56
3 Respawn Affixation Process 25
4 Hexacopter Affixation Process 26
5 Obamacare Compound Process 28
6 Silvertail Compound Process 29
7 Neckbeard Compound Process 30
8 Clickbait Compound Process 31
9 Ship Clipping Process 33
10 Jel Clipping Process 35
11 Perf Clipping Process 35
12 YOLO Acronym Process 36
13 IDC Initialism 38
14 SMH Initialism 40
15 WDYT Initialism 41
16 Arancini Borrowing Process 43
17 Tiki-taka Borrowing Process 44
18 Marmite Inventing Process 45
19 Crazy Conversion or Functional Shift 46
20 Thing Conversion or Functional Shift 47
21 Headcam Blending Process 48
1
This chapter presents background to the study, research questions, objectives, significance to knowledge and framework of the theories.
1.1Background to the Study
The word ‘Selfie’ is discussed as an example. It is morphologically formed by
combining two bound morphemes, morpheme ‘self’ and morpheme ‘–ie’through a process identified as an affixation process. Semantically, the morphemes ‘self’ and ‘ -ie’, respectively, mean the entire person of an individual and one belonging to. These two morphemes are combined into a new word. However, the meaning of this new word is different from the meaning of its original morphemes. Therefore, a change of meaning occurs from the original meaning of ‘the entire person of an individual’ and ‘one belonging to’ to ‘a photograph that one has taken of oneself, typically taken
with smartphone or webcam and shared it via social media’ as defined in the Online Oxford English dictionary.
The word ‘Selfie’ was never used in English daily conversation before the 21th century. Oxford Dictionary Blog stated that the word ‘Selfie’ first appeared in Australia in 2002 but it was not popular at that time. With the advances in capturing images using cameras, especially with the availibility of high quality camera in mobile phones, more people become familiar with the word ‘Selfie’. People use it to refer to pictures taken by themselves. Jude Pearsall, an editor for Oxford Dictionary, said that ‘Selfie’ became popular because of social media such as Flickr. The word ‘Selfie’ is then accepted and commonly used by english-speaking people. Related to
According to the discussion of the word ‘selfie‘ above, it can be assumed that a new word cannot be formed for granted. All happens with a certain reason. Reaching the goal, there are several processes used in its formation, such as compounding, shortenings, borrowing, back formation, conversion, and inventing, and affixation, as proposed by Brinton (2002) and Finegan (2008).
Related to this research, there are several researchers who also have conducted research on word formation. The first research entitled ‘The Study of English Word Formation in American Comic Strip: Superman vs The Amazing Spiderman and Batman vs the Incredible Hulk’ was conducted by Tri Rahmiati (2012), a student of UPI Bandung. The second research is ‘An Analysis of Word Formation Used in Twilight Novel by Stephanie Meyer and Twilight Movie’
conducted by a student of Universitas Sriwijaya, Melisa Nova Nanda (2013). Both researchers have focused on the word formation only. In order to make this research different, analysis of the origin of word and meaning properties are included.
1.2Research Questions
Based on the explanation in the background to the study above, the research questions in this research can be formulated as follows:
1.3Objectives
In order to answer the research questions above, the objectives will be as the follows:
1. To identify the process of word formation in the data.
2. To describe the element of morphology involves in the word formation. 3. To describe the history of words involved in the data.
1.4Significance to Knowledge
This research has some purposes, theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it is expected that this research provides a brief explanation and knowledge to readers about how a new word is formed and how to look into the origin and the meaning properties of words. Practically, the readers can understand the meaning of the word without opening dictionary and can help the readers try to form new words by using the processes in word formation to express a new activity.
1.5Framework of the Theories
word, several processes are involved, namely derivation process, reduplication, conversion or functional shift, compound, blends, back formations, shortenings, and idioms.
In order to make the explanation clear, the theory of Finegan (2006) is used as the supporting theory. Finegan’s theory proposes, “in some societies, the needed for new nouns, adjectives, and verb arises frequently, and addition to these categories occur freely. For these reason nouns, adjectives, and verbs are called open classes.’ (2008: 46). According to the statement, it can be understood that the word formation is derived from an open class through some processes. Adding to Brinton’s theory, Finegan (2006: 50-51) mentioned other processes to create a new word. Those are semantic shift process, borrowed words, and inventing words. Brinton’s and Finegan’s theories are used to analyze the process of word formation
morphologically.
This research does not only analyze the process of word formation morphologically, but also covers the issue when the change of word meaning is involved. The change of meaning can be discovered using the universal concept of Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM), which is explained by Godard and Wierzbicka (2007). This theory is used to analyze the meaning properties of the new word by using componential analysis.
analyzed by looking at the followings: who invents the new word, when the new word was initially formed, and why the new word appeared. In the relation of history’s elements, Liberman’s theory (2008) is used as the etymological approach.
7 2.1 Etymology
Etymology is a term deals with history or origin of words. As dictionary.cambridge.org stated, “Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words, or a study of this type relating to particular word‖. With this study, how a word is formed or adapted as well as the origin of a word can be identified. Wedgwoodi (2009: i) also stated, ―etymology is the study to know the earliest meaning of a word and what are the cognate forms either in our own or in related languages.‖ It assumed that etymology is focused on analyzing the earliest meaning or the history of words and identifying whether a newly formed word adapted from other language still has the same meaning or whether the meaning has been modified in the process of formation.
After recognizing etymology as the study of the origin of words, it is apparent that etymology is a necessary tool to analyze data on new word formation in order to understand the overall process during the word formation. The focus of etymology in this research is only on new word formation.
2.1.1 Etymology of Word Formation
stated, England was used West Germanic (Dutch, German, Frisian, and Afrikaans) as their language and less closely to the North Germanic languages (Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faeroese). On the other hand, England was ruled by France for a long period. A monarch and nobility whose native language was a variety of French set French as a language of law and administration and expected people of England to learn French. Thus, it affected England to speak French. That is the fact why it is not surprising if English vocabulary contains of many languages. English also has affixes borrowed in other languages such as Germanic, Latin, Greek or Romance. For example:-ish, -ed, -en, -er, -hood are Germanic affixes and –ion, ant, -ess, -ist are Romance or Greek affixes.
Related to the paragraph above, etymology is closely related to word formation, because every word formed has its own history. For example, when the word is formed by adding prefixes or suffixes, the meaning can be understood by seeking the history of each morpheme. Carstairs (2002: 100) suggested ―in derivational morphology, history sheds light particular on the distribution of free and bound roots and on the differences in productivity.‖ Related to the theory, this research will focus on analyzing etymology in the distribution of free and bound morpheme in the data.
Morphology is used to analyze the process of the word formation whereas semantics is used to discover the particular meaning of the data.
2.2 Morphology
The study of words structure is morphology. As Katamba (1993: 19) stated “morphology is the study of words structure.‖ Morphology is always related to the
structure of words. Besides talking about the words structure, this study also discusses about the formation of words. As stated by Aronoff “in linguistics morphology refers to the mental system involved in word formation or to the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure and how they are formed.” Based on the theory, it is explained that the morphology concerns about internal structure of words and also in the formation of word. .
has to link to free morpheme to give function or characteristic the free morpheme. In order to combine both morphemes, it cannot be combined for granted. There is a process behind that and it is called word formation process.
2.2.1 Word Formation
As stated by Plag (2001:12), ―words that are obviously composed by putting together smaller elements to form larger words with more complex meanings.‖ It is implied that in creating a new word, smaller elements are combined to create the new words with complex meanings and sometimes there is a change in its meaning and word class.
In order to create the new words, there are some processes in word formation such as affixation, shortenings (clipping, initialsm, and acronym), borrowing, conversion or functional shift, inventing, and compounding
2.2.1.1 Affixation
combined with free morpheme, they may give the opposite meaning and change in word class, but sometimes there is no change in class word; untrue (verb to adjective), unpopular (adjective to adjective), premix (verb to n), prewash (verb to noun), disappear (verb to verb), and disapprove (verb to verb).
Different from prefixes, suffixes may not describe the opposite meaning of the free morphem. Brinton (2002: 87) argued, “suffixes have two functions: to change the meaning of the root and to change the part of speech.‖ It is said when a new word is formed by adding suffix into a free morpheme, it changes meaning or the part of speech. For example, when suffix –ment is added to a verb agree and aggreement, it change the verbs into nouns, agreement and arrangement.
2.2.1.2 Shortenings
Shortening is a process of creating a new word by removing part of a word and it is divided into three parts, those are, acronym, initialism, and clipping.
a. Acronym
Acronym is the initial letters in a group of word and pronounced as a word. As Finegan (2008: 48) said ―acronym is shortenings in which the initial letters of an expression are joined and pronounced as a word‖. For example: NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
b. Initialism
Initialism is the initial letters in a group of word and pronounced as a sequence of letters. For example:
NYU New York University UK United Kingdom
USA United State of America
c. Clipping
Brinton (2002: 98) said ―clipping is the result of deliberately dropping part of a word, usually either the end or the beginning, or less often both, while retaining the same meaning and same word class.‖ This process is creating a new word by removing the parts of a word, it can be removing the beginning part of a word, removing the end part of a word or removing the beginning – end part of a word. For example:
Beginning: this part is creating new words by removing the beginning part of a word.
Burger Hamburger Phone Telephone
End: this part is creating new words by removing the end part of a word. Fan Fanatic
Beginning and End: this part is creating new words by removing the beginning and the end part of a word.
Flu Influenza Fridge Refrigerator
2.2.1.3 Compounding
Compounding is a process of creating a new word with combined two or more free roots. As stated by Brinton (2002: 93) “a compound is a combination of two or
more free roots‖. As followings:
Homeland - land which is one’s home
Homemade - something which is made at home Homebody - someone who stays at home Homestead - a place which is a home Homework - work which is done at home Homerun - a run to home
Homemaker - a person who makes (cares for) the home
2.2.1.4 Blending
resulting in a new word, the combination of the two free roots. Concerning about it, Brinton (2002: 97) mentioned “two free words are combined and blended, usually by clipping off the end of the first word and the beginning of the second word.‖ For example:
Sm (oke) + (F) og > Smog Mo (tor) + (ho) tel > Motel Spr (ay) + (tw) ig > Spring
2.2.1.5 Conversion or Functional Shift
Conversion or functional shift is creating a new word without adding or removing element of word, but this process is creating a new word with changing the part of speech or the function of the word so it will appear new sense in the word. Brinton (2002: 91) argued, “a functional shift is the conversion of one part of speech to another without the addition of a suffix.‖ Finegan (2008: 49) also said ―in some language, a word belonging to one category can be converted to another category without any changes to the form of the word.‖ As Following:
I clean my room.
A word clean in the sentence above has a function as a predicate or verb. My room is clean.
2.2.1.6 Inventing Words
This process is creating a new word by using a popular brand, place, or name of popular person. Finegan (2008: 52) stated that ―inventing words from scratch is not common. The advantages of using familiar elements in forming new words and the ease of borrowing from other languages make inventing new words rare.‖ For example, people who use internet now commonly use the word google.
She is googling to search the information about Bandung.
2.2.1.7 Borrowing
This is a process of creating a new word with borrowing a word from another language. Finegan stated that:
In turn, many languages have welcomed English words into their stock, although some cultures resist borrowings. The Japanese have drafted the words beesubooru ‗baseball‘, futtobooru ‗football‘ and booringu
‗bowling‘ along with the sports they name, trading them for judo, jujitsu, and karate, which have joined the English-language team (2008: 52).
The theory above shows that in borrowing a word from another language it usually changes their utterance or writing, but still it has a same meaning
2.2 Semantics
data by breaking down it into smaller semantic components using NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) approach suggested by Goddard. Goddard (2007:459) argued, ―The Natural Semantic Metalanguage is a decompositional system of meaning representation based on empirically established universal semantic primes, i.e., simple indefinable meanings which appear to be present as word-meanings in all
language‖.
This is the semantic primes, grouped into related categories.
Substantives: I, YOU, SOMEONE, SOMETHING/THING,
PEOPLE, BODY
Relational substantives: KIND, PART
Determiners: THIS, THE SAME, OTHER/ELSE
Quantifiers: ONE, TWO, MUCH/MANY, SOME, ALL
Evaluators: GOOD, BAD Descriptors: BIG, SMALL
Mental predicates: THINK, KNOW, WANT, FEEL, SEE, HEAR
Speech: SAY, WORDS, TRUE
Actions, events, movement, contact: DO, HAPPEN, MOVE,TOUCH
Location, existence, possession, specification: BE (SOMEWHERE),
BE/EXIST, HAVE, BE (SOMEONE/SOMETHING) Life and death: LIVE, DIE
TIME, FOR SOME TIME, MOMENT/IN ONE MOMENT
Space: WHERE/PLACE, HERE, ABOVE, BELOW, NEAR, FAR,
SIDE, INSIDE
Logical concepts: NOT, MAYBE, CAN, BECAUSE, IF
Intensifier, augmentor: VERY, MORE
Similarity: LIKE/AS
Here the definition of children using NSM as an example: Children
• people of one kind
• people of this kind have lived for a short time, not a long time
• because of this, their bodies are small
• when people are like this, they can do some things, they can’t do many other things
• because of this, if other people don’t do some good things for them, bad things can
happen to them
• all people are like this for some time before they can be not like this
In order to analyze the data, the writer decided to use NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) approach. This approach is assumed compatible for seeking the meanings in smaller semantic elements.
18
This chapter explains about the object, the method, and the way data are collected and analyzed.
3.1 Research Object
The topic under discussion is word formation. According to Plag (2002: 12), word formation is ‘words that are obviously composed by putting together smaller elements to form larger words with more complex meanings’. In this research, the writer focused on analyzing the processes used and the history of the new words by aiming to know the factors origin of the new words. NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) is also used to analyze the meaning of the new words.
For this research, the data are collected from online Oxford English dictionary as the main source of the research data. This particular online dictionary is chosen because it contains a lot of relevant data. To make more specific, the data taken only new words listed in available months of 2014.
3.2 Research Method
“Penelitian kualitatif adalah tradisi tertentu dalam ilmu pengetahuan sosial yang secara fundamental bergantung pada pengamatan manusia dalam kawasannya sendiri dan memiliki ciri-ciri seperti latar alamiah, manusia sebagai alat, teori dasar, deskriptif lebih mementingkan proses daripada hasil dan adanya batas yang ditentukan oleh fokus.”
By referring to that definition, this research is qualified as a qualitative research as it uses human as an instrument to discover and observe phenomena by applying his knowledge in his field. The grand theory used to discover and observe the phenomena of word formation is Brinton’s theory.
The method used in this qualitative research is the analytic descriptive approach as this approach matches the objective of the study, as stated by Sugiyono (2007: 14), ―digunakan untuk menganalisa data dengan cara mendeskripsikan atau menggambarkan data yang telah terkumpul sebagaimana adanya.” Thus, the data are analyzed and described in their nature by applying grand and supporting theories mentioned earlier.
3.2.1 Data Collection
into words and phrases. To make the analysis more focus, it was decided that only words were analyzed in this research. Finally, the data were analyzed morphologically by analyzing the process of word formation, semantically by analyzing the meaning properties of each morpheme, and etymologically by seeking the history of the words to know where and when the word first appeared and developed.
3.2.2 Data Analysis
The collected and classified data were analyzed through several steps. First, the new words were examined based on the process of the formation. Then, the new words were analyzed to identify the processes used in forming them. After identifying the process of formation, the meaning of the new words was analyzed and the origin of the new words was studied, including when the new words first appeared and what factors influence the concept of meaning. Lastly, the new words were analyzed based on the meaning of each morphemes using NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) to reveal changes in meaning, if any. When a change in meaning was found, a closer look to the elements was performed to identify the elements that are removed and/or maintained.
22
This chapter describes the analysis of word formation found in Online Oxford English Dictionary. There are some processes in word formation; derivation, reduplication, conversion or functional shift, compound, blends, back formation, shortenings, borrowing. Here are the data analyses.
4.1 Word Formation with Affixation Process
Derivation process (also called affixation process) is argued as a common way of creating new words. This process is identified as creating a new word by adding some bound morpheme, prefixes and/or suffixes, to free morpheme.
Data 1
‗Particular streets in New York might be redesign, creating ‗walkable and
bikeable streets‘.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bikeable
Bikeable. This new word is identified as an adjective derived from a verb bike.
aims to give characteristic to the verb to form adjective meaning; capable of. This morpheme first appeared in Late Middle English and it was originated from Old French 14th century, that is, hable. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Bikeable(adj)]
[Bike(v)] [-ablesuffix(adj)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[ACTIVITY OF RIDING] + [TOOLS WITH TWO AND CIRCLE WHEELS]
+ [CAPABLE OF]
Since the activity of this ‘riding’ involves the concepts of [PLACE] and
[MOUNTAIN] as a result in the way in which this activity has been done, the meaning
properties for bikeable are:
[ACTIVITY OF RIDING] + [TOOLS WITH TWO AND CIRCLE WHEELS] +
[CAPABLE OF] + [PLACE] + [MOUNTAIN]
Thus, the concept of bikeable is defined as an environment suitable or safe for cyclist. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in May 2014.
Data 2
‗I would love to see something more ―snacky‖ on the appetizers menu to go
with drinks whilst sitting at the bar.‘
Snacky. This new word is identified as an adjective derived from a noun snack.
It consists of free morpheme [snack(n)] - a small quantity of food or a light meal and bound morpheme [–ysuffix(adj)] aims to give characteristic to the noun to form adjective meaning; having quality of. This free morpheme [snack(n)] first appeared in Middle English 1680’s and it was originated from Middle Dutch 1300’s that is, snacken.
Meanwhile, the bound morpheme –y was originated from Germanic that is –ig which has the same meaning. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Snacky(adj)] [snack(n)] [-ysufix(adj)]
This figure initiates the description of following meaning properties. [A LIGHT MEAL OR A SMALL QUANTITY OF FOOD]
+
[HAVING QUALITY OF]
Since the concept of [A LIGHT MEAL OR A SMALL QUANTITY OF FOOD] + [HAVING QUALITY OF] are added with the concept of [DENOTING OR RELATING TO]
and [FOOD SUITABLE FOR EATING BETWEEN MEALS] as a result in the time when this kind of food is consumed, the meaning properties for snacky are:
[A LIGHT MEAL OR A SMALL QUANTITY OF FOOD] + [HAVING QUALITY OF] + [FOOD
Thus, the concept of snacky is defined as denoting or relating to food suitable for eating between meals or as a light, casual meal. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word in May 2014.
Data 3
‗If an enemy defender gets destroyed, he will be respwnedafter 20 seconds.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/respawn
Respawn. This new word is identified as a verb derived from a verb spawn. It
consists of bound morpheme [re-prefix(v)] and free morpheme [spawn(v)]. Bound morpheme [re-prefix(v)] aims to give repetition to the verb to form verb meaning; a repetitive of a word. It first appeared in Middle English and origin from Latin re- or red-; back or again. Free morpheme [spawn(v)] means an action to produce or generate something. It was originated from Latin expandere; expand Old French espandre; pour out and Anglo Norman French espaundre; to shed roe. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Respawn(verb)] [re-prefix(v)] [spawn(v)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [REPETITIVE OF A WORD]
+
Since the concept of [REPETITIVE OF A WORD] + [ACTION] + [PRODUCE OR GENERATE SOMETHNG] are added with the concept of [GAMERS] + [CHARACTER IN
VIDEO GAME] + [REAPPEAR AFTER BEEN KILLED] as a result in the time when the
character in video game can be back to the game after being killed because still has another life, the meaning properties for respawn are:
[ACTION] + [PRODUCE OR GENERATE SOMETHNG] + [GAMERS] + [CHARACTER IN
VIDEO GAME] + [REAPPEAR AFTER BEEN KILLED]
Thus, the concept of respwan is defined as reappear after having been killed. This new word added into Online Oxford English Dictionary in December 2014.
Data 4
‗When the hexacopter arrived at their location, it would hover in place.‘ http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/hexacopter
helix; spiral + pteron; wing. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Hexacopter(n)]
[hexa-prefix(n)] [copter(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [ELEMENT HAVING SIX ANGLE]
+
[TOOL/INSTRUMENT] + [AIRCRAFT] + [MOVING VERTICALLY AND HORIZONTALLY]
Since the concept of [ELEMENT HAVING SIX ANGLE] + [TOOL/INSTRUMENT] + [AIRCRAFT] + [MOVING VERTICALLY AND HORIZONTALLY] are added with the
concept of [HAVING SIX ROTORS] as a result in the time when the helicopter has six rotors, the meaning properties for hexacopter are:
[TOOL/INSTRUMENT] + [AIRCRAFT] + [MOVING VERTICALLY AND HORIZONTALLY] +
[HAVING SIX ROTORS]
Thus, the concept of hexacopter is defined as an unmanned helicopter having six rotors. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in August 2014.
4.2 Word Formation with Compound process
Data 5
‗Supporters of Obamacare point out that private health insurance was hardly
perfect before 2010‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Obamacare
Obamacare. This new word is categorized as a noun and formed by combining
two free morphemes. It consists of free morpheme [Obama(n)] and free morpheme [care(n)]. [Obama(n)] is known as the name of 44th and current of the president of United States of America and the later is defined as the provision of what is necessary for the health, welfare, maintenance, and protection of someone or something. This morpheme first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Proto-Germanic karo; lament, grief, or care. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Obamacare(n)]
[Obama(n)] [Care(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [PERSON] + [NAME OF 44TH AND CURRENT PRESIDENT OF USA]
+
[ATTENTION OR PROTECTION OF SOMETHING OR SOMEONE]
Since the concept of [PERSON] + [NAME OF 44TH
AND CURRENT PRESIDENT OF
USA] + [ATTENTION OR PROTECTION OF SOMETHING OR SOMEONE] are added with the
[PERSON] + [NAME OF 44TH AND CURRENT PRESIDENT OF USA] + [PRESIDENT WORK
PROGRAM] + [INSURANCE OF HEALT FOR U.S CITIZENS]
Thus, the concept of obamacare is defined as an informal term for a federal law intended to improve access to health insurance for US citizens. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in December 2014.
Data 6
‗The area is not uniformly full of silvertails sending their kids to elite private
schools‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/silvertail
Silvertail. This new word is categorized as a noun and formed by combining
two free morphemes. It consists of free morpheme [silver(n)] and free [tail(n)]. The free morpheme [silver(n)] means a shiny grey-white color or appearance like that of silver. This morpheme first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Germanic related to Dutch that is zilver. One after the other, the free morpheme [tail(n)] means
the lower or hanging part at the back of a shirt or a man‘s formal evening suit with
such a coat. This morpheme first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Middle Low German that is tagel. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Silvertail(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [COLOR] + [SHINY GREY-WHITE]
+
[LOWEST PART OF COAT OR FORMAL SUITE]
Since the concept of [COLOR] + [SHINY] + [LOWEST] + [COAT OR FORMAL SUITE] are added with the concept of [PERSON] refers to people in middle age + [HAVING SOCIAL PROMINENT] as a result when people have a power or considered important in
society, the meaning properties for silvertail are:
[PERSON] + [SHINY] + [LOWEST] + [COAT OR FORMAL SUITE] + [HAVING SOCIAL
PROMINENT]
Thus, the concept of silvertail is defined as a person who is socially prominent or who displays social aspirations. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in December 2014.
Data 7
‗Aneckbeardis like a wild, untamed wilderness located beneath one‘ chin.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/neckbeard
Neckbeard. This new word is categorized as a noun and formed by combining
is hnekk; the nape of the neck cognate from Old Frisian hnnekka, Middle Dutch necke. Whereas the free morpheme [beard(n)] first appeared in Old English related to Dutch baard and Germanic bart which have the same meaning. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Neckbeard(n)]
[Neck(n)] [Beard(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [PART OF BODY] + [PERSON/ANIMAL]
+
[HAIR] + [CHIN AND LOWER CHEEKS]
Since the concept of [PART OF BODY] + [PERSON/ANIMAL] + [HAIR] + [CHIN AND LOWER CHEEKS] are added with the concept of [POOR GROOMING] as a result when a
man has beard in his neck with poor combing, the meaning properties for neckbeard are:
[PART OF BODY] + [PERSON/ANIMAL] + [HAIR] + [CHIN AND LOWER CHEEKS] + [POOR
GROOMING]
Thus, the concept of neckbeard is defined as a growth of hair on a man’s neck, especially when regarded as indicative of poor grooming. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in August 2014.
Data 8
‘They’re essentially just clickbait blog post.’
Clickbait. This new word is categorized as a noun and formed by combining
two free morphemes. It consists of free morpheme [click(v)] and free morpheme [bait(n)]. The free morpheme [click(v)] means to strike, move, or produce with a click. This morpheme first appeared in late 16th century and it was originated from Dutch and East Frisian klikken; to click. While the free morpheme [bait(n)] means something used in luring specially to a hook or trap. This morpheme first appeared in Middle English and it was originated from Old Norse beit; pasture, food or beita; to hunt or chase. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Clickbait(n)] [Click(v)] [Bait(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [ACTION] + [TO STRIKE OR MOVE]
+
[SOMETHING] + [USED IN LURING] + [TO ATTRACH]
Since the concept of [ACTION] + [TO STRIKE OR MOVE] + [SOMETHING] + [USED IN LURING] + [TO ATTRACH] are added with the concept of [VISITORS] + [WEB PAGE] as a
result when a content in web page made to attract people to click the link, the meaning properties for clickbait are:
[SOMETHING] + [TO ATTRACT] + [VISITORS] + [TO STRIKE OR MOVE] + [WEB PAGE]
4.3 Word Formation with Shortenings Process
Shortenings divided into three parts. Those are clipping, acronym, and initialism forms have in common the deletion of sound without respect to morphological boundaries.
4.3.1 Clipping
Clipping is a process of creating a new word with removing the first, the end, the first and the end of parts in words.
Data 9
‗Their dedication to their shipsis scary sometimes.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ship#ship-2
Ship. This new word is categorized as a noun and formed by removing the
[Relationship(n)]
[Relation(n)] [-shipsuffix(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [TWO OR MORE PEOPLE] + [CONNECT]
+
[CONDITION OR QUALITY]
Since the concept of [TWO OR MORE PEOPLE] + [CONNECT] + [CONDITION OR QUALITY] are added with the concept of [BINDING] + [PARTICIPANT] as a result when
a couple have a relation between each other, the meaning properties for relationship/ship are:
[TWO OR MORE PEOPLE] + [BINDING] + [CONNECT] + [PARTICIPANT] + [CONDITION OR
QUALITY]
Thus, the concept of ship is defined as the relation connecting or binding participants. This new word added into Online Oxford English Dictionary in May 2014.
Data 10
‗We‘re in the hot tub—are you jel?‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/jel
Jel. This new word is categorized as an adjective and formed by removing the
gelos, from Medieval Latin zelosus; having or showing zeal. There is no changed in the meaning but the change happened in writing. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Jealous(adj)] The meaning properties for jealous/jel are:
[INTOLERANT] + [RIVALRY/UNFAITHFULNESS]
As a result when a people envious with someone.
Thus, the concept of jel is defined as intolerant of rivalry or unfaithfulness. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in December 2014.
Data 11
‘Overall, our perf was decent.’
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/perf
Perf. This new word is categorized as a noun and it formed by removing the
originated from Latin that is –antia. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Performance(n)]
[Perform(v)] [-ancesuffix(n)] The meaning properties for performance/perf are:
[AN ACTION] + [PROCESS] + [CARRY OUT SOMETHING]
Thus, the concept of perf is defined as the execution of an action. This new word added into Online Oxford English Dictionary in May 2014.
4.3.2 Acronym
Acronym is the initial letters of words in a group and pronounced as a word.
Data 12
‗I‘m tempted to shout ‗YOLO‘ at him, but remember I‘m not 14.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/YOLO
morpheme first appeared in Old English as anlic. Afterwards, the free morpheme [live(v)] means to be alive. This morpheme first appeared in Old English as lifian and it was originated from German that is leben. The last, free morpheme [once(adv)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[PERSON] + [BEING ADDRESSED]
Since the concept of [PERSON] + [BEING ADDRESSED] + [A SINGLE] + [NOTHING MORE] + [ACTION] + [TO BE ALIVE] + [ONE TIME] + [NO MORE] are added with the
concept of [WHITOUT WORRYING] + [RECKLESS BEHAVIOUR] as a result when people feel they have to live without fear because they only live once in this life, the
[PERSON] + [BEING ADDRESSED] + [A SINGLE] + [NOTHING MORE] + [ACTION] + [TO BE
ALIVE] + [ONE TIME] + [NO MORE] + [RECKLESS BEHAVIOUR] + [WHITOUT WORRYING]
Thus, the concept of YOLO is defined to express the view that one should make the most of the present moment without worrying about the future, and often used as a rationale for impulsive or reckless behavior. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in May 2014.
4.3.3 Initialsm
Initialism is the initial letters of words in a group and pronounced as a sequence of letters.
Data 13
‘IDC what anybody says—I know what I saw’
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/IDC
This morpheme first appeared in Middle English 13th century. The last, free morpheme [care(v)] means to feel interest or concern. This morpheme first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Proto-Germanic karo; lament, grief, or care. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
IDC
[I(pro)] [Dov + notadv] [Care(v)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[ONE PERSON] + [REFER TO HIMSELF]
+
[ACT] + [CARRY OUT] + [NEGATIVE MEANING]
+
[FEEL INTEREST OR CONCERN]
Since the concept of [ONE PERSON] + [REFER TO HIMSELF] + [ACT] + [CARRY OUT] + [NEGATIVE MEANING] + [FEEL INTEREST OR CONCERN] are added with the
concept of [TEXT MESSAGE] + [NOT INTERESTED] as a result when people have no interest in something or someone, the meaning properties for IDC are:
[ONE PERSON] + [REFER TO HIMSELF] + [ACT] + [CARRY OUT] + [NEGATIVE MEANING]
+ [TEXT MESSAGE] + [NOT INTERESTED]
Data 14
‗I can both understand the outrage and SMHat it.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/SMH
SMH. This new word is formed by initialing from a group word Shake My Head. It pronounced as a sequence of letters. The new word SMH consists of free morpheme [shake(v)], [my(pro)], and [head(n)]. The free morpheme [shake(v)] means to move irregularly and fro. This morpheme first appeared in late 14th century and it was originated from Proto-Germanic skakanan cognates from Old Norse skaka. Afterwards, the free morpheme [my(pro)] means of or relating to me or myself especially as possessor, agent, object of an action, or familiar person. This morpheme first appeared in Middle English 12th century as mi reduced from mine. The last, the free morpheme [head(n)] means the upper part of the human body, or the front or upper part of the body of an animal typically separated from the rest of the body a neck, containing the brain, mouth, and sense organs. This morpheme first appeared in Old English as heafod and it was originated from Germanic related to Dutch hoofd and German haupt. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
SMH
[Shake(v)] [My(pro)] [Head(n)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[ACTION] + [MOVE IRREGULARLY] + [FRO]
[RELATING TO MY]
+
[PART OF BODY] + [CONTAINING OF BRAIN, MOUTH, AND SENSE ORGANS]
Since the concept of [ACTION] + [MOVE IRREGULARLY] + [FRO] + [RELATING TO MY] + [UPPER PART OF BODY] + [CONTAINING OF BRAIN, MOUTH, AND SENSE
ORGANS] are added with the concept of [ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION] + [TO
EXPRESS DISAPPROVAL/EXASPERATION/FRUSTATION] as a result in the time when
people in the electronic communication express to something that do not agree, the meaning properties for SMH are:
[ACTION] + [MOVE IRREGULARLY] + [FRO] + [RELATING TO MY] + [UPPER PART OF
BODY] + [ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION] + [TO EXPRESS
DISAPPROVAL/EXASPERATION/PRUSTATION] + [INSURANCE OF HEALT FOR U.S
CITIZENS]
Thus, the concept of SMH is defined typically use in electronic communication to express disapproval, exasperation, frustration, etc. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in August 2014.
Data 15
‗WDYTof the names Ava and Erza for a twin boy and girl?‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/WDYT
[what(pro)] used for asking for information specifying something. This morpheme first appeared in late Old English and it was originated from Germanic. Then, the free morpheme [do(v)] means perform or carry out. This morpheme first appeared in Old English don and it was originated from Germanic. Next, the free morpheme [you(pro)] means the one or ones being addresses, used as the pronoun of the second person singular or plural in any grammatical relation. This morpheme first appeared in Old English as eow, ge and it was originated from Germanic euch. The last, the free morpheme [think(v)] means have a particular opinion, belief, or idea about someone or something. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
WDYT
[What(pro)] [Do(v)] [You(pro)] [Think(v)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[ASKING INFORMATION]
Since the concept of [ASKING INFORMATION] [PERFORM] + [CARRY OUT] + [PERSON] + [BEING ADDRESSED] + [PARTICULAR OPINION] + [IDEA OR OPINION] are
OPINION] as a result in the time when people in the electronic communication express
to something that do not agree, the meaning properties for WDYT are:
[ASKING] + [INFORMATION, IDEA OR OPINION] + [ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION]
Thus, the concept of WDYT is defined typically use in electronic communication to ask for someone opinion. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in August 2014
4.4 Borrowing
This is a process of creating a new word with borrowing a word from another language.
Data 16
‗Sun-dried tomato and mozzarella aranciniserved with salad‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/arancini
Arancini. This new word is categorized as a noun and it borrowed from Italian.
The word [arancini(n)] in Italy has a meaning as a little orange. This word is name for a stuffed rice ball from Italy. This food has a shape and color like an orange that is why the name for it is arancini or little orange. This new word was originated from Sicily in 10th century during Arab rule. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[A FOOD] + [STAFFED INSIDE] + [HAVE A SHAPE LIKE AN ORANGE] + [FROM ITLAY], as
a result when people named an Italian food with a shape and color like an orange. Thus, the concept of arancini is defined as a name of food from Italy with has a shape like an orange. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in August 2014.
Data 17
‗Germany has adopted a special tiki-taka style with passing accuracy, skill,
and pace that other teams cannot handle.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/tiki-taka
Tiki-taka. This new word is categorized as a noun. This word is a football term which has a meaning as a style of play involving highly accurate short passing and an emphasis on retaining possession of the ball. It first appeared in 21st century and it was originated from Spanish spelled tiqui-taca. This word became popular because a Spanish announcer popularized in his comment on the television channel LaSexta. The word [tiki-taka(n)] is very closely with FC Barcelona, because there is the word came from. The description may be illustrated by the following figure. The meaning properties for tiki-taka are:
[A FOOTBALL TACTIC] + [WITH HIGHLY ACCURATE SHORT PASSING] + [FOR
RETAINING POSSESSION OF BALL], as a result when a team football used a tactic with
4.5 Inventing
This process is creating a new word by using a popular brand, place, or name of popular person.
Data 18
‗I always take Marmite and ketchup aboard; I can‘t travel without my
Marmite.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/marmite#Marmite
Marmite. This new word is categorized as a noun refers to a dark savory
spread made from yeast extract and vegetable extract. This is a brand of food spreads in U.K. It became a new word and listed in Oxford dictionary because this product very popular in U.K. It first launched in 1902 in England invented by Justus Von Liebig. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
The meaning properties for marmite are:
[A BRAND] + [FOOD SPREAD] + [YEAST AND VEGETABLE EXTRACT], as a result when
4.6 Conversion or Functional Shift
This process is different with the other process. It formed a new word by adding new meaning into existing words so the words that formed with this process will change in the meaning and part of speech.
Data 19
‗Keep that crazyaway from me.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/crazy#crazy__9
Crazy. This word is usually categorized as an adjective and has a meaning as
insane or unbalanced, especially as manifested in wild or aggressive behavior, but the word class and the meaning of [crazy(adj)] can be changed by adding some information on it. The word crazy consists of two morphemes; free morpheme [craze(v)] and bound morpheme [–ysuffix(adj)]. The free morpheme [craze(v)] means to shatter, crush or break to pieces. This morpheme first appeared in 14th century and it was originated from Old Norse krasa but entered English via Old French crasir. Whereas, the bound morpheme [–ysuffix(adj)] aims to give characteristic to the noun to form adjective meaning; having quality of. It was originated from Germanic that is – ig which has the same meaning. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Crazy(adj)]
[CRUSH] + [INSANE]
+
[HAVING QUALITY OF]
Since the concept of [CRUSH] + [INSANE] [HAVING QUALITY OF] are added with the concept of [AGGRESSIVE] + [BEHAVIOR] as a result in the time when people did something insane or have aggressive behavior, the meaning properties for crazy are: [CRUSH] + [INSANE] [HAVING QUALITY OF] + [AGGRESSIVE] + [BEHAVIOR]
Thus, the concept of crazy is defined as insane or unbalanced, especially as manifested in wild or aggressive behavior. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in May 2014.
Data 20
‗Look at that metal rail thingover there.‘
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/thing#thing__23
Thing. This word is usually categorized as a noun; an object that one need
not, cannot, or does not wish to give a specific name to. There is no changed in writing and word class, but there is an addition meaning on the word. This word first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Proto-Germanic cognates from Old Frisian. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[OBJECT] + [HAVE NO SPECIFIC NAME], as a result when people have no specific name
for an object. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word listed in May 2014.
4.7 Blends
A blending is a combination of two or more words to create a new one, usually by taking the beginning of the other word and the end of the other one.
Data 21
‗Podmore wore a headcam with the intention of obtaining footage of their
hunting foray.‘
http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2014/02/new-words-oxford-dictionaries/
Headcam. This new word is categorized as a noun and it formed by combining
late 17th and it was originated from Greek kamara; object with an arched cover. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Headcam(n)]
[Head(n)] [Cam/camera(n)] This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover,
[UPPER PART OF BODY] + [CONTAINING OF BRAIN, MOUTH, AND SENSE ORGANS]
+
[INSTRUMENT/TOOL] + [RECORDING VISUAL IMAGES]
Since the concept of [UPPER PART OF BODY] + [CONTAINING OF BRAIN, MOUTH, AND SENSE ORGANS] + [INSTRUMENT/TOOL] + [RECORDING VISUAL IMAGES] are
added with the concept of [A SMALL VIDEO CAMERA] + [PUT IN
HAT/HELMET/STRAPPED] + [TO PROVIDE VIDEO FOOTAGE] as a result in the time when
the small camera positioned to a hat or a similar things to record video footage, the meaning properties for headcam are:
[INSTRUMENT/TOOL] + [A SMALL VIDEO CAMERA] + [PUT IN HAT/HELMET/STRAPPED]
+ [RECORDING VISUAL IMAGES] + [TO PROVIDE VIDEO FOOTAGE]
Thus, the concept of headcam is defined as a small video camera attached to a hat or helmet or strapped to the head, used especially to provide video footage from the wearer’s perspective. In the recent updates oxforddictionaries.com, this new word
Data 22
‗You can fail a mission and the game will continue, with permadeath for any
soldiers lost in the battle.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/permadeath
Permadeath. This new word is categorized as a noun and it formed by
combining two morphemes. It consists of free morpheme [perma(adj)] and free morpheme [death(n)]. The free morpheme [perma(adj)] is historically abbreviation from [permanent(adj)] means lasting or remaining unchanged indefinitely, or intended to be so; not temporary. This morpheme first appeared in nearly 15th century and it was originated from Middle French that is permanent 14th century or directly from Latin that is permanentem. Meanwhile, the free morpheme [death(n)] means the action or fact or dying or being killed. This morpheme first appeared in Old English and it was originated from Proto-Germanic that is dauthuz cognates from Old Saxon doth, Old Frisian dath, Dutch dood. The description may be illustrated by the following figure.
[Permadeath(n)]
[Perma/Permanent(adj)] [Death(n)]
This figure initiates that meaning properties (meaning features) cover, [UNCHANGE] + [NOT TEMPORARY]
+
[DYING/BEING KILLED]
REAPPEAR] as a result in the time when character in video game cannot back to the
game because run out of live, the meaning properties for permadeath are: [CHARACTER IN VIDEO GAMES] + [DYING/BEING KILLED] + [NOT TEMPORARY] +
[CANNOT REAPPEAR]
52
This chapter illustrates the findings of the study, displays the answer to the research questions in Chapter I and gives suggestions to other researchers who are interested in filling the gaps of this topic.
5.1 Conclusions
5.1.1 Table of the word formation processes.
Word Formation Process Number of The data
Affixation Process 4
Compounding Process 4
Borrowing Process 2
Inventing Process 1
Conversion or Functional Shift Process 2
Blending Process 2 are also analyzed semantically by seeking the meaning properties of each morpheme using NSM (Natural Semantic Metalanguage) approach. In twenty two data, two data have changed their meaning, then five data have additional meaning, next seven data have constriction meaning, and eight data remain have unchanged.
Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic, Greek, Dutch, Old Frisian, Old Nurse, Spanish, Italian, Latin, and Medieval Latin.
5.1.3 Table of the origin of the words
SKRIPSI
Submitted to fulfill one of the requirements of Sarjana Sastra Degree
RIKI GINANJAR NIM. 63711015
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF LETTERS
INDONESIA COMPUTER UNIVERSITY
BANDUNG
55
CURRICULUM VITAE
1. Student’s Profile
a. Name : Riki Ginanjar
b. Address : Panenjoan RT. 03 RW. 14, Banjaran c. Place and Date of Birth : Bandung, 12 April 1992
1 2011-2013 Member of Himpunan Mahasiswa Sastra Inggris UNIKOM
56
1. My beloved family, especially to my dearly loved parents. Thank you for all of your prayer. I will never make it without you support.
54
Minneapolis: the University of Minnesota Press
Brinton, Laurel. 2000. The Structure of Modern English a Linguitic Introduction. University of British Columbia: John Benjamins B.V.
Carstairs-McCarthy, Andrew. 2002. An introduction to English Morphology Words and Their Structure. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press LTD.
Djajasudarma, T. Fatimah. 2011. Metode Linguistik: Ancangan Metode Penelitian dan Kajian. Bandung: PT. Refika Aditama
Finegan, Edward. 2008. Language Its Structure and Use. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth
Godard and Wierzbicka. 2002. Meaning and Universal Grammar: Theory and Empirical Findings (2 volumes). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benajamins. Katamba, Francis. 1993. Modern Linguistics: Morphology. Palgrave Macmillan Kreidler, Charles W. 1998. Introducing English Semantics. London: Routledge. O’Grady, William, et.al. 1996. Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction (Third
Edition). United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.
Sugiyono. 2007. Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta
Wedgwood, Hensleigh. 1859. A Dictionary of English Etymology. London: Trubner & CO. 60, Paternoster Row.
Internet:
