EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN DURING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DEPICTED IN ELIZABETH BROWNING’S POETRY “THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN”
A THESIS BY
TAMI MIANNAULI NAIPOSPOS REG. NO 100705092
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN DURING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DEPICTED IN ELIZABETH BROWNING’S POETRY “THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN”
A THESIS BY:
TAMI MIANNAULI NAIPOSPOS REG NO. 100705092
Supervisor, Co-Supervisor,
Dr. Siti Norma Nasution, M.HumDrs. SiamirMarulafau, M.Hum NIP. 195707201983032001 NIP. 195612141986012001
Submitted to Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara Medan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from Department of English.
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
Approved by the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara (USU) Medan as a thesis for the Sarjana Sastra Examination
Head, Secretary,
Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., Ph.D
Accepted by the Board of Examiners in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Sarjana Sastra from the Department of English, Faculty of Cultural Studies, University of Sumatera Utara, Medan.
The examination is held in Department of English Faculty of Cultural Studies, University of Sumatera Utara on 12th July 2014.
Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies University of Sumatera Utara
NIP. 195110131976031001
Board of Examiners
...
AUTHOR’S DECLARATION
I, TAMI MIANNAULI NAIPOSPOS, DECLARE THAT I AM THE SOLE AUTHOR OF THIS THESIS EXCEPT WHERE REFERENCE IS MADE IN THE TEXT OF THIS THESIS.THIS THESIS CONTAINS NO MATERIAL PUBLISHED ELSE WHERE OR EXTRACTED IN WHOLE OR IN PART FROM A THESIS BY WHICH I HAVE QUALIFIED FOR OR AWARDED ANOTHER DEGREE.
NO OTHER PERSON’S WORK HAS BEEN USED WITHOUT DUE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IN THE MAIN TEXT OF THIS THESIS. THIS THESIS HAS NOT BEEN SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF ANOTHER DEGREE IN ANY TERTIARY EDUCATION.
Signed :
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION
NAME : TAMI MIANNAULI NAIPOSPOS
TITLE OF THESIS : EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN DURING INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION DEPICTED IN ELIZABETH BROWNING’S POETRY “ THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN”
QUALIFICATION : S-1 / SARJANA SASTRA DEPARTMENT : ENGLISH
I AM WILLING THAT MY THESIS SHOULD BE AVAILABLE FOR REPRODUCTION AT THE DISCRETION OF THE LIBRARIAN OF DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FACULTY OF CULTURAL STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA ON THE UNDERSTANDING THAT USERS ARE MADE AWARE OF THEIR OBLIGATION UNDER THE LAW OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All praise and thankfulness to Almighty God for the abundance of His timeless blessings, particularly at the moment I wrote this thesis. I believe that I could not have this done without His will.
I would like to express a very special gratitude and high appreciation to my Supervisor, Dr. Siti Norma Nasution, M.Hum, and my Co-Supervisor Drs. SiamirMarulafau, M.Hum for their willingness and assistances to guide me in writing and completing this thesis.
I also would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to the Dean of Faculty of Cultural Studies, University of Sumatera Utara Secretary of English Department, Mr. Rahmadsyah Rangkuti, M.A., Ph.D and to all lecturers of English Department for everything they already taught me during my academic years.
I am grateful for being a part of our great family. I promise you I will eat well, sleep well and make you proud of me.
Most of all, a heap of thanks to all friends of mine, Hanny, Hetty, Laura (batakkece family, the best somplak guys whom I spend my college years with), Cindy, Zega, Krista, Elsye, Apri, Wina, Eka Deny, Petrus, Yudi, Boy, Dicky Yossi, Icha, Anok and Septi, every person in our class 2010 B; thank you for sharing great moments in those wonderful years. I am so glad to know you.
I may forget to mention some names, but I thank every one for helping and supporting me; for every clarity that people brought to me in the crucial moment; every noble deed I received from those whom I forgot. Those days are gone. I thank you.
Medan, July 2014
Reg. No. 100705022
ABSTRAK
Skripsiberjudul “Exploitation Of Children During Industrial Revolution Depicted in Elizabeth Browning’s Poetry “The Cry of The Children”
berisikajiantentangmasalahexploitasianak yang terjadiselamamasaRevolusiIndustri yang digambarkanoleh Elizabeth
Browning di dalampuisinya yang berjudul “The Cry of The Children”.“The Cry of The Children” merupakansalahsatupuisi Elizabeth Browning yang
paling fenomenalkarenadiamenentangexploitasianak yang terjadipadamasaRevulosiIndustrimelaluipuisitersebut.Tujuanutamadarianalisi
siniadalahuntukmenemukanpengaruhRevolusiIndustriterhadapkehidupananak -anak di Inggrisdanbagaimanapenderitaananak-anak yang dieksploitasi yang digambarkanoleh Elizabeth dalampuisinya. Metode yang digunakandalammenganaslisismasalahadalahmetodedeskriptifkualitatif.Buku yang
digunakanuntukmenganalisismasalahdalamskripsiinidikutipdaribukuTheory
of Literature(1949) olehWellek and Warren.
Penulisjugamengaplikasikanteorilain yang dianggapberhubungandengantopikdiskusidalamskripsiini.
HasilanalisismenunjukkanbahwaRevolusiIndustrisangatberpengaruhterhadap
kehidupananak-anakpadamasaitudananak-anak yang dieksploitasisangatmenderitasecarafisikdan mental karenadiperlakukantidaksemestinyaolehparapengusahadankapitalis.
ABSTRACT
Thesis entitled “Exploitation Of Children During Industrial Revolution Depicted in Elizabeth Browning’s Poetry “ The Cry of The Children” contains of analysis of the exploitation of children that occurred during industrialization in England represented in Elizabeth Browning’s poem. The Cry of the Children is one of the most phenomenal poems written by Elizabeth Browning because she opposed the exploitation of children that occurredduring Industrial Revolution through her poem. This analysis was mainly aimed at finding out the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the lives of children in the England and what kind of suffering that undergone by the exploited children during industrialization that depicted in the poem. The method used in analyzing the problems is descriptive qualitative method.The theory used in this thesis was taken from the book entitled Theory of Literature by Wellek and Warren (1949). The writer also applied the other theories that are considered relevant to the topic of discussion in this thesis. The results showed that the Industrial Revolution greatly affected the lives of the children at that time and exploited children suffer physically and mentally because they were mistreated by industrialist and capitalists.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Language is a medium to express people’s thoughts and feelings. It is important to people because it is universal and it affects us in our lives. It might be formed in spoken and written material. The written material which represents people, culture, tradition, etc. is called literature.Parts of literature arepoetry, prose, and play. Poetry as the part of literature has the unique special language to represents the author’s feeling.
The language of poetry is different from the other parts of literature such as prose and novel.In the poem, the poet states something indirectly. The poet expresses his thoughts in a poetic language and sometimes seems strange that it took a special understanding to analyze the implied meaning of the words in every line. Whereas in prose, the author expresses something directly. Language used in the prose is narrative language and focus on the story so that the reader may be easier to understand what the author wished to convey through his work.
Poetry ( ancient Greek “poieo” that means “I create”) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities instead of its notional and semantic content in poetry, language is used in a manner that is felt by its user and audience to differ from ordinary prose.
Poetry means a lot to many people. To the poets, poetry is a media to express their feeling, imagination, and their observation about social phenomenon in society. In studying poetry, one thing the writer should do is recognizing the meaning of the poetry, relationship of the poetry with the poet’s life, historical period and particular culture in which that poem was written and also the social background of the poem.
In this thesis, the writer chose poetry as the object of analysis. Through the analysis, the meaning behind the poetry may be discovered by looking at what the author says and how the author says it. To find out and analyze the meaning and message of poetry, decoding of text is needed. In the process of decoding the text, literary approach is necessary. The approaches are various, including mythological, sociological, psychological, historical and other approaches.
literature and society. In analyzing a literary work, it cannot be separated from the history of the literary work. The historical approach is also applied to analyze the historical background of the poem.
Sociology of literature as a branch of literary study, focus on the social aspects of the literature. Sociology of literature studies the social production of literature and its social impact. In sociology of literature, the social context of literature is examined and analyzed from the sociological view by using the sociological criticism. Sociological criticism examines the cultural, political and economic context of literature. Sociological criticism explores the relationship between the author and society. Sometimes it shows at how the social status of the author affected the literary work.
There is some poetry that represents the situation in era the poetry was written and exposed about the social issues that happened in that time. Elizabeth Browning’s poetry entitled “The Cry of The Children” is one of the poems that represent the social issues and historical condition in the era it was written.
“The Cry of the Children” is a thirteen sonnets composition which was composed and published in 1843. “The Cry of The Children” was written at the time when government investigations had exposed the exploitation of children in coal mines and factories. . It was the time when the Industrial Revolution was burgeoning rapidly in England. In the poem Elizabeth shows and criticizes the sorrow of the children in those years, how the exploitation was managed in coal mines and factories. Elizabeth also pointed out how the kids at that time could not enjoy their childhood. They have to work all day to get money. The children even prefer to die because they could not face the pressures of life in the world.
1.2.Problem of the Study
From the preceding background, there are some problems which are important to be discussed in this study. The problems are as follows:
1. What is the impact of Industrial Revolution to the children?
2. What kind of sufferings that the children undergo during Industrial Revolution depicted in this poem?
1.3Objective of the Study
This study discusses about the social issues in Elizabeth Browning’s poem “The Cry of The Children”. Specifically, the objectives of the analysis are as follows:
- To describe the society in the era of Industrial Revolution and find out the impact of Industrial Revolution to the children as part of society.
- To analyze the sufferings that children undergo during Industrial Revolution depicted in “The Cry of The Children”.
1.4Scope of the Study
1.5 Significance of the Study
In this thesis, the writer analyzes about exploitation of children during Industrial Revolution that depicted in Elizabeth Browning “The Cry of The Children”. Theoretically, the significance of this thesis is to develop our knowledge in literary studies. Understanding of child labor issue in the poem can often help us to explore the society in Industrial Revolution, how the industrial revolution impact the society and what kind of suffering the children underwent during industrialization.Also, we can find out how the situation of society surrounding the writer can impact the writer’s literary works.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Sociology of Literature
Sociology is derived from sociology and literature. Sociology is derived from the “Greek” word socius and logos. Socius means together, united, comrade, friend and logos meaning word, speech, and parable. The next development to change the meaning.Socius means society and logos means science.
Sociology is the science of the origin of the growth of the community, the science that studies the overall network of relationships within the community. So, briefly explained that sociology is an objective and scientific study of man in society.Sociology trying to figure out how the community was taking place and remain there. By studying the social institutions and all the economic problems, religious, political, etc. all of which form a social structure in which we get a picture of the ways humans adapt to their environment. Such as sociology, literature dealing with human beings in society. Sociology and literature are two different fields that complement each other.
Sociology of literature approach literature is the approach most widely practiced today. This approach pays great attention to the documentary aspects of literature: its basis is the idea that literature is a mirror of his time. This view assumes that literature is a direct mirror of various social structures, familial relations, class conflict and others. In this case, the task of the sociology of literature linking the characters and situations are the author's creation with state historical origins. Theme and style in a literary work that is personal should be changed to the things that are social.
Someauthorshave triedto make the sociology of literature problem classification. WellekandWarren (1986:84) makebriefclassificationas follows. First, theauthor’s sociology that questioned thesocialstatus, socialideology, and othersconcerns theliteraryauthorasproducer. Second, sociology of literature that questioned the literary worksitself; which isthe subject ofthe reviewthat is implied in a literary workandwhat isits purpose. Third, thesociology ofliterature that questioned the readersandsocial influenceof literary works.
2.2 Historical Approach
work in which the author and the reader comprehend the message of the literary work by remembering the moment/historic moment a long with the literary work written.
This approach sees a literary work chiefly, if not exclusively, as a reflection of its author's life and times or the life and times of the characters in the work.
Therefore, there are at least four steps in utilizing this approach:
1. Discovering the time when the poem was made, what happened to the author in that time, or is there any special moment in that time which is recorded by historian.
2. Analyzing at glance whether it is connected or not between the content of the literary work and the certain historical moments after finding out the basic information of it concerning the "when".
3. Finding the clues left by the author, usually in the forms of special terms, symbols, or figurative languages which are strongly related to the moment of the past which become the inspiration of the literary work was being made. Take the example of the song ‘paradise’ by Coldplay, terms like, the wheel breaks the butterfly, a waterfall, stormy skies, dreamed, and etc. Through those terms the readers are given clues of what the song tells about.
2.3 Dynamic Structuralism
Etymologically, structure came from word, structura(Latin), means form or building. Structuralism is an understanding of elements of the structure itself with mechanism of interrelation, the interrelation of one element with the others, and the interrelation of one element with the totality. Dynamic structuralism was first found by Mukarovsky and FelikVodicka. They said that literary works are the process of communication, fact of semiotic, consists of sign, structure, and values.
Definitively, structuralism gives attention to the analysis of elements in literary works. The elements of prose are theme, conflict, setting, characters, plot, point of view, and style of language. Elements in poetry are theme, stylist, imaginary, rhyme, diction, symbol, etc. Elements in Drama are theme, dialog, conflict, setting, character, plot, and style of language.
2.4 Term of Exploitation
According to oxford dictionary fourth edition (2008), there are 3 definitions of exploitation, they are :
• The action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work
• The action of making use of and benefiting from resources:
• The fact of making use of a situation to gain unfair advantage for oneself
used for the benefit of others. This corresponds to one ethical conception of exploitation, that is, the treatment of human beings as mere means to an end—or as mere "objects". In different terms, "exploitation" refers to the use of people as a resource, with little or no consideration of their well-being. Exploitation can also be seen in social relationships where one person is "using" the other for his own personal benefit. An example of this is if two friends go out for lunch, but one friend always buys and the other never ever digs out his wallet to buy. Another example is person A offering another person B a place to stay for awhile because person B(hypothetically speaking) has financial problems. Person B moves in with person A and time goes by. Pretty soon person B has been staying with person A for three months but never offers to help person A with the rent, the grocery bills, the heat, or only helps very sparingly. When someone is taking advantage of a person in any way this is exploitation. This can take the following basic forms:
• Taking something off a person or a group that rightfully belongs to them
• Short-changing people in trade
• Directly or indirectly forcing somebody to work
• Using somebody against his will, or without his consent or knowledge
• Imposing an arbitrary differential treatment of people to the advantage of some and the disadvantage of others (as in astrictive discrimination)
Most often, the word exploitation is used to refer to economic exploitation; that is, the act of using another person's labor without offering them an adequate compensation.
2.5 Industrial Revolution in England
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power and the development of machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal.
It was in England that the industrial revolution first took hold. England’s economy had progressed further than that of any other country in in the direction of abundance.
2.5.1 Important Technological Developments
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies:
• Steam power – The efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaption of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.
• Iron making – The substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production. Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures. The paddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge. The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1829) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.
Metallurgy - A major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of wood and other bio-fuels with coal. For a given amount of heat, coal required much less labor to mine than cutting wood, and coal was more abundant than wood.
2.5.2 Social Effects
Standards of living
consensus that the bulk of the population, which was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards.
During the period 1813–1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.
Food and nutrition
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including Britain and France, until the latter part of the 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years, and only slightly higher in Britain. The U.S. population of the time was adequately fed, were much taller and had life expectancy of 45–50 years.
In Britain and the Netherlands food supply had been increasing and prices falling before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices; however, population was increasing as well, as noted by Thomas Malthus. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, advances in agriculture or technology soon led to an increase in population, this again strained food and other resources, limiting increases in per capita income. This condition is called the Malthusian trap, and it was finally overcome by industrialization.
Housing
Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendor of the homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers.
In The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not being completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shantytowns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. Sanitary facilities were nonexistent. These slum areas had extremely high population densities. It was common for groups of unrelated mill workers to share rooms in very low quality housing where eight to ten people may occupy a single room, which often had no furniture, with the occupants sleeping on a pile of straw or sawdust.
diseases from the mines, cholera from polluted water and typhoid were also common.
Clothing and consumer goods
Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating.
Population increase
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century, Britain's population doubled every 50 years. Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.
The Industrial Revolution was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in population and in per capita income.
2.5.3 Labor Conditions
Social structure and working conditions
long hours of labor dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20 to 40 percent less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life. However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labor, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
Factories and urbanization
Industrialization led to the creation of the factory. Arguably the first highly mechanized was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill atDerby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in an Italy and acting as an industrial spy; however, since the silk industry there was a closely guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Because Lombe's factory was not successful and because there was no follow through, the rise of the modern factory dates to somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized.
The factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and the world's first industrial city.
The transition to industrialization was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites formed to protest against industrialization and sometimes sabotaged factories.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.
By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
2.5.4 Child Labor
between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.
Child labor had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders, 10-20% of an adult male's wage. Children as young as four were employed. Beatings and long hours were common; with some child coalminers and hurries working from 4 am until 5 pm. Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. Many children developed lung cancerand other diseases and died before the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices", working without wages for board and lodging. Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape. Children employed as mule scavenger by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day and six days a week.
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines and textile factories and these helped to popularize the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.
were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child laborers; however, child labor remained in Europe and the United States up to the 20th century.
2.6 The Term of Poetry
2.6.1 The Types of Poetry
When studying poem, it is useful first of all to consider the theme and the overall development of the theme in the poem. Obviously, the sort of development that takes place depends to a considerable extent on the type of poem one is dealing with. It is useful to keep two general distinctions in mind, lyric poetry and narrative poetry (Abrams: 1999).
2.6.1.1 Lyric Poetry
A lyric poem is a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state.
Subcategories of the lyric are:
• Elegy
• Ode
An ode is a long lyric poem with a serious subject written in an elevated style. Famous examples are Wordsworth’s Hymn to Duty or Keats’ Ode to a Grecian Urn.
• Sonnet
The sonnet was originally a love poem which dealt with the lover’s sufferings and hopes. It originated in Italy and became popular in England in the Renaissance, when Thomas Wyatt and the Earl of Surrey translated and imitated the sonnets written by Petrarch (Petrarchan sonnet). From the seventeenth century onwards the sonnet was also used for other topics than love, for instance for religious experience (by Donne and Milton), reflections on art (by Keats or Shelley) or even the war experience (by Brooke or Owen). The sonnet uses a single stanza of (usually) fourteen lines and an intricate rhyme pattern.
• Dramatic Monologue
In a dramatic monologue a speaker, who is explicitly someone other than the author, makes a speech to a silent auditor in a specific situation and at a critical moment.
• Occasional Poetry
Occasional poetry is written for a specific occasion: a wedding (then it is called an epithalamion, for instance Spenser’s Epithalamion), the return of a king from exile (for instance Dryden’s Annus Mirabilis) or a death (for example Milton’s Lycidas), etc.
2.6.1.2 Narrative Poetry
Narrative poems might tell of a love story (like Tennyson's Maud), the story of a father and son (like Wordsworth's Michael) or the deeds of a hero or heroine (like Walter Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel).
Sub-categories of narrative poetry are:
• Epic
Epics usually operate on a large scale, both in length and topic, such as the founding of a nation (Virgil’s Aeneid) or the beginning of world history (Milton's Paradise Lost), they tend to use an elevated style of language and supernatural beings take part in the action.
The mock-epic makes use of epic conventions, like the elevated style and the assumption that the topic is of great importance, to deal with completely insignificant occurrences. A famous example is Pope's The Rape of the Lock, which tells the story of a young beauty whose suitor secretly cuts off a lock of her hair.
• Ballad
CHAPTER III
METHOD OF THE STUDY
The writer uses descriptive qualitative method in process of writing the thesis. Descriptive qualitative method is a method of analysis by describing and analyzing the data and then giving interpretation and explanation. The writer will do these following steps to write the thesis.
3.1 Data Collecting
There are some sources of data for this thesis taken by the writer. The first source is the texts of Elizabeth Browning’s poem “The Cry of The Children. Second, the writer read some articles about the biography of Elizabeth Browning which helped the writer to know the background of life of Elizabeth Browning. Third, the writer searches the information related to the poem “The Cry of The Children” from some critical books, thesis and documents about the poem. Fourth, the writer collects some information about the industrial revolution and the exploitation of children in that era as much as possible. The writer also gets some information from the internet sites to support the topic of this thesis.
3.2 Data Analysis
are some steps that used by the writer from the beginning in the process of doing the thesis:
First, the writer read the selected poem of Elizabeth Browning “The Cry of The Children” thoroughly to understand the poem.
Second, the writer begins to read all of information about Elizabeth biography and tries to connect or relate her poem to Elizabeth personal life background based on the time when Elizabeth Browning wrote the poem. In this step, the writer begins the interpreting process to relate the poems to the poet.
Third, the writer marked and notes all of the word, line, or stanza of each poem that reflected to the exploitation of children and industrial revolution. The writer doing kinds of interpreting process based on facts and the theory that supports the interpreting and analyzing process.
Fourth, the writer begins to analyze the poem per lines and stanza, depends on the poem itself. To be effective, for the poem that has more than 4 lines per stanza, the writer analyze them stanza per stanzas, but for the poems that have less than 4 lines per stanza, the writer analyzes them lines by lines. In this step, the writer applied the theory and approaches to support the process of analyzing.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSISAND FINDING
4.1 Exploitation Asthe Impact of Industrial Revolution to the Children.
“The Cry of the Children” is a thirteen part poem which was written by Elizabeth Browning and published in 1843.It was written at the time when
government investigations had exposed the exploitation of children employed in coal mines and factories during industrial revolution. In this chapter, the writer is going to analyze the impact of Industrial Revolution to the children and what kind of suffering the children underwent during Industrial Revolution depicted in The Cry of The Children poem.
A text commonly used in college British Literature classes describes the industrial revolution in these terms:
For the great majority of the laboring class the results of the policy (of laissez faire) were inadequate wages, long hours of work under sordid conditions, and the large- scale employment of women and children for task which destroy body and soul. Reports from investigating committees on coal mines found male and female children or even five years of age harnesses to heavy coal-sledges which they dragged crawling on their hands and knees. . . (Norton Anthology, page 3)
the development of industrial areas where factories and mining areas emerging. Massive urbanization took place in UK. The inhabitants of the village,the farmers moved to cities in the hope of obtaining a better life.
Some families migrated to industrialized cities; they wanted to have jobs because most of them were living in poverty in country sides. So each member of the family has to work. They live in cheap and small houses or rooms or in tenements without bathrooms and other facilities. Those were such unhealthy houses.It was an extreme poverty where everyone needed to work to survive. Indeed, even children went to work as the negative effect that Industrial Revolution had. The main reason was that industries needed the cheapest workers so those workers were children who were paid less than adults (men, even women). Children had capability to do some works that no one could do so; they were working from 4 or 5 years and so on. Therefore, families’ need more support from children. The workers have to work hard all day long, doing heavy jobs and risky, but they do not get reward
accordingly.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Great Britain
became the first country to industrialize. It was also the first country where the nature of children’s work changed so dramatically that child labor becomes a social
children who work as laborers to reduce production costs. Children were forced to work lifting heavy loads, working in the factories filled with big machines, and worked in the coal mines which were very dangerous for them.
Elizabeth exposes this situation through this poem. She wants to tell the readers that the children who are not supposed to work have to work hard in the coal mining and factories. The children worked underground and drag their burden tiring through the coal dark; they also drove the wheels of iron in the factory that is so dangerous for the people especially for children. As seen in line below:
For, all day, we drag our burden tiring, Through the coal-dark, underground — Or, all day, we drive the wheels of iron
In the factories, round and round (Stanza VI; line 9-12)
In her poem, Elizabeth symbolized England as “the country of free”. The country where the people should live freely and happily but, the fact is really different. In industrialization era, England was burgeoning rapidly, but the people who want to get benefit from this situation have to face the tragic fact. So many children suffer because of the avarice of the gold heaper, in this case capitalist. The children suffered because of poverty in their country which was growing
They are weeping in the playtime of the others, In the country of the free.
(Stanza I; Line 11-12)
The industrialization is in accordance with the growth of capitalism in this era. Capitalism is an economic system in which individuals in private did production activities. In the 18th century duringthe industrial revolution many developing capital owners controlling industrial equipment, hiring people to run the machines. The purpose of the capitalism itself is a cheap production cost and high profit. It can be seen that the exploitation of children during industrialization was caused by
capitalism. The capitalist hired the children to minimize the production cost but still can get high profit, because the children’s wage was so much lower than adult but the productivity was comparable. This made children were exploited for
manufacturing in the early phases of the industrial revolution between 18th and 19th centuries. In her poem, Elizabeth symbolized the capitalist as “gold heaper”. The people who exploited the children, got a lot of money regardless the suffering experienced by these children. She mentioned “purple” the color that symbolized nobility, which represent the capitalist. She also mentioned “gold heaper” which represents the people who get advantage from the children’s suffering. In stanza XIII, Elizabeth expresses the cry of the children that kept asking how long their cruel nation will stand to move the world on their heart.
"How long", they say, "how long, O cruel nation, Will you stand, to move the world on a child's heart —
Stifle down with a mailed heel its palpitation, And tread onward to your throne amid the mart!
Our blood splashes upward, O gold-heaper, And your purple shows your path!
During industrialization people increasingly rarely interact with other people and become individualist. They do not care about the problems which happened at that time in their society. But, there were people in this time that strongly advocated the use or the abolishment of child labor, or at least the improvement of conditions. One of them is Elizabeth Browning. She is one of the figures whois against the exploitation of children. She wrote this poem as her critic toward government and English people who did not care about this big social issue which occurred around them. She symbolized them as “my brother” in this poem. The poet asks all English people to hear the cry of children. As in line below:
Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers, Ere the sorrow comes with years?
They are leaning their young heads against their mothers — And that cannot stop their tears.
(Stanza I; line 1-4)
4.2 The Suffering that Undergone by the Children
4.2.1 Physical Suffering
The treatment of children in factories during industrialization was often cruel and unusual, and the children's safety was generally neglected. The youngest
infliction.Orphans were the ones subject to this slave-like labor. The factory owners justified their absence of payroll by saying that they gave the orphans food, shelter, and clothing. The children were paid very low.
Working in the area of industry is a risky job. The children were told to clean the machines in the factory, into the underground passage in the mining area and work to build a railway. They often had an accident at work that caused them badly injured even to death. . Large, heavy, and dangerous equipment was very common for children to be using or working near. Many accidents injured or killed the children on the job. However, they consider death as a good thing because they can be free of suffering in the world.
"True", say the young children, "it may happen That we die before our time!
It is good when it happens", say the children, "That we die before our time!"
(Stanza IV; line 1,2,11,12)
children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions. Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated. Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw. Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.
It is sad to think that these children witnessed other children die before their eyes like little Alice.This part “the grave is shapen like a snowball in the rime” illustrates once child passed away, the body laid where it fell. The children did not get proper burial and once gone they were forgotten. They died from exhaustion, lack of food, illness and accident. In part “With your ear down, little Alice never cries! Could we see her face, be sure we should not know her,For the smile has time for
growing in her eyes” depicted that the little girl named Alice is dead but she is
happier. She is not laboring under harsh conditions any longer. This little girl like so many before her, are now free from exploitation and suffering they endured.
When the children say “It is good when it happens", say the children, "That we die before our time!" it is their way of saying that dying is okay. They think death is the only way to get out of this harsh reality.
That we die before our time!
Little Alice died last year — the grave is shapen Likea snowball, in the rime.
We looked into the pit prepared to take her — Was no room for any work in the close clay: From the sleep wherein she lieth none will wake her,
If you listen by that grave, in sun and shower, With your ear down, little Alice never cries! — Could we see her face, be sure we should not know her,
For the smile has time for growing in her eyes — And merry go her moments, lulled and stilled in
The shroud, by the kirk-chime! It is good when it happens", say the children,
"That we die before our time!" (Stanza IV, line:1-12)
Workhouses would sell orphan and abandoned children as “pauper
apprentices”, working without wages for board or lodging. The children who tried to
ran away would be whipped and return to their master, with some master shackling them to prevent escape. In the other side, the children who had family also cannot do anything. They want to get out of their misery. They want to get out of the situation they face but they cannot do anything about it. If they stop working, then they will not be able to help the parent to provide for their families. They're just uneducated little kid. Indirectly they have been depended on their livelihood to the capitalists who have robbed their rights as children. They can only survive even though they were exhausted.
"For oh", say the children, "we are weary, And we cannot run or leap”
They have no time care for any meadow, even if they have time for it they would like to spend their time to sleep. They are working all day long and have no time to do anything else except working. The children even cannot sleep well.
“If we cared for any meadows, it were merely To drop down in them and
sleep”
They want to go out but they are not brave. Their knees are tremble sorely every time they tried to. The children cannot do anything because there is no other choice.
“Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping — We fall upon our faces, trying
to go;”
They were so tired. They have no time to see beautiful things because of their weariness. Even the reddest flower would look as pale as snow in their eyes.
“And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping, The reddest flower would look as pale as snow”
"For oh", say the children, "we are weary, And we cannot run or leap —
If we cared for any meadows, it were merely To drop down in them and sleep. Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping —
We fall upon our faces, trying to go; And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping, The reddest flower would look as pale as snow
(Stanza VI; line 1-8)
were afraid and they got headache of hearing the sound of the turning wheels. They prayed and hoped that the noise could be stopped just for a moment, but sometimes their praying breaking out in a mad moaning and said ‘O ye wheels’ ‘Stop!be silent for to-day!’"
"For, all day, the wheels are droning, turning — Their wind comes in our faces —
Till our hearts turn — our heads, with pulses burning, And the walls turn in their places —
Turns the sky in the high window blank and reeling — Turns the long light that droppeth down the wall —
Turn the black flies that crawl along the ceiling — All are turning, all the day, and we with all! —
And all day, the iron wheels are droning; And sometimes we could pray,
‘O ye wheels’ (breaking out in a mad moaning), ‘Stop!be silent for to-day!’"
(Stanza VII)
4.2.2 Mental Suffering
Browning opened her poem with a quote from the classic tragedy of Medea “Alas my children, why do you look at me?”. Medea is a character of a classic play
They are leaning their young heads against their mothers — And that cannot stop their tears.
(Part I line 3-4)
Children, who should enjoy their childhood by doing what they supposed to do as the children, must suffer and live a hard life that they should not have. They can only cry over what they experienced. In her poem, Elizabeth compared the children who were exploited with the other young creatures in this universe. The young lambs are bleating in the meadows, the young birds are chirping in the nest, the young fawns are playing with the shadows, the young flowers are blowing toward the west, but the young children as the young creatures are weeping bitterly in playtime of others.
The young lambs are bleating in the meadows; The young birds are chirping in the nest; The young fawns are playing with the shadows; The young flowers are blowing toward the west —
But the young, young children, O my brothers, They are weeping bitterly!
They are weeping in the playtime of the others, In the country of the free
(Stanza I; line 5-12)
In her poem Elizabeth asked if there were English people who care about the fate of children who are exploited and if anyone asked why the children cry, why their tears are falling and why they live in sorrow. The one who should be weeping is the old one who has lost his future in the past. Like the old tree which is leafless in the forest, the old year which is ending in the forest, the old tree, if
has a long way to go to, but the young children is weeping in their sorrow since they had lost their future.
Do you question the young children in their sorrow, Why their tears are falling so? —
The old man may weep for his to-morrow Which is lost in Long Ago — The old tree is leafless in the forest —
The old year is ending in the frost — The old wound, if stricken, is the sorest —
The old hope is hardest to be lost: But the young, young children, O my brothers,
Do you ask them why they stand
Weeping sore before the bosoms of their mothers, In our happy Fatherland?
(Stanza II, line 1-12)
The children are too weak to confront their gloomy fate. They are tired of living in a world that is exhausting. They are desperate at their very early age; assume that there will be no future for them. They consider death is the only way for them to get out of their misery and rest forever. Elizabeth emphasizes this thing in part III, she uses the word “outside earth” and “grave” which symbolized the death.
"Your old earth", they say, "is very dreary"; "Our young feet", they say, "are very weak! Few paces have we taken, yet are weary —
Our grave-rest is very far to seek!
Ask the old why they weep, and not the children, For the outside earth is cold —
And we young ones stand without, in our bewildering, And the graves are for the old!
Suffering that they experienced make them question the existence of God. They always pray that they are saved from their suffering. They cried for help but no one cared about them. Even people who are near, they cannot do anything to help the children. They asked what God can do to help them when they cannot even see him. They felt their prayers had been in vain because God does not listen to them.
Now tell the poor young children, O my brothers, That they look to Him and pray —
So the blessed One, who blesseth all the others, Will bless them another day.
They answer, "Who is God that He should hear us, While the rushing of the iron wheels is stirred? When we sob aloud, the human creatures near us
Pass by, hearing not, or answer not a word! And we hear not (for the wheels in their resounding)
Strangers speaking at the door;
Is it likely God, with angels singing round Him, Hears our weeping any more?
(Stanza IX; line 1-12)
Elizabeth asked the children to go out from their work in the factory. She wanted the children to sing out as the little thrushes do and pluck their handful of the meadow cowslips pretty. Elizabeth wanted the children to live with happiness and could laugh aloud as seen in the following lines.
Go out, children, from the mine and from the city — Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do — Pluck you handfuls of the meadow-cowslips pretty —
Laugh aloud, to feel your fingers let them through! (Stanza V, line 5-8)
But they don’t want to because they are not brave. They have to work to earn their lives.They said to leave them quiet in the dark coal’s and shadows from
that anyone can help them to get out from their misery. As represented in lines below:
But they answered, Are your cowslips of the meadow Like our weeds a near the mine?
Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal – shadows, From your pleasure fair and fine!
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION
5.1 Conclusion:
In this chapter, the writer tries to conclude of what she has discussed in the previous chapter, they are:
• The impact of industrial revolution to the children is exploitation. The underage children from poor family have to work in the factories and coal mining to help their family live.
• The children also underwent suffering during exploitation. They were suffered mentally because of the oppression in their life and also suffered physically because of getting bad treatment from the industrialist and capitalist who hired them.
5.2 Suggestion
Furthermore, in this good chance, the writer would like to suggest those who are interested in literature especially poetry to read more about Victorian poetry because Elizabeth is one of the most popular Victorian poets with some phenomenal works. The cry of the children is one of her popular work that exposes the
exploitation of the children during industrial revolution. Through Elizabeth
Browning’s poem, the writer wants to convey that the children should be loved, be protected and should be happy. Nobody’s allowed to rob their right as children.
Having limited knowledge as well as sources in writing this thesis, the writer realizes that this thesis is far from being perfect. Anyhow, constructive criticism and suggestions are expected and appreciated very much.
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Barret Browning’s Poem “The Cry Of The Children”. (Unpublished Thesis). Medan: FIB USU.
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London: The Macmillan Education, Ltd.
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Ratna, NyomanKutha. 2003. ParadigmaSosiologiSastra. Yogyakarta: PustakaPelajar.
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Tilly, Charles. 1981. As Sociology Meets History. London: Academic Press, Inc.
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Wellek, Rene and Austin Warren. 1949. Theory of Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, Inc.
________. 2013. Industrial Revolution. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution( April 2014). ________. 2013. Exploitation. Retrieved from
https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Exploitatio n.html( April 2014).
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APPENDICES
The Cry of the Children
"Pheupheu, tiprosderkesthe m ommasin, tekna;"
[[Alas, alas, why do you gaze at me with your eyes, my children.]]—Medea.
Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers, Ere the sorrow comes with years ?
They are leaning their young heads against their mothers, — And that cannot stop their tears.
The young lambs are bleating in the meadows ; The young birds are chirping in the nest ; The young fawns are playing with the shadows ; The young flowers are blowing toward the west— But the young, young children, O my brothers, They are weeping bitterly !
They are weeping in the playtime of the others, In the country of the free.
The old man may weep for his to-morrow Which is lost in Long Ago —
The old tree is leafless in the forest — The old year is ending in the frost — The old wound, if stricken, is the sorest — The old hope is hardest to be lost :
But the young, young children, O my brothers, Do you ask them why they stand
Weeping sore before the bosoms of their mothers, In our happy Fatherland ?
They look up with their pale and sunken faces, And their looks are sad to see,
For the man's grief abhorrent, draws and presses Down the cheeks of infancy —
"Your old earth," they say, "is very dreary;" "Our young feet," they say, "are very weak !" Few paces have we taken, yet are weary— Our grave-rest is very far to seek !
Ask the old why they weep, and not the children, For the outside earth is cold —
And the graves are for the old !"
"True," say the children, "it may happen That we die before our time !
Little Alice died last year her grave is shapen Like a snowball, in the rime.
We looked into the pit prepared to take her — Was no room for any work in the close clay : From the sleep wherein she lieth none will wake her, Crying, 'Get up, little Alice !it is day.'
If you listen by that grave, in sun and shower, With your ear down, little Alice never cries ;
Could we see her face, be sure we should not know her, For the smile has time for growing in her eyes ,— And merry go her moments, lulled and stilled in The shroud, by the kirk-chime !
It is good when it happens," say the children, "That we die before our time !"
Alas, the wretched children !they are seeking Death in life, as best to have !
Go out, children, from the mine and from the city — Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do — Pluck you handfuls of the meadow-cowslips pretty Laugh aloud, to feel your fingers let them through ! But they answer, " Are your cowslips of the meadows Like our weeds anear the mine ?
Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows, From your pleasures fair and fine!
"For oh," say the children, "we are weary, And we cannot run or leap —
If we cared for any meadows, it were merely To drop down in them and sleep.
Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping — We fall upon our faces, trying to go ; And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping, The reddest flower would look as pale as snow. For, all day, we drag our burden tiring,
"For all day, the wheels are droning, turning, — Their wind comes in our faces, —
Till our hearts turn, — our heads, with pulses burning, And the walls turn in their places
Turns the sky in the high window blank and reeling — Turns the long light that droppeth down the wall, — Turn the black flies that crawl along the ceiling — All are turning, all the day, and we with all ! — And all day, the iron wheels are droning ;
And sometimes we could pray,
'O ye wheels,' (breaking out in a mad moaning) 'Stop !be silent for to-day ! ' "
Ay !be silent ! Let them hear each other breathing For a moment, mouth to mouth —
Let them touch each other's hands, in a fresh wreathing Of their tender human youth !
As if Fate in each were stark ;
And the children's souls, which God is calling sunward, Spin on blindly in the dark.
Now tell the poor young children, O my brothers, To look up to Him and pray —
So the blessed One, who blesseth all the others, Will bless them another day.
They answer, " Who is God that He should hear us, While the rushing of the iron wheels is stirred ? When we sob aloud, the human creatures near us Pass by, hearing not, or answer not a word ! And we hear not (for the wheels in their resounding) Strangers speaking at the door :
Is it likely God, with angels singing round Him, Hears our weeping any more ?
" Two words, indeed, of praying we remember ; And at midnight's hour of harm, —
'Our Father,' looking upward in the chamber, We say softly for a charm.
And we think that, in some pause of angels' song, God may pluck them with the silence sweet to gather, And hold both within His right hand which is strong. 'Our Father !' If He heard us, He would surely
(For they call Him good and mild)
Answer, smiling down the steep world very purely, 'Come and rest with me, my child.'
"But, no !" say the children, weeping faster, " He is speechless as a stone ;
And they tell us, of His image is the master Who commands us to work on.
Go to !" say the children,—"up in Heaven,
Dark, wheel-like, turning clouds are all we find ! Do not mock us ; grief has made us unbelieving — We look up for God, but tears have made us blind." Do ye hear the children weeping and disproving, O my brothers, what ye preach ?
For God's possible is taught by His world's loving — And the children doubt of each.
They are weary ere they run ;
They have never seen the sunshine, nor the glory Which is brighter than the sun :
They know the grief of man, without its wisdom ; They sink in the despair, without its calm — Are slaves, without the liberty in Christdom, — Are martyrs, by the pang without the palm, — Are worn, as if with age, yet unretrievingly No dear remembrance keep,—
Are orphans of the earthly love and heavenly : Let them weep !let them weep !
They look up, with their pale and sunken faces, And their look is dread to see,
For they think you see their angels in their places, With eyes meant for Deity ;—
"How long," they say, "how long, O cruel nation,
Will you stand, to move the world, on a child's heart, — Stifle down with a mailed heel its palpitation,
And tread onward to your throne amid the mart ? Our blood splashes upward, O our tyrants,
Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Biography
Elizabeth Barrett Moulton-Barrett was born March 6, 1806 in Durham, England. Her father, Edward Moulton-Barrett, made most of his considerable fortune from Jamaican sugar plantations, and in 1809 he bought Hope End, a 500-acre estate near the Malvern Hills. Elizabeth lived a privileged childhood, riding her pony around the grounds, visiting other families in the neighborhood, and arranging family theatrical productions with her eleven brothers and sisters. Although frail, she apparently had no health problems until 1821, when Dr. Coker prescribed opium for a nervous disorder. Her mother died when she was 22, and critics mark signs of this loss in Aurora Leigh.
In her early twenties Barrett befriended Hugh Stuart Boyd, a blind, middle-aged scholar, who rekindled Barrett's interest in Greek studies. During their friendship Barrett absorbed an astonishing amount of Greek literature — Homer, Pindar, Aristophanes, etc. — but after a few years Barrett's fondness for Boyd diminished.
Her intellectual fascination with the classics and metaphysics was balanced by a religious obsession which she later described as "not the deep persuasion of the mild Christian but the wild visions of an enthusiast." Her family attended services at the nearest Dissenting chapel, and Mr. Barrett was active in Bible and Missionary societies.
From 1822 on, Elizabeth Barrett's interests tended more and more to the scholarly and literary. Mr. Barrett's financial losses in the early 30s forced him to sell Hope End, and although never poor, the family moved three times between 1832 and 1837, settling at 50 Wimpole Street in London. In 1838, The Seraphim and Other Poems appeared, the first volume of Elizabeth's mature poetry to appear under her
own name. That same year her health forced her to move to Torquay, on the Devonshire coast. Her favorite brother Edward went along with her; his death by drowning later that year was a blow which prostrated her for months and from which she never fully recovered. When she returned to Wimpole Street, she became an invalid and a recluse, spending most of the next five years in her bedroom, seeing only one or two people other than her immediate family.
Kenyon arranged for Browning to come see her in May 1845, and so began one of the most famous courtships in literature. Six years his elder and an invalid, she could not believe that the vigorous and worldly Browning really loved her as much as he professed to, and her doubts are expressed in the Sonnets from the Portuguese which she wrote over the next two years. Love conquered all, however, and Browning imitated his hero Shelley by spiriting his beloved off to Italy in August 1846. Since they were proper Victorians, however, they got married a week beforehand.
Mr. Barrett disinherited her (as he did each one of his children who got married without his permission, and he never gave his permission). Unlike her brothers and sisters, Elizabeth had inherited some money of her own, so the Brownings were reasonably comfortable in Italy. In 1849, they had a son, Robert Wiedeman Barrett Browning.
At her husband's insistence, the second edition of her Poems included her love sonnets. They helped increase her popularity and the high critical regard in which the Victorians held their favorite poetess. (On she was seriously considered for the Laureateship, which went to growing interest in the Italian struggle for independence is evident in Casa Guidi Windows (1851) and Poems before Congress (1860). 1857 saw the publication of the
verse-novel
No female poet was held in higher esteem among cultured readers in both the United States and England than Elizabeth Barrett Browning during the nineteenth century. Barrett's poetry had an immense impact on the works of Emily Dickinson who admired her as woman of achievement.
Barrett's treatment of social injustice (the slave trade in America, the oppression of the Italians by the Austrians, the labor of children in the mines and the mills of England, and the restrictions placed upon women) is manifested in many of her poems. Two of her poems, Casa Guidi Windows and Poems Before Congress, dealt directly with the Italian fight for independence. The first half of Casa Guidi Windows (1851) was filled with hope that the newly awakened liberal movements
were moving toward unification and freedom in the Italian states. The second half of the poem, written after the movement of liberalism had been crushed in Italy, is dominated by her disillusionment. After a decade of truce, Italians once again began to struggle for their freedom, but were forced to agree to an armistice that would leave Venice under Austrian control. Barrett Browning's Poems Before Congress (1860) responded to these events by criticizing the English government for
not providing aid. One of the poems in this collection, "A Curse For a Nation," which attacked slavery, had been previously published in an abolitionist journal in Boston.
Aurora Leigh also dealt with social injustice, but its subject was the
