Moreover, how can insects and small animals obtain food if winters are colder? Therefore, I saythis: don’t ask for more cold.”
In this case, the story puts the figure of a porcupine as a wisdom animal that sees everything from positive and negative sides. In this story, animals live in regret for being hunted and consumed by man for food. In this case, big animals are the ones who mostly concern about the issue because they are the target of the hunters. They think nature has been unfair to them. They do not accept for this kind of life. Then, porcupine says wisely:
“If it’s that cold, the roots of all the wild berries will freeze and die, and all the plants of the prairie will wither away. How will you get food? You large animals roam the mountains wanting something to eat. When your request brings more winter frost, you will die of starvation in spring or summer. But we will survive, for we live on the bark of trees, the very small animals eat the gum of tress, and the smallest insects find their food in the earth.”
His statement makes all the animals realize that whatever the suggestion they would like to say to nature (Him Who Made Us) will always gives a negative impact to the other animals. Animals might be the nature representatives on earth, but there is something higher and powerful which created them. It is the universe; the one who has power in taking control the life of man and animals.
Porcupine sees that nature already puts everything on earth with proper portions. Then, he continues his wisdom statement:
“In winter we will have ice and snow. In spring we will have showers, and the plants will become green. In summer we will have warmer weather, and all the fishes will go up the rivers. In the fall the leaves will drop, it will rain, and the rivers and brooks will overflow. Then all animals, large and small, and those that creep on the ground, will go into their dens and hide for six months.”
order and portions. Seeing from the statement above, the universe has already arranged seasons on its perfect place. Each season would affect the life between man and animals. For example, there will be ice and snow in winter. Big animals have their thick furs to keep being warm, small animals have places inside the trees to hide and protect themselves from the cold weather. And it is time for hunters to stay in their houses and do not go for hunting. However, there will be also other seasons where animals are being hunted and plants would be picked for man’s food. Behind all of this process, animals and plants also have their time to breed and grow back for the next generations to come. So, life has its own cycles where everything on this earth has its purpose to live and reason to die.
The writer could conclude something from this story; that hunting has already meant something more than looking for daily needs. As what happened in the story ofThe Squirrel Shaman, man tends to consider hunting as something they like where they feel having more power to nature surrounds them. And manforgot the basic principle that man’s power could not even be compared to the great ability of nature. Hunting becomes an activity where man feels arrogant and feels allowed destroying whatever he sees.
accepting them and learning to live with them.”35
Cruelty may be the law of nature.36 But this thought is coming from a selfish human point of view. People get consequences from mistreating nature and they consider it to be a blame for nature. People are never looking back to find out the source of the matter. Because, man is the one who depends his life on his surroundings. Nature has its own power to live and does not need man to be relied on. The five Alaska folklores above have shown how man is not aware enough about the essential meaning of nature and its function of its existence on earth. Man should understand in taking nature as something more than a dead object in life.
B. The Idea behind the Relationships between Man and Nature Based on the
Five Analyzed Folklores
We already know what kind of relationships that occur in the folklores. We also know how things go differently if we take a look at man’s thinking and then put it into nature’s point of view. The five folklores were served in variety where conflicts and resolutions of the stories formed in different ways.
After analyzing the folklores on previous section, the writer put a basic thinking where nature was considered as monster from man’s selfish point of view. While nature actually stands to complete man’s life from its advantages in the world and its existence as a great beauty on earth, man tends to act as if he is trying to conquer the nature with his very limited power. “Winning over nature”
35
Margaret Atwood,Survival-A Thematic Guide to Canadian Literature(Toronto: O.W. Toad Ltd., 2004), p. 80.
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seems an action that leads man to feel more powerful, but in the reality; he is not. And then man would be drowned in negative thinking and bad manners with disrespect, selfishness, arrogance and being out of control. Therefore, sometimes nature reacts very viciously in order to give a lesson to man where life on the earth needs to get along side by side.
Seeing from the analyzed folklores on previous section, the writer sees one obvious truth from man’s point of view. It has proven from these folklores that man is dependable to nature. When it is mentioned dependable, it means more likely that man can not be separated from nature in his life. It is like the relationship between mother and her child. Nature with all of its unlimited power could give and fulfill what man needs in life. Like a figure of a mother, nature has its wisdom and maturity to give lessons to man. And as what commonly happens for a child, man does not have any direction or guidance about how to live on this earth in an appropriate way. It is also like a typical of a child, man sometimes feels challenged to rebel and break what have become rules in life.
in this world. Moreover, whether it is understood or not, man’s life is fully supported by nature. Trees exist for protecting man from heat or rain, some animals like horses or camels can be used for transportations, etc. There is nothing that nature can not give to man in this life. Nature always completes what man needs. And basically, man successfully lives and adapts himself in this world because of the education from nature. So, man should not mistreat the nature.
To support the explanation above, the writer finds a perfect statement to show the idea behind the relationships between man and nature,“…Nature under the first mode was awe at the grandeur of nature; under the second, you were supposed to feel that Nature was a kind of Mother or Nurse who would guide man if he would only listen to her.”37
It can not be debated anymore how nature gives a remarkable beauty on this earth. Man is amazed for its beauty. Moreover, the role of nature in giving what man needs is a noble thing that man can not pay back for his whole life. However, man tends to break what it is destined; man tends to conquer and feels as the one who has the biggest power over everything. And that what makes man sometimes forgets that he has nothing but limitation. It is perfect to have an idea where Nature is put as Mother or Nurse. As the greatest power on the earth, nature is the only thing where man gets his lessons in life. And moreover, man gets his life from the existence of nature. Man mostly gets terrible consequences in the analyzed folklores because he never tries to learn living with nature. For considering this thing, there is another example in Eskimo people’s life when he is
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willing to live with nature; snow could be something man hates or even dies with. However, there is also another important point where man can make houses in snow as something beneficial in his life. If man would let himself to be thoughtful for once, he would know how beautiful nature towards his life.
To continue the previous statement above, here is what the writer could also get,“As long as we remain true to the Divine Mother, so long will she remain faithful to her suffering children.”38
The thought where Alaska people choose nature as something deserved to be worshipped is already good. Because they could see how life should be living through nature. Death or other consequences are only part of what man experiences in life. Therefore, the statement above perfectly reflects what the folklores have shown us. Nature would be something great in life for people if they keep their life on the right track. Man as suffering child could be said as a correct thing. Because man has no power to show, not even deserves to be arrogant. Man is a dependable creature on earth that desperately needs nature in his life. The nature itself as the Divine Mother guides man how to live in the right way.
However, not all folklores show how man could be ended in tragic and miserable life. Based on the analysis,Crow Brings the Daylightis a good example of relationship between man and nature. People know how to respect and be thankful to the nature, and then nature would sincerely sacrifices for the sake of man’s needs. In the story, we could see how man simply admits his limitation of
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power when Inuit people are hoping for daylight to come to the north. And the figure of the crow makes all people of Inuit dream comes true by flying to the south and arrives home with daylight.
Eventually, those two possibilities need to be clarified more clearly. Based on the stories, the writer could use conflicts inside them as a guide to see who start the conflicts. In this case, man is the guilty one. Either it is started with an immoral action from man or with man who disregards the power of nature, the stories show how nature is basically the victim over man’s action. Here is the quote from each story that shows how the conflict starts because of man.
- Death is the consequence for the characters in The Ptarmigan Story because of showing disrespect to nature.
“I wonder if ptarmigan can fly straight without eyes?”
“I wonder if ptarmigan can fly without feathers?”
- A negotiation inThe Squirrel Shaman results in positive impacts to both sides of man and nature. However, it happens because man is given a forgiveness after destroying nature.
“In a small village upon the Skeena River, three young brothers would hunt and kill squirrels…Together they had killed so many squirrels that they had to go farther and farther away from home to find more.”
- Selfishness causes a young girl’s life ends in a tragic transformation in How Selfishness was Rewarded.
