TEACHING PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
BY USING CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
(An Experimental Study at the first Grade of SMK GrafikaYayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan)
A “Skripsi”
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teachers Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of S.Pd. in English Language Education
By : IIM IMAROH 101014020836
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHERS TRAINING
SYARIF HIDAYATULLAH STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY
JAKARTA
2009
TEACHING PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
BY USING CONTEXTUAL TEACHING AND LEARNING
(An Experimental Study at the first Grade of SMK GrafikaYayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan)
A “Skripsi”
Presented to the Faculty of Tarbiya and Teachers Training in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
Bacalah teks di bawah ini. Kemudian identifikasi bentuk-bentuk kalimat yang ada di setiap paragraf. Tuliskan apa bentuk kalimat teks tersebut, keterangan waktu, dan buat kesimpulan kalian pada kertas karton yang telah disediakan.
People works at many different jobs
A businessperson works in an office. He plans business activities. He prepares reports and goes to meetings. He learns about buying, selling, and producing things. A businessperson must hire workers to help him.
A secretary writes letters, answer the telephone, and meets people. She uses a typewriter every day. She puts papers away in the file cabinet. She stands between her boss and her visitors. She helps her boss to plan his and to finish his work.
Teachers work in school. They help their students to learn. They order books, explain lesson, give homework, and correct papers. At the end of the term, they grade their students.
Bacalah teks di bawah ini. Kemudian identifikasi bentuk-bentuk kalimat yang ada di setiap paragraf. Tuliskan apa bentuk kalimat teks tersebut, keterangan waktu, dan buat kesimpulan kalian pada kertas karton yang telah disediakan.
Rescue workers saved four people
Rescue workers pulled a man, a woman, and two children from this cold, rushing water. The mother and two daughters got into trouble first. Their car drove off the road into the water. The man, a truck driver, almost died when he tried to save them.
The trouble started when Mrs. Leslie lost control of her car on winding mountain road. The car fell down thirty feet from the road into the water. It rolled over once and landed right side up in the rushing water. All people wearing their seatbelts. Nobody was hurt by the fall. However, they couldn’t leave the car. The water outside was too cold and too fast for safe swimming.
The rescue started almost immediately. Another driver told police about the trouble. The police called special rescue workers and a truck to pull the car out.
Next the other rescue workers arrived. They put on special suits to stay warm. They bought safety ropes, life jackets, tire tubes, and warm blankets. First they pulled the people out of the back window onto the top of the car. Then they swam with each person to shore. They saved Mr. Ruter, Mrs. Cady and the little girls.
Bacalah teks di bawah ini. Kemudian identifikasi bentuk-bentuk kalimat yang ada di setiap paragraf. Tuliskan apa bentuk kalimat teks tersebut, keterangan waktu, dan buat kesimpulan kalian pada kertas karton yang telah disediakan.
The kites are flying high
This girl is holding a kite. She’s running as fast as she can, and the kite is rising into the air. While running, she’s letting out string. The kite is rising higher and higher. Occasionally, small children let go of their kites, and then kites fly out of view.
The second kite is flying over a tree. When the wind blows hard, it’s more difficult to fly kites. This father is helping his little girl, and he’s having a very good time. Happy families often play together.
This man is having a little trouble with a “kite-eating tree”. He’s climbing the tree to get his kite down. Sometimes kites break when they get caught in trees.
These girls are trying to fly kites, too. They’re having fun, but one of them is getting caught in the string. The other girl is laughing too hard to help her friend. This kind of trouble seldom spoils anybody’s fun, but it often breaks the kite string.
Bacalah teks di bawah ini. Kemudian identifikasi bentuk-bentuk kalimat yang ada di setiap paragraf. Tuliskan apa bentuk kalimat teks tersebut, keterangan waktu, dan buat kesimpulan kalian pada kertas karton yang telah disediakan.
This woman has lost her job
Mrs. Clark and her daughter Sarah have been out shopping, and they’ve just returned home. They bought Sarah a new sweater, and she’s already put it on. It’s so new that they haven’t even removed the tag yet.
Mrs. Clark has just opened a letter, and she’s received bad news. She’s lost her job! For the past year she’s worked as a private secretary for a rich musician. Now the musician has decided to stop working, and he’s asked Mrs. Clark to find anther job. Mrs. Clark is the only money earner in the family, since her husband is no longer living.
The letter has upset Mrs. Clark very much. She’s crying. She’s recently bought anew house, a new car, and many new clothes for her job. She hasn’t paid for them yet. Now she may not be able to pay for them, because she hasn’t saved much money.
BIOGRAPHY
Iim Imaroh, was born in Cirebon, on July 20th 1983. she was the fourth daughter from married couple of Ahmad Faqih (alm) and Rohmah. She had two sisters and five brothers.
She had been being the student of English Department Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University for eight years. She was graduate of MAAI (Madrasah Aliyah Agama Islam) that refers to Islamic Senior High School Mertapada, Cirebon, academic year 2000/2001. Formerly, in 1989 she began her study at MI (Madrasah Ibtidaiyah) that refers to Islamic Elementary School Mertapada, Cirebon. She ontinued her study at MTsAI (Madrasah Tsanawiyah Agama Islam) that refers to Islamic Junior High School Mertapada, Cirebon in 1995.
When she was at Elementary School, Junior High School, and Senior High School, she was active in ‘reciting the Holy Qur’an and Kitab Kuning’ as a part of extracurriculars in her school. This extracurricular is primer extracurricular that should each student followed. She has followed recited qur’an until Warsy. Also, she has followed recited Kitab Kuning, namely: ‘Imrithi, Sulamtaufiq, Fathul Mu’in, Alfiyah and ‘Uqudullujjain.
To practice her English to be better, at second semester of her study at university, she followed the TTP (Teacher Training Program) for teaching children at NEC course. She has taught at NEC course after TTP for 4 years. She also taught in SMA-DT that refers to Senior High School-Daarut Tauhiid Jakarta as an English teacher in 2006. At the same time, she taught as an English Private teacher and SDIT An-Nur (Sekolah Dasar Islam Terpadu An-Nur) in Bekasi for 2 years.
ABSTRACT
Imaroh, Iim. 2009. Teaching Present Perfect Tense by Using Contextual Teaching And Learning (An Experimental Study at the first Grade of SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan), Skripsi, English Department, Faculty of Tarbiyah And Teachers Training, Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University, Jakarta.
Advisor: Syauki, Drs. M.Pd.
Key words: Present Perfect Tense and Contextual Teaching and Learning.
The purpose of this study is to describe about application of contextual teaching and learning in teaching present perfect tense at the first grade of SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan.
This study is categorized as quantitative descriptive analyses, by doing pre-experiment research, that is; pre-test before taught by using CTL and post-test after taught by using CTL to the students. It is to gain the information about the effectiveness of using CTL in teaching present perfect tense.
The data collected in this research analyzed by using t-test. According to the result of statistical calculation, it is obtained the value of
t
o (t observation) 59.217, and the value of tt (t table) from the df (40) on significance level 5 % and 1 % are 2. 02 and 2. 71. It means that the value of to is higher thant
t. Based on the result, the null hypothesis (H0) which saysthat there is no a significance learning achievement between after and before students taught present perfect tense by using CTL is rejected. It means that alternative hypothesis (Ha) which saysthat there is a significance learning achievement between after and before students taught present perfect tense by using CTL is accepted.Based on the finding of the study, it can be concluded that using CTL in teaching present perfect tense is more effective. By using CTL the students are feel more interesting, active and enjoy doing activities in the class. They get opportunities to explore their knowledge and applicant in daily lives.
ABSTRAK
Imaroh, Iim. 2009. Pengajaran Kalimat Present Perfect dengan Meggunakan Metode Kontekstual (Penelitian eksperimen pada kelas 1 SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan), Skripsi, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Fakultas Ilmu Tarbiyah dan Keguruan, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.
Pembimbing: Syauki, Drs. M.Pd.
Kata Kunci: Kalimat Present Perfect dan Contextual Teaching and Learning.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggambarkan tentang penerapan dari metode kontekstual atau CTL dalam pengajaran kalimat present perfect pada kelas 1 di sekolah SMK Grafika yayasan lektur lebak bulus Jakarta Selatan.
Penelitian ini dapat dikategorikan sebagai penelitian kuantitatif deskriptif dengan menggunakan penelitian percobaan yaitu: pre-tes sebelum diajar dengan menggunakan metode CTL dan post-tes sesudah diajar dengan menggunakan metode CTL. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan informasi tentang efektifitas metode CTL dalam pengajaran kalimat present perfect.
Pengumpulan data dalam penelitian ini dianalisis dengan menggunakan t-test formula. Menurut hasil penghitungan statistic, didapat nilai
t
o (t observasi) sebesar 59,217 dan nilai tt (t table) dari db (40) pada level signifikan 5 % dan 1 % adalah sebesar 2,02 dan 2,71. Ini menunjukkan bahwa nilait
o lebih besar dari nilait
t. Berdasarkan hasil tersebut, hipotesis nihil yang menyebutkan bahwa tidak ada hasil pembelajaran yang signifikan antara sebelum dan sesudah siswa diajar kalimat present perfect dengan menggunakan CTL ditolak. Ini menunjukkan bahwa hipotesis alternatif yang mengatakan bahwa ada hasil pembelajaran yang signifikan antara sebelum dan sesudah siswa diajar kalimat present perfect dengan menggunakan CTL diterima.Acknowledgment
First of all, praise is to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer the world, then the writer would like to thank to Allah for all chances have been given to observe her world with full guidance and help to pass it through. And May peace and blessings of Allah be upon the Seal of the Prophet, the messenger of Allah, Muhammad, his family and all his companions and followers.
Secondly, the writer would like to thank to her parents; Ahmad Faqih (alm) and Mrs.Rohmah, and for her parents in law; Mr. Supriatna and Mrs. Siti Maryam for their prays, love and supports. Then, the writer would like to thank to: her sisters and brothers, sisters in law and brothers in law, and her nephews and niece for their love. Also, the writer would like to thank to her husband; Agus Bismawan, for his motivation, support and love, and for the writer’s daughter Putri Nadya Safira who the writer loves so much.
Then, the writer would like to say her deepest gratitude to her advisor, Mr. Syauki for his valuable guidance, comments, and suggestions for the completion of her skripsi and for his academic guidance during her study. Besides, good services from Mr. Syauki as the head of English Department. The writer really respects him. Also, the writer would like to thank to: Mrs. Neneng Sunengsih, S.Pd. as English secretary, for good services and her academic guidance.
More over, the writer would like to thank to: All lectures in English Department, for their academic guidance. All the staffs of the faculty of education and teachers training, for good services. All the library staff of the faculty of education and teachers training, for borrowing books.
Also, the writer would like to thank to Prof. Dr. Dede Rosyada, MA. the dean of Faculty of Tarbiyah and teachers training.
Finally, to Eka Munifah and her husband, Pepenk, Ina, and all of her friends who are not mentioned one by one.
The writer realizes that her skripsi is not perfect yet. But she hopes her skripsi may open another research related to Grammar. Therefore, various critics and suggestions are needed to make it better.
Jakarta, June 2009
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract 1 ……….. II Abstract 1 ………... III Acknowledgement ………. IV Table of Contents ……….. VI List of Tables ………... VIII List of Appendices ……… ………. IX
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………... 1
A. Background of the study ……….….. 1
B. Scope and Formulation of the Study ……….… 3
C. Objective of the Study ………..…… 4
D. Significance of the Study ………..…… 4
E. Hypothesis ………..……….…….. 4
F. Operational definitions ……….. 5
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ………..…..….….. 6
A. The Present Perfect Tense ……….... 6
1. Form of Present Perfect Tense ……….…. 6
2. The use of Present Perfect Tense ………... 10
B. Contextual Teaching And Learning ……….…. 15
1. The History Background Of Contextual Teaching and Learning ……….……. 15
2. The Definition Of Contextual Teaching and Learning ………..… 17
3. The Characteristics of Contextual Teaching and Learning………... 18
5. Principles in Applying Contextual Teaching and
Learning ………... 24
C. Teaching Present Perfect Tense Using CTL …………... 25
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ……… 28
A. Research Design ………..…... 28
B. Place and Time ………...… 28
C. Population and Sample ………... 29
D. Technique of Data Collecting ……….... 30
E. Technique of Data Analysis ………...…… 31
CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH FINDING ……… 36
A. Description of Data ……….. 36
B. Analyses of Data ……….. 38
C. Test of Hypothesis ………... 42
D. Interpretation of Data ……….. 42
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ………. 43
A. Conclusion ………... 43
B. Suggestion ………... 43
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Some differences between present perfect tense and simple past ….. 14
Table 3.1. The distributions of test ……….. 31
Table 4.1. The result of pre-test and post-test ………. 36
Table 4.2. The result calculation of variable X (post-test) ………. 38
Table 4.3. The result calculation of variable Y (pre-test) ………... 39
LIST OF APPENDICES
1. Pre-test sheet 2. RPP
3. Tenses (students’ assignment sheet) 4. Post-test sheet
5. Official Statements
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents and discusses the Background of the study, Scope and Formulation of the Problem, Objective of the Study, Significance of the Study, Hypothesis, and Operational Definitions.
A. Background of the study
English is the international language of the present historical period. As a consequence, English serves for many people as a bridge into the higher education, science, international trade, politics, tourism, or any venture.
In Indonesia, an English subject is very familiar. From kindergarten until university students learn English. Students who learn English meet a number of problems. They should master on language skill and language sub-skill/language competence. Language skills are: listening, speaking, reading and writing. Language sub-skills are: vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, spelling, and punctuation.
Based on these statements, students who learn a foreign language has many demands. They should master on every language part. Finally, the teacher should use methods in teaching process in order to decrease problems.
When students learn language they need to learn grammar. Even though, “the place of grammar in the teaching of foreign language is controversial”.1
The knowledge of grammar is one of the important factors that student should master, in order to be able to listen, speak, read, and write correctly. Grammar is needed to have a mastery of four basic language skills. It is concerned with Patricia Osborn said that “Understanding grammar can put you more in
1
control of your language and help you become more effective when you speak, write, and even read”.2
By studying grammar, we study how a language works. A grammar guide provides a breakdown of our language, showing how its various parts operate and how they fit together into sentences; it is concerned with H. Douglas Brown said that “grammar tells us how to construct a sentence (word order, verb, and noun systems, modifiers, phrases, clauses, etc.).”3 So, “a study of grammar teaches you the basic construction and operation of all sentences.”4
Based on these statements above, we can say that grammar is very important to teach; in order the students who learn English can minimize their problem in using English as communication, in comprehending the reading text or in writing.
Besides grammar, the teachers who teach English have to use methods. Basically, a method or an approach will be usually influenced by a view or a theory of a language. It is concerned with Mackey. He said that “differences ideas on language learning will affect both the method and the teaching of language.”5
In teaching a foreign language, there are many approaches or methods, for example: grammar translation method, audio-lingual method, situational approach, total physical response, communicative language teaching, cooperative learning, contextual teaching and learning, and so on.
Nowadays, contextual teaching and learning is one of a new method which socialized in Indonesia. Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) is a learning concept, which helps teachers to chain between the teaching material and the real situation faced by the student. In addition, it can help student to apply the knowledge in the real world. According to this concept the learning process goes naturally. It is not only students learn and do it, but also teacher transfer the
2
Patricia Osborn, How Grammar works; A self-teaching guide (John Wiley & Sons. Inc., 1989), p. 2.
3
H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles: an Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, (Prentice Hall Regents, 1994), p.348.
4
Patricia, … p.3.
5
knowledge to students. The learning strategies are more important then the out comes.
Through this context students need to understand the meaning of study, its advantage, the status of student, and how to reach it. They should realize that what they are learning is pretty useful for their future. They learn the useful things for themselves and try to reach it. So, they will need teachers as the director or the guide.
In contextual class; teacher’s duty is helping students to reach their goals. It means teachers will be more focused on the strategies than the information transfer. The other teacher’s duty is managing the classroom as teamwork that together to find something new for the class.
Basically, contextual approach is only a learning strategy. Like the other learning approaches, contextual is developed by a goal that has to be more productive and meaningful. Contextual approach can be run without changing a curriculum used by school.
In this research paper, the writer will discuss contextual teaching and learning as a method in teaching present perfect tense. Why does she want to discuss it? Because she finds that nowadays there is willingness to return to a thought, that students will learn better if the condition of study is naturally set up. Then, why does she take the present perfect tense as a topic? Because she finds that, there are some difficulties in learning present perfect tense. It doesn’t like simple past which has definite time. Because of these matters, the writer entitles this research paper: Teaching Present Perfect Tense by Using Contextual Teaching and Learning (An Experimental Study at the first Grade of SMK
Grafika Yayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan).
B. Scope and Formulation of the Problem
the effectiveness of contextual teaching and learning as a method in teaching present perfect tense.
The formulation of the study in this research paper is “Is Contextual Teaching and Learning (CTL) effective in teaching present perfect tense?
C. Objective of the Study
The writer would like to know the effectiveness of the application of Contextual Teaching and Learning in teaching present perfect tense.
D. Significance of the Study
After finishing her study, the writer hopes that, this research paper will be useful for the teacher, the student and other researcher. For the teacher; the result of this research is expected to be able to give contribute about how to teach present perfect tense based on the contextual teaching and learning. For the student; the result of this research is expected to make students easier in learning grammar. Then, for other researchers to continue about teaching grammar based on the contextual teaching and learning.
E. Hypothesis
The statistic hypothesis states:
1. Alternative hypothesis (Ha) : There is a significance learning achievement between after and before students taught present perfect tense by using CTL.
F. Operational Definitions
For clarification, some terms in this study need to be defined as follows: 1. SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur is the acronym of Vocational high school
Grafika Yayasan Lektur that refers to “Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Grafika Yaysan Lektur” under the supervision of the national education department (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional).
2. Contextual Teaching and Learning refers to a range of teaching and learning activities that enable students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic knowledge and skills in a variety of in school and out-of-school settings in order to solve simulated or real world problems.
[image:18.612.101.512.119.555.2]CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This chapter presents and discusses the theory of the research. It consists of the Present perfect tense, Contextual teaching and learning, and Teaching present perfect tense by using CTL
D. The Present Perfect Tense
1. The Form of Present Perfect Tense
Structurally the term perfect signifies that a form of have accompanies a verb as an auxiliary.6 Semantically, according to Marcella Frank, present perfect tense shows a time completed in relation to the present.7 On the other hand, A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet said that the present perfect is formed with the present tense of have + the past participle. And for negative is formed by adding not to the auxiliary. The interrogative is formed by inverting the auxiliary and subject.8
Basically, present perfect tense is formed by using the auxiliary verb of have and the past participle from of the main verb (have/has + verb-ed or form of irregular verb) and it is commonly accompanied by definite time words such as since and for. Example:
They have moved into anew apartment (regular verb)
We have met many people since we came her in June (irregular verb) Therefore we can formulate it as follow:
a. Affirmative
6
Marcella Frank, Modern English: a Practical Reference Guide, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall), p.77.
7
Marcella Frank, Modern …, p. 77.
8
1) To make an affirmative statement, the verb other than be we use the following formula:
S + have/has + past participle (V3) + (……….)
Example:
Subject Have/has V3 I The polices Jane He have have has has done arrested studied read my homework the thief this week English
Harry Potter for many times
2)To make an affirmative statement for the verb be we use the following formula:
S + have/has + been + substantive (adverb of place) + (……….) Example:
Subject Have/has been substantive (adverb of place) I The polices Jane He have have has has been been been been at home angry in Singapore there
for many days for 2 hours this week since 5 o’clock
As the writer said above, the basic form of the present perfect tense:
have/has + the past participle, we use have with I, you, we, they or a plural noun
writing. Have and has are often contracted with nouns and other words in informal speaking but not in writing.9
Example:
Mary has never been there Mary’s never been there You have been there You’ve been there
b. Negative
1) To make a negative statement, the verb other than be we use the following formula:
S + have/has + not + past participle (V3) + (……….) Example:
Subject Have/has not V3 I The polices Jane He have have has has not not not not done arrested studied read my homework the thief this week English
Harry Potter for many times
2) To make a negative statement for the verb be we use the following formula:
S + have/has + not + been + substantive (adverb of place) + (…….) Example:
Subject Have/ has
been not substantive (adverb of place) I The polices Jane He have have has has been been been been not not not not at home angry in Singapore there
for many days for 2 hours this week since 5 o’clock
c. Interrogative
9
1) To make an interrogative affirmative statement for the verb other than be, we put have/has before the subject. we use the following formula:
Have/has + S + past participle (V3) + (……….)
Example:
Have/has Subject V3 have have has has I The polices Jane He done arrested studied read my homework? the thief this week? English?
Harry Potter for many times?
2) To make an interrogative affirmative statement for the verb be, we put have/has before the subject.We use the following formula:
Have/has + S + been + substantive (adverb of place) + (……….) Example:
Have/has Subject been substantive (adverb of place) have have has has I The polices Jane He been been been been at home angry in Singapore there
for many days? for 2 hours? this week? since 5 o’clock?
3) To make an interrogative negative statement for the verb other than be, we put have not/has not before the subject. we use the following formula:
Have not/has not + S + past participle (V3) + (……….)
Example:
has not Have not Have not Has not Has not I The polices Jane He done arrested studied read my homework? the thief this week? English?
Harry Potter for many times?
4) To make an interrogative negative statement for the verb be, we put have not/has not before the subject.We use the following formula:
Have not/has not + S + been + substantive (adverb of place) + (…….) Example:
Have not/ has not
Subject been substantive (adverb of place) Have not Have not Has not Has not I The polices Jane He been been been been at home angry in Singapore there
for many days? for 2 hours? this week? since 5 o’clock?
2. The Use of Present Perfect Tense
In contrast with the past tense, which denotes definitely completed past time, the present perfect tense expresses indefinite time that begins in past and extends to the present. It is a special kind of past time that ends with the moment of speaking. And event may continue beyond the present moment of speaking, but the statement is not concerned with this segment of time.10
According to Raymond Murphy in Grammar in Use, “The present perfect tense is used when we talk about a period of time that continues up to the present.”11 For example: Tom and Ann are talking about the period between a short time ago and now. So they say: Have you heard?
And as stated in Understanding and Using English Grammar written by Betty S. Azar, the present perfect expresses the idea that something
10
Marcella Frank, Modern …, p. 78.
11
happened (or never happened) before now, at an unspecified time in the past. The exact time it happened is not important. Example: I have already seen that movie. If there is a specific mention of time, the simple past is used: I saw that movie last night.12
In addition, the present perfect tense also expresses the repetition of an activity before now. The exact time of each repetition is not important. Example: We have had four tests so for this semester. The present perfect tense also, when used with for or since, expresses a situation that began in the past and continues to the present. In the example, notice the difference between since and for. Since is used for a particular time and for is used to duration of time. Example: I have been here since seven o’clock. I have learned English for 6 years.13
On the other hand, present perfect tense may be used to be a sort of mixture of present and past. It always implies a string connection with the present and is chiefly used in conversation, letter, newspaper, television, radio and report.14
As stated by Marcella Frank in his book Modern English, the present perfect tense represents time that begins in the past and extends to the present, either in factual fact or in the mind of the speaker. It is not used with definite time words like yesterday or last year.15
The kinds of past to present time that possible are:
a. Actual past-to-present time. An actual event starts in the past and continues up to the present. Example: He has a worked in the same company for ten years.
b. Psychological past-to-present time. The time exists only in the mind of the speaker. It is the time of the statement itself, not the time of an
12
Betty S. Azar, …, p.29.
13
Betty S. Azar, …, p.29.
14
A.J. Thomson and A.V. Martinet, The Practical…, p. 76.
15
actual event that extends up to the present. Example: This professor has often praised his students’ ideas.
The actual time represented by the present perfect usually involves duration of a single act that ends with the moment of speaking or shortly before it. The psychological time denoted by the present perfect tense often involves possible repetition within the past to the present period.16
As stated by Marcella Frank, the expressions of time that mark a past to present event are indicated below:
a. Duration of an event that ends with the moment of speaking (actual time) 1) Prepositions indicating duration: since, for. These are the most
common prepositions that express duration with the present perfect tense. Both these prepositions refer to the same past-to-present time span. Since gives the beginning point. For gives the entire extent of the past-to-present period. Thus, if a person who came to the United States in 1968 and spoke in 1972, he can say either:
I have lived in the United States since 1968. (With since, the beginning point of an extended period is often expressed as a date).
I have lived in the United States for four years. (With for, the extended time is expressed as a quantity, often with a numeral)
2) Adverbial expression meaning past-to-present time: so far, up to now, until now, up to the present.
Example: We have finished five chapters so far.
Up to now, we have not found the kind of job.
We can also add here such expressions as all his life, in her whole life. Example: He has lived in New York all his life.
b. Frequency within an extended past-to-present period (psychological time) The present perfect tense is used with frequency adverbs, that involve repetition; always, often, twice, sometimes, etc.
16
Example: He has always lived in the United States.
We have sometimes gone to the beach, but we have never enjoyed the trip.
Such frequency words usually appear in general statements about events that begin in the past.
c. Recently of an event (actual time)
1) Just (now) already (or yet with negatives and questions), finally, still (negative only).
Example: He has just (now) come in. I haven’t seen that movie yet. The president has finally arrived. 2) Recently, lately, of late, in recent years etc.
Example: He has recently come out of the hospital.
Lately, the news about the war has not been good.
3) Time expression containing this: this week, this month, this year, this Saturday, this morning.17
Example: He has been quite ill this year.
They have gone shopping this morning.
From these explanations above, the use of present perfect tense are: 1) To express activities or situations that occurred (or did not occur)
before now, at some unspecified time in the past.
2) To express activities that was repeated several or many time in the past. The exact times are unspecified.
3) When the present perfect is used with since or for, it expresses situation that began in the past and continue to the present.
17
Here is the table about comparison between present perfect tense and simple past:
Table 2.1
Some differences between present perfect tense and simple past
Present perfect tense Simple past
I have done.
I have smoked 20 cigarettes today.
I did.
I smoked 20 cigarettes yesterday Expresses the idea that something
happened (or never happened) before now, at unspecified time in the past.
Expresses the repetition of an activity before now.
Expresses a situation that began in the past and continues to the present.
The time of present perfect tense is not specific.
Continue to the next page
Adverb of time:
Since, for, so far, up to now, until now, up to the present, always, often, twice, sometimes Just, already, finally, still, Recently, lately, of late, in recent years this week, this month, this year, this Saturday, this morning.
Adverb of time:
Yesterday
Last …..: last month, last year, last day, last week, etc.
……. ago: two days ago, one hour ago, three weeks ago, four month ago, five years ago, etc.
Form: Have/has + past participle Form: V2
E.
Contextual
Teaching
And Learning
1. The History Background Of Contextual Teaching And Learning
So far, our education has dominated with the idea that knowledge is a set of facts that the students should memorize concepts. For example, the traditional approach, teacher comes to class and then teach by writing on the whiteboard. After that, teacher asks the students to memorize what they have written. This process is material oriented. It is succeed only in competing for ‘short-term memory’ but it fails help learner to solve the problem in their long lives. Thus, it needs a new learning strategy that pushes students to construct knowledge by themselves.
According to Howard Gardner: “Many of today’s students do not actually understand what they learn. For many students, education has become nothing more than drill and response; there is no relevance for the materials the students are expected to learn.”18 From the quotation above; there is willingness to return to a thought, that students will learn better if the condition of study is naturally set up. Learning will be meaningful if student “experiencing” not just “knowing”. Learning which target orientation
18
succeeds only in competing for ‘short-term memory’ but it fails help learner to solve the problem in their long lives. That has happened in our school.
Contextual teaching and learning is a concept of learning which help the teacher to construct the subject with real world and pushes students to make connection between their knowledge and its application in daily lives as member of family and citizens.
Contextual teaching and learning is a new method, but it is not a new thing. In 1916 a philosopher John Dewey introduced a progressivism philosophy that related on experience and students’ interest.19 The content is students will learn better if what they have learned has relation with their experience. The learning situation will be meaningfulness if learner feels the experience of what they learned, not just knowing it.
Besides the progressivism philosophy, a cognitive theory also forms the background of contextual teaching and learning. Students will learn better if they involved actively in class and found its content by themselves.
Based on two things above, the constructivism philosophy has been expanding. By constructivism philosophy, contextual teaching and learning is ‘promoted’ as a new alternative strategy in learning process. By contextual teaching and learning, students are hoped to learn by ‘experience’ not ‘memorize’. It is concerned with Zahorik: “…Knowledge is constructed by humans. Knowledge is not a set of facts, concepts, or laws waiting to be discovered. It is not something that exists independent of knower. Humans create construct knowledge as they attempt to bring meaning to their experience.”20
By contextual teaching and learning students connect the subject to their context in real life situations. Making these connections, students see meaning in schoolwork. When students formulate projects or identify
19
Nurhadi, et.al., Pembelajaran Kontekstual dan Penerapannya dalam KBK, (Universitas Negeri Malang, 2004), 2nd ed. P. 8.
20
interesting problems, when they make choices and accept responsibility, search out information and reach conclusion, when they actively choose, order, organize, touch, plan, investigate, questions, and make decisions to reach objectives, they connect academic content to the context of life’s situations, and through those way the students will discover meaning. “The discovery of meaning is the central characteristic of CTL.”21 The result of learning process is faced to be meaningful for learners. The learning process goes on naturally in the term of students’ activities; working and experiencing; not transferring knowledge from teachers to students. The learning strategy is more important and crucial than the result.22
2. The Definition Of Contextual Teaching And Learning
According to Elaine B. Johnson in his book Contextual Teaching and Learning; What is it and why is it here? said that: “The CTL system is an educational process that aims to help students see meaning in the academic material they are studying by connecting academic subjects with the context of their daily lives, that is, with the context of their personal, social, and cultural circumstances.”23 In this understanding, by using CTL system, a teacher should be able to help his or her students connect the subject materials with the context of their daily lives. It means the subject materials should go along with daily needs.
On the other hand, The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching and Learning gives the definition: “Contextual teaching is teaching that enables students to reinforce, expand, and apply their academic knowledge and skills in a variety of in school and out-of-school settings in order to solve simulated or real world problems.”24 from this definition we can see that CTL asks a teacher to use their knowledge and skills whether
21
Elaine B. Johnson, Contextua Teaching and Learning, (Corwin Press, Inc, 2006),p. 3.
22
Pendekatan Kontekstual , www.pakguruonline.pendidikan.net, 8 Agustus 2007.
23
Elaine B. Johnson, Contextual…, p.25.
24
The Washington State Consortium for Contextual Teaching and Learning, dalam
school or out-school settings. Besides, a teacher should be able to stimulate his or her lessons based on the real world situations. So, students can apply and experience what is being taught in the real conditions.
The definition above goes along with TEACHNET (Center on Education and Work at the University of Wisconsin-Madison) which says an important definition about CTL as follows:” contextual teaching and learning is a conception of teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content to real world situations and motivates students to make connection between knowledge and its applications to their lives as family members, citizens, and workers, and engage in the hard work that learning requires” 25. Based on this definition, CTL can help the teacher relate his/her subject to real world situation. On the other hand, CTL also can motivate students to make connections between the material that is being learned and their prior knowledge.
From these definitions above, we know that contextual teaching and learning is a learning strategy that makes students construct the material or the lesson into their own real life situations and apply the knowledge and skills both in-school or out-of-school in order to be able solve problems in their circumstances. By this strategy, students are motivated to make relationship between knowledge and its application in real life situations as a member of family or citizens.
3. The Characteristics of Contextual Teaching and Learning
According to Elaine B. Johnson, there are 8 (eight) main components in CTL they are:
a. Making meaningful connections
Students can manage their selves as the person who learns actively in developing their ideas individually, the person who can work individually or in a group, and the person who does learning by doing. b. Doing significant work
25
Students make connections between school and context that go on with the real life; it is as the business does and as the community member. c. Self-regulated learning
Students make significant works. In this case, there is a reached goal, activity, making a choice and real result.
d. Collaborating
Students can work together. Teacher help students to work effectively in group understand how they can influence each other.
e. Critical and creative thinking
Students can use critically and creatively high level thinking to solve problems and make a decision.
f. Nurturing the individual
Students nurture their personalities, know, give attention, have high hope, motivate and build up themselves. Students cannot success without adult people.
g. Reaching high standards
Students know and reach high standard, identify goal and motivate themselves to reach it. Teacher show to students how to reach which is called “excellence”.
h. Using authentic assessment
Students use academic knowledge in a real world context for a meaningful goal. 26
On the other hand, the northwest regional education USA identifies that there are 6 main keys in contextual learning. They are as follows:
a. Meaningful learning: understanding, relevance, and personal assessment are correlated to students’ need in learning the subject content. The learning is more correlated to the real world or students get the point from the lessons, if they have interest to learn for their next future lives. This principle goes along with the meaningful learning proposed by Ausuble.
26
b. Knowledge application. It is students’ ability to understand what they learn and apply in present or future life.
c. High-level thinking. Students should be taken advantage of thinking critically and creatively in collecting data, understanding an issue and solving the problems.
d. Standard based-curriculum. The content of learning should be correlated with the local standard, state, national and work place need. e. Cross culture understanding. Teacher should understand and respect
the value, belief, students’ habit, friends, educators, and community where he/she teaches.
f. Authentic assessment, the use of any kinds of assessment will reflect the real learning outcome. 27
The National Education Department (DepDikNas) in socializing KTSP, that there are 7 (seven) components in CTL. They are:28
a. Constructivism
Develop their own understanding from new experiences based on their first knowledge.
Learning must be set up to be a process of ‘constructivists’ not accepting knowledge.
b. Inquiry
The process of removal from observation to understanding. Students learn using critical thinking skills.
c. Questioning
Teacher’s activity is to encourage, guide, and evaluate the competency of student’s thinking.
d. Learning Community
A group of student who attach together in learning activities. Cooperate with other people is better than individual learning. Share experiences with others.
Share ideas. e. Modeling
Showing process an example in order to another people or student think, work, and learn.
Doing what the teacher want in order the students do it. f. Reflection
How to think about what we have learned. Make notes what we have learned
Make a journal, artwork, and group discussion. g. Authentic Assessment
27
The Northwest Regional Education Laboratory in Pembelajaran Kontekstual, By Nurhadi, dkk. P. 14.
28
To measure students’ knowledge and creativity. Product evaluation.
Contextual and relevant tasks.
The writer analyzed that; from three sources above, she finds that each person uses different terms but they have the same meaning and some are different. These are the terms that have same meaning:
1. Making meaningful connection and meaningful learning 2. Authentic assessment
3. Critical and creative learning, High level thinking, Reaching high standard and inquiry
4. Learning community and Collaborating 5. Doing significant work and constructivism
Here are the terms which have different meaning: 1. Self regulated learning
2. Nurturing the individual 3. Knowledge application 4. Standard based-curriculum 5. Cross-culture understanding 6. Questioning
7. Modeling 8. Reflection
4. The Approaches inContextual Teaching and Learning
According to Nurhadi, there are seven approaches in using contextual teaching and learning (CTL) they are: Problem-Based Learning, Authentic Learning, Inquiry-Based Learning, Project-Based Learning, Work-Based Learning, Service Learning, and Cooperative Learning29.
a. Problem Based Learning
29
The definition of Problem Based Learning (PBL) is “a term used within education for a range of pedagogic approaches that encourage students to learn through the structured exploration of a research problem.”30 “Problem Based Learning is focused; experiential learning (minds on-hands on) organized around the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems.”31 Thus, Students are engaged problem solvers, identifying the root problem and the condition needed for a good solution, pursuing meaning and understanding, and becoming self-directed learners. Students both define the problem and gather information to explore it. The role of teachers are problem-solving colleagues who model interest and enthusiasm for learning and also cognitive coaches who nurture an environment that support open inquiry.
b. Authentic Learning
In order to make student learning relevant to real life experiences, learning environment must be authentic. “Authentic learning is a pedagogical approach that allows students to explore, discuss, and meaningfully construct concept and relationships in context that involve real world problems and projects that are relevant to the learner.”32 In addition according to Brown et al., 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991), “learning is a process of interacting with the outside world, and continually reanalyzingand reinterpreting new information and its relation to the real world.”33 Basically, authentic learning offers the opportunity for teachers to bring the outside world into the classroom.
c. Inquiry-Based Learning
“Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) is a project-oriented strategy based on constructivist and socio-constructivist theories of learning.”34 It is often described as a cycle or a spiral, which implies formulation of question,
30
http://www.newcastle.edu.au/services/iesd/learndevelop/problarc/
31
Sage, Problem-Based Learning for K-Education, 2nd Edition. Alexandria: p.15-16
32
http:www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at4lk.htm
33
http:www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at4lk.htm
34
investigation, creation of a solution or an appropriate response, discussion and reflection in connection with results. Basically, IBL is a student-centered and student-lead process. The purpose is to engage the student in active learning, ideally based on their own questions.
d. Project-Based Learning
Project-Based Learning is allowed the students to work independently in constructing their learning, and culminating into the real situation.
e. Work-Based Learning
“Work-Based Learning (WBL) is career awareness and exploration, work experience, structured training, and/or mentoring at the work site.”35 Work-based learning provides students with opportunities to study complex subject matter as well as vital workplace skills in a hands-on and real life envirhands-onment.
f. Service Learning
Service Learning is a teaching and learning methodology which fosters civic responsibility and applies classroom learning through meaningful service to the community.36 In service learning programs, students and teachers use the experience of service as one of information and ideas, along with the classroom, laboratory, library and internet. They are asked to analyze critically what they learn from the service, just they analyze the information and garnered from the sources of traditional academic study. Service learning can improve academic and social outcomes for students by providing them with opportunities to apply academic knowledge to real world issues.
g. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning maximizes the use of small group in teaching learning process.
35
http:/www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/resources/classroom/inquiry_based.html
36
5. Principles in Applying Contextual Teaching and Learning
According to Nurhadi, there are seven approaches in applying contextual teaching and learning (CTL). Teachers should consider using these principles in their classroom. They are: Learning strategy should be based on students’ mental development, Building up the interdependent learning groups, Providing an atmosphere that supports a self regulated learning, Considering the diversity of students, Focusing on multiple intelligences, Using the questioning techniques for improving students’ learning, and Applying an authentic assessment.37
a. Learning strategy should be based on students’ mental development
The correlation between the core of curriculum and methodology that is used; it should be based on students’ social condition, emotional and intellectual development. According to Kilmer, what is junior high school student learn; it would be different from senior high school students.
b. Building up the interdependent learning groups
Students can learn something from his or her group, and also can cooperate with a larger group, that is called class. This skill is a kind of cooperative that is needed by students in workplaces or other contexts. c. Providing an atmosphere that supports a self regulated learning
Students need an understanding with their strengths and weaknesses for tidying up the goals that they want to reach and building strategies for reaching those goals. Meanwhile, teachers must also create and provide an atmosphere where students can reflect how they think,
37
finish school’s project, solve problem and work together with teacher harmonically.
d. Considering the diversity of students
In classroom, teachers should teach students about all kinds of diversities, example: cultural background, social rank, daily spoken language. So that, it is hoped that teachers can help students to reach their learning goals.
e. Focusing on multiple intelligences
In using CTL, the way of students in participating in the classroom should be focused on 8 learning orientations. They are; special-verbal, intrapersonal, musical-rhythmic, naturalist, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and logic mat. That is why, in teaching students, teacher should combine all strategies and it will be effective for students.
f. Using the questioning techniques for improving students’ learning
Questions should be planned carefully for getting level, response, and action needed by students in the process of contextual learning. g. Applying an authentic assessment
Authentic assessment is designed to be criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced. Such evaluation identifies strengths and weaknesses, but does not compare or rank students. It is often based on performance; students are asked to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, or competencies in whatever way they find appropriate. There are several challenges to using authentic assessment methods. They include managing its time-intensive nature, ensuring curricular validity, and minimizing evaluator bias.
F.
Teaching Present Perfect Tense Using CTL
include 7 main components of CTL. They are constructivism, inquiry, questioning, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic assessment.
For supporting 7 main components of CTL, the teacher needs some teaching aids/teaching material. Here they are:
8 markers 8 cartoon paper
10 pictures to show up an activity
8 handouts consist of dialogues and short stories that contain 4 kinds tenses. They are; simple present tense, simple past, present continuous, and present perfect tense.
Pen, block note, pin for present
Here are the steps for teaching present perfect tense by using contextual teaching and learning. These steps are taken from Nurhadi’s book which title ‘Pembelajaran kontekstual dan penerapannya dalam KBK’ with the adjustment of teaching present perfect tense38
1. Preliminary Activities
a. Class divided into 8 groups. Each group is given 1 cartoon paper and 1 marker.
b. Teacher distributes the handout for each group. The handout is about stories in simple present tense, simple past, present continuous tense, and present perfect tense.
c. Teacher asks to each group to identify the kind of tenses. After identify, each group should write their conclusion on cartoon paper. They should draw time lines, definition of tenses, and adverb of time with their own creation.
d. One of student from each group has to perform their conclusion in front of the class. Each group only has 3 minutes to perform their conclusion. e. Teacher gives a present (like; pen, block note and pin) for the best
performance. Its aim to appreciate students’ performance.
38
2. Presentation
a. Teacher tells to students that they are going to learn present perfect tense. b. Teacher shows up some pictures and ask the “what has happened in the
picture?”
c. Teacher asks to the students to write as many sentences as they can about themselves and their life by using present perfect tense. Ex: I have lived in Ciputat from 1996 to 2000. I have eaten noodle for breakfast.
d. Teacher asks to the students to read their sentences one by one randomly. After that, teacher collects student’ assignment.
e. Teacher gives the explanation shortly about present perfect tense. f. Teacher asks to the students what they have learned today.
3. Closing
After teaching process, teacher asks to the students what they have learned today. After that, teacher and students make summarize about present perfect tense.
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter discusses and presents about research design, place and time of the study, population and sample, technique of data collecting, and technique of data analysis.
A. Research Design
This study is categorized as quantitative descriptive analyses. It is called quantitative descriptive analyses research because this study tries to analyze and describe about the application of contextual teaching and learning and its effectiveness in teaching present perfect tense at the first garde of SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur Lebak Bulus Jakarta Selatan.
This study is aimed to compare the learning achievement about present perfect tense before taught by using contextual teaching and learning and after taught by using contextual teaching and learning.
B. Place and Time of the Study
1. Place of the Researcha. Location and Address
SMK Grafika Yayasan Lektur is at Jalan Pasar Jum’at. It is located in Lebak Bulus, South Jakarta; it is next to Lebak Bulus Bus Station. b. History Background
graduates in graphics. And then, they would work in government or private offices, publishing company, book store, etc.
In 1954 until 1964 Grafika Training Center has just received students graduated from Elementary School. But, since January 6, 1968; Grafika Training Center had become a vocational high school for technician (STM) that received students graduated from Junior High School only. It was based on the reality that the graduates were too young to work and they still needed the mature mentally. From 1968 until now, Grafika training center has just received students who graduated from Junior High School only.
c. The Classrooms and the Departments
SMK Grafika has 12 classrooms. There are 4 classrooms for grade X, 4 classrooms for grade XI, and 4 classrooms for grade XII. From grade X to XII, there are 539 students in number. Besides, SMK Grafika has 2 departments. They are Graphic Preparation and Graphic Production. d. The Graduates and Teachers
For the long period (1957-2008); SMK Grafika has already graduated about 4246 students who have worked in Indonesian’s publishing companies.
And for the teachers; SMK Grafika has 39 teachers. Most of them are private teachers and others are civil servants. SMK Grafika also has 19 employees.
2. Time of the research
The writer conducts the research from April, 29 2009 up to May, 26 2009.
C. Population and Sample
D. Technique of Data Collecting
To get the data that is related to her writing, the writer has used test and documentation:
a. Test
The test was done for getting the data objectives of students’ achievement in teaching present perfect tense by using contextual teaching and learning. There were 2 tests given to the students by the writer. The first was pre-test before teaching learning process and the second was post-test after teaching learning process.
The test was multiple choice forms. This test consists of 25 items. Each item has 4 point if the students get correct answer. So, 25 multiply by 4 is 100 point.
According to Drs. S. Margono in his book Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan he said that:
”Untuk mengukur validitas pada pembuatan tes/soal maka penyebaran soal harus 20% soal sukar, 50% soal sedang dan 30% soal mudah”.
”To measure of validity in distribution of test, the distribution of test must be 20% difficult test, 50% medium test and 30% easy test” 39
Because the tests are 25 so:
20 X 25 = 5 (5 number is difficult test) 100
50 X 25 = 12.5 (The writer make decided as many as 12 number as 100 medium test)
30 X 25 = 7.5 (The writer make decided as many as 8 number as easy test) 100
39
Table 3.1
The distributions of test
Difficulty
The outline of test
Easy Medium Difficult
Have 1
Has 6
Have/has been 9, 19
Regular verb 7, 14
Irregular verb 3, 5
Have – regular verb 4, 13
Has – regular verb 10
Have Irregular verb 25
Has Irregular verb 2, 8, 11, 20
Time signal 15, 18 12, 24
Usage 23 16, 17, 21, 22
Amount 8 test 12 test 5 test
b. Documentation
The writer has been documented about the history of school, number of student, number of the teacher and employee, number of graduated students, students’ score, etc.
F. Technique of Data Analysis
The technique of data analysis used in this research is T-test formula.40 The writer has to seek the significance differences result between pre-test and post-test by using formula as followed:
40
2 1
2 1
M M o
SE M M t
−
− =
Note:
o
t : t observation/the value by which the statistical significance of the mean difference will be judged
1
M : Mean variable of post-test’s score
2
M : Mean variable of pre-test’s score 2
1 M
M
SE − : Standard Error of mean 1 and mean 2
The steps are:
a. Seek mean of variable I (X variable/post-test’s score):
N FX M1= Note:
1
M : Mean variable of post-test’s score
FX : The result calculation from frequency multiplied by X variable score
N : Number of cases
b. Seek mean of variable II (Y variable/pre-test’s score ):
N FY M2 = Note:
2
M : Mean variable of pre-test’s score
FY : The result calculation from frequency multiplied by Y variable score
c. Seek the standard of deviation from variable I (X variable):
2 2
1= −
N FX N
FX SD
Note:
1
SD : Standard Deviation of post-test’s score
2
FX : The result multiplication from: X variable multiplied by X variable and multiplied by frequency
FX : The result calculation from frequency multiplied by X variable score
N : Number of cases
d. Seek the standard of deviation from variable II (Y variable):
2 2
2 = −
N FY N
FY SD
Note:
2
SD : Standard Deviation of pre-test’s score
2
FY : The result multiplication from: Y variable multiplied by Y variable and multiplied by frequency
FY : The result calculation from frequency multiplied by Y variable score
N : Number of cases
e. Seek the standard error of mean from variable I (X variable):
1
1
1
− =
N SD SEM
1
M
SE : Standard Error of mean 1
1
f. Seek the standard error of mean from variable II (Y variable): 1 2 2 − = N SD SEM 2 M
SE : Standard Error of mean 2
2
SD : Standard Deviation of post-test’s score N : Number of cases
g. Seek coefficient of correlation ‘r’ product moment (rxy or r12 ) which shows strength and weaknesses of correlation between variable I (X variable) and
variable II (variable Y) by using scatter diagram:
(
)
( )
(
')
(
')
' ' 12 ' ' / y x y x xy SD SD C C N y x r r − Note: 12 /rrxy : The value of index correlation number between X variable and Y
variable '
'y
x : The value of the result calculation between frequency and x'y'
' x
C : Correction number X variable
' y
C : Correction number Y variable
h. Seek the standard error of differences between mean of variable I and mean
variable II, by using formula:
(
)
(
)(
)
2 1 2 1 2 1 12 2 2 .2 M M
M M
M
M SE SE r SE SE
SE − = + −
Note:
2 1 M
M
SE − : Standard Error of mean 1 and mean 2
1
M
SE : Standard Error of mean 1
2
M
i. Seek to with formula:
2 1
2 1
M M o
SE M M t
−
CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDING
This chapter presents description of data, Analyses of Data, test of hypothesis, and interpretation of data.
A. Description of Data
[image:49.612.99.514.118.685.2]To know the result of the test, the writer makes the table of students’ score before using CTL and after uses it in teaching present perfect tense as follows:
Table 4.1
The result of pre-test and post-test
The result of test Students
Before teaching by using CTL After teaching by using CTL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 32 40 44 28 32 48 52 32 44 40 24 48 56 44 40 36 52 60 60 48 52 72 72 56 64 64 44 72 76 68 60 56
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 32 40 48 52 56 24 48 36 52 40 28 32 40 48 44 40 28 44 40 36 48 32 48 40 52 60 72 72 76 48 68 56 72 60 48 52 68 68 64 60 48 68 64 60 68 52 72 60
From this table, the writer gained:
1. Score variable Y (before teaching by using CTL): a. The lowest score is 24
b. The highest score is 56
2. Score variable X (after teaching by using CTL): a. The lowest score is 44
b. The highest score is 76
c. The average/Mean of variable X is 61.6
