ANALYSIS ON SUSTAINABILITY OF ORGANIC FARMING
IN RICE INTENSIFICATION
(ANALISIS KEBERLANJUTAN USAHATANI ORGANIK DALAM
INTENSIFIKASI PADI)
GARDJITO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (IPB) BOGOR
(ANALISIS KEBERLANJUTAN USAHATANI ORGANIK DALAM
INTENSIFIKASI PADI)
GARDJITO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (IPB) BOGOR
STATEMENT ABOUT DISSERTATION AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION
I hereby solemnly state that this dissertation entitled: ‘Analysis on Sustainability
of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification’ is my own work, under the
supervision of my academic advisors at BAU that has not been proposed in any
form and to any other universities. Sources of information coming or being cited
from either published or unpublished articles of other authors had been clearly
mentioned in the text and been included in the list of references.
Bogor, December 2011
ABSTRACT
GARDJITO. Analysis on Sustainability of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification. Under the direction of BUDI I. SETIAWAN, ARIEF S. YUWONO, and I WAYAN ASTIKA
Indonesia and some other countries in Asia are still striving for food security. This is due to the fact that the world food supply has indicated a critical condition where rice, as the staple food of the majority of Asian population, is one of the critical foods. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) claimed with high productivity and less water requirement might be one of the possible solutions to overcome the world food as well a water crisis. This method has been developed in some Asian countries including Indonesia although some researches still have to be conducted concerning the sustainability of this farming method in increasing rice production. A study was conducted in the District of Sukabumi as a case study with the objective to analyze the potential sustainability of organic rice farming using the SRI method in that area. Study on agricultural sustainability usually concerns with at least three components such as social, economic and environmental aspects. In this study, the three components were stressed on willingness of farmer to adopt new method as social factor, productivity as economic factor and utilization of agricultural wastes for fertilizer as the component that indirectly related to environmental factor. The analyses on the potential agricultural sustainability were conducted based on modeling approach. Several models were developed for uses in the calculation and prediction of the factors considered, which basically were based on Cobb-Douglas production function and Verhulst growth model. The result of this study indicated that the District of Sukabumi had the potential to develop a sustainable organic rice farming using SRI method. However, some factors involving the sustainability still had to be improved for better result of development.
SUMMARY
GARDJITO. Analysis on Sustainability of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification. Under the direction of BUDI I. SETIAWAN, ARIEF S. YUWONO, and I WAYAN ASTIKA
Indonesia, once was rice self-supporting country in the 1980s and soon after has become one of the biggest rice importing countries in the world, is still striving for food security. This is due to the fact that the world food supply has indicated a critical condition where rice, as the staple food of the majority of Asian population, is one of the critical foods. Proliferation of rice productivity has been endlessly conducted through researches on high yielding varieties either at national or international level, but mostly still relies on intensive application of chemical fertilizers. With this method the increase in productivity might occur, but at the same time the possibility of environmental pollution becomes higher. Such dilemmatic phenomenon requires appropriate way-outs to overcome.
One of the possible solutions to overcome the food crisis, especially in Asia, might be the utilization of the intensification system of rice production with high productivity and less water requirement. This method is popularly called System of Rice Intensification (SRI), which has been developed in some Asian countries including Indonesia. This system relies on the rooting management of paddy crop, which is based on the management of water, soil and plant. Basically, this system can utilize either organic, chemical, or combination of both types of fertilizer. The utilization of organic fertilizers in SRI has been widely conducted in Indonesia especially in Java. Based on the field experiment data, the yield varies from 10.5 to 17.5 ton/ha. However, the sustainability of the organic matter supplies appropriate for fertilizing the soil has to be secured in order to keep the high productivity when it is applied in larger scale.
A study was conducted in the District of Sukabumi as a case study with the objective to analyze the potential sustainability of organic rice farming using the SRI method. Organic rice farming using the method so far has been extensively and intensively developed in this area, where the SRI method to some extend had been applied by some of the farmers. Although the method itself could be applied either using organic or inorganic fertilizers, its application was usually associated with organic rice farming especially on Java Island. The main reason was that it could be applied using any rice variety resulting in high productivity. The organic rice produced had better taste than that of the conventional one and the price was higher.
Study on agricultural sustainability usually concerns with at least three components such as social, economic and environmental aspects. In this study, the three components were stressed on willingness of farmer to adopt new method as social factor, productivity as economic factor and utilization of agricultural wastes for fertilizer as the component that indirectly related to environmental factor. The analyses on the potential agricultural sustainability were conducted based on modeling approaches. Several models were developed for uses in the calculation and prediction of the factors considered, which basically were based on Cobb-Douglas production function and Verhulst growth model.
the case of predicting organic rice farming production, four input factors were used consisted of seed, fertilizer, labor and water, resulting in the following model: YLD = 2.664 S-0.002 F0.00019 L0.002 W0.94. The model was capable of predicting the production of organic rice farming with SRI method. Another model was developed for the prediction of the organic rice productivity based on Verhulst growth model. The result indicated that the productivity leveled off at around 10.4 ton/ha in this area. Sensitivity analysis was also done on the production model and the results indicated that the model was sensitive enough towards the changes in its production factors or parameters. Based on the two models, an optimization was made in order to determine the optimum profit obtained from the organic rice farming in Sukabumi.
A sustainable supply of organic fertilizer was one of the factors to be secured. Sources of organic fertilizers applied by farmers could be paddy straw, animal wastes, legumes and other biomasses, as well as organic garbage from the local market. An analysis of the provision or supply of organic fertilizers for the development of sustainable SRI organic rice farming in the District of Sukabumi by means of modeling approach were conducted. Based on the available data, some predictions of essential factors required for planning of future development of sustainable SRI organic rice farming can be made. The factors include the interest of farmers in adopting new technique, land with technical irrigation and availability of sources of organic fertilizers such as household and industrial organic wastes and animal wastes.
©Copy right belongs to IPB, 2011 All Rights Reserved
No part or the entire dissertation may be cited without incorporating or stating the source. Citation is only for education, research, scientific paper writing, report making, critics writing, or problem review; and the citation is not detrimental to the interests of IPB.
ANALYSIS ON SUSTAINABILITY OF ORGANIC FARMING
IN RICE INTENSIFICATION
(ANALISIS KEBERLANJUTAN USAHATANI ORGANIK DALAM
INTENSIFIKASI PADI)
GARDJITO
Dissertation
Submitted as partial fulfillment for the achievement of Doctoral Degree in the
Study Program of Agricultural Engineering Science
(English is unabridged)
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
BOGOR AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY (IPB) BOGOR
Examiners in Close Examination: Dr. Ir. Erizal, MAgr
Dr. Dra. Rahayu Widyastuti, MSc
Research Title : Analysis on Sustainability of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification
Name of Student : Gardjito
Student Number : F. 161050062/TEP
Study Program : Agricultural Engineering Science
Approved by,
Advisory Committee
Prof. Dr. Ir. Budi Indra Setiawan, M.Agr.
Chairman
Dr. Ir. Arief Sabdo Yuwono, M.Sc. Dr. Ir. I Wayan Astika, M.Si.
Member Member
Acknowledged by,
Date of Examination: Date of Passing:
07 November 2011
Head of the Study Program of Agricultural Engineering Science
Dr. Ir. Wawan Hermawan, M.S.
Dean of the Graduate School of Bogor Agricultural University,
PREFACE
‘Alhamdulillah’ to ‘Allah SWT’ who always bestows thou grace and guidance so that the author eventually accomplishes this dissertation entitled:
‘Analysis on Sustainability of Organic Farming in Rice Intensification’. The theme of organic rice farming with SRI was selected because it offers a good opportunity to produce more rice with less water which important to Indonesia and other Asian countries. It means that this method can be used to meet two major challenges involving rice as a staple food in Asia, i.e., ensuring the ability to meet the food security needs with a declining natural resources base particularly regarding to water and land and the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. Research on SRI with various topics has just been started since the introduction of this method in the 1980s in Madagascar. This research topic for dissertation was meant to study in macro aspect of how organic rice farming with SRI can be developed in the District of Sukabumi as a case study through modeling approach.
The author would like to express his gratitude to the following: Professor Budi Indra Setiawan, Dr. Arief S. Yuwono, and Dr. I Wayan Astika from IPB as my academic advisors who relentlessly and patiently gave their guidance and direction for the completion of my study in doctoral program; Dr. Tasuku Kato from Ibaraki University for his support and help; NOSC, Nagrak, especially to Mr. Jatika as the Director and Mr. Misnan; and last but not least, those other parties that he cannot name one by one, who are also very helpful in the completion of this study.
Finally, the author does hope that the result of this study would be beneficial to all stakeholders in rice production either from government agencies or NGOs especially the decision makers. The successfulness of rice farming with SRI would help farmers to improve their prosperity. Amen.
Bogor, December 2011
BIODATA
The author was born in Surakarta, Central Java Province, on January 31,
1946. I am the youngest child, with one brother and one sister, of the late father
R.M. Soenoto and late mother Marjati.
The author was graduated from Bogor Agricultural University or BAU in
1975, majoring in Agricultural Mechanization. The author received his master
degree (MSc) in Agricultural Engineering from Michigan State University, USA,
in 1980. The author pursued a doctoral program in the same discipline at the same
university until 1983, but it was incomplete due to some technical problem.
Beside the degree programs, the author also participated in two 3-month
non-degree (training) programs, one in Cornell University (USA, 1993) and the
other in Tokyo University (Japan, 1999-2000).
The author started to work at BAU in 1972 (before graduated) as junior
assistant instructor; and became the official faculty member as instructor in 1975
after graduation. The last position he took was Senior Lecturer before retired in
February, 2011. The author has the responsibility to give lectures especially in
fundamental as well as professional engineering courses in the Department of
Agricultural Engineering. In 2008, the author joined the new department in BAU,
i.e., the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. As a faculty member,
he had to carry out the university tripartite (tri-dharma) during his career in BAU,
i.e., lecturing, research and community service. A few scientific articles were
published either in national journals (three articles, as main author and co-authors),
in international journal (one article, as co-author) and in the proceedings of
international conference (two, as author and co-author).
Since 2005, the author has joined the doctoral program of BAU Graduate
School majoring in Agricultural Engineering Science. Several publications have
been accomplished. One article was published in the accredited national journal
(Productivity Analysis of Organic Rice Farming Intensification. Jurnal Irigasi. Vol.
5, No. 1, Juni 2010) and two articles will be published (still in process), i.e., 1) Sensitivity Analysis and Optimization of Model of Organic Rice Farming with
SRI in the District of Sukabumi (Analisis Sensitivitas dan Optimisasi Model
Budidaya Padi Organik dengan SRI di Kabupaten Sukabumi) and 2) Production of Organic Fertilizer for the Development of Sustainable Organic Rice Farming
with SRI Method in Sukabumi (Produksi Pupuk Organik untuk Pengembangan
April 2012 of the national journal of Jurnal Keteknikan Pertanian). The scientific
TABLE OF CONTENTS
II. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE STUDY AREA ...
2.1.Background………...
2.2.Physical Condition ………. 2.3.Social Economic Condition ………... 2.4.Closure ………...…...
III. INTRODUCTION OF ORGANIC RICE FARMING WITH SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION IN
INDONESIA ..………..
3.1.Background……….
3.2.System of Rice Intensification ..………. 3.3.Sustainability of Organic Rice Farming ..………... 3.4.Conclusion ..………
IV. ANALYSIS ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF ORGANIC RICE FARMING INTENSIFICATION ……..………
V. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION MODEL OF ORGANIC RICE FARMING IN SUKABUMI ………..
5.1.Background ..………...………...
5.2.Method ..…………...………...
5.3.Results and Discussion .………..
Page
VI. ANALYSIS ON THE PRODUCTIVITY OF ORGANIC RICE FARMING INTENSIFICATION ……..………
6.1.Background ..………..
6.2.Method ..………...………..
6.3.Results and Discussion .………..
6.4.Conclusion ..………...
55
55 56 57 66
VII. GENERAL CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION……….….
7.1. General Conclusion ………
7.2. General Recommendation ………..
67
67 69
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ………. 70
REFERENCES ……… 71
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1.1. Characteristics of agricultural systems ……… 11 Table 1.2. Research schedule ……… 12 Table 2.1. Soil types in the District of Sukabumi ……….. 18 Table 2.2. Change in area of paddy fields according to irrigation type
used in 2003 – 2008 (in ha) ……….. 19 Table 2.3. Population of District of Sukabumi from 1961 to 2005 …... 20 Table 3.1. Data of yields experimental rice farming using SRI method
at various locations in Indonesia ……….. 28 Table 3.2. Result of demonstration plot test of SRI in District of
Garut (2003) ………. 29 Table 4.1. Rice production data of farmers practicing SRI organic rice
farming in Sukabumi District ………... 40 Table 4.2. Parameter values of the production factors ……….. 42 Table 4.3. Yield components of the production factors ……… 43 Table 5.1. Organic rice production data of farmers applying SRI in
District of Sukabumi ……… 50 Table 5.2. Example data for minimum seed tolerance ……….. 41 Table 5.3 Data for calculating profit of rice sale ………. 52 Table 5.4. Result of productivity or production optimization ……….. 53 Table 5.5. Result of profit calculation for harvest-dry rough rice …… 54 Table 5.6 Result of profit calculation for milled rice ………... 54 Table 6.1. Organic fertilizer calculation parameters of animal waste ... 60 Table 6.2. Organic fertilizer calculation parameters of municipal
waste ……… 60 Table 6.3. Population data of human and animal in the District of
Sukabumi 61
Table 6.4. Supply of potential organic fertilizer from municipal and
animal wastes 61
Table 6.5. Land (paddy fields) with technical irrigation in the District
of Sukabumi 62
Table 6.6. Trend of change of paddy field area with technical
irrigation ………... 63 Table 6.7. Data of land (paddy field) with technical irrigation ……… 65 Table 6.8. Results of the calculation of available and required organic
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1.1. Flow chart of research activity ………. 13 Figure 2.1. Map of the District of Sukabumi ………. 17 Figure 2.2. Location of Sukabumi in West Java Province ……….. 17 Figure 3.1. Factors involve in rice intensification using organic
farming method ……… 32 Figure. 4.1. Regression of observation data vs. model for rice
production yield ………... 41 Figure 4.2. Prediction of yield of SRI organic rice farming …………... 43 Figure 5.1. Results of sensitivity analysis for minimum seed tolerance 52 Figure 6.1. Trend of the decreasing area of land with technical
irrigation (upper curve) and the possible SRI land area development (lower curve) from 2003 through 2020 in the
LIST OF APPENDICES
Pages
Appendix 4.1. Result of Optimization of Productivity Model Using
Cobb-Douglas Function ……….. 76 Appendix 4.2. Prediction of Rice Productivity ………... 77 Appendix 5.1. Calculation data of Cobb-Douglas based rice
productivity ……….
78
Appendix 5.2. Calculation used in the sensitivity analysis ………. 79 Appendix 6.1. Population and Domestic Waste Production …………... 85 Appendix 6.2. Calculation of Developed SRI Area and Required
1.1. Background
World population growth, expected to reach more than eight billion by 2006,
will cause problems in food as well as water supplies. The rapid population
growth and industrial development have caused water shortage which is
worsening from year to year. For example, 31 countries mainly in Asia and Africa,
are suffering an absolute lack of water. As a consequence this scarcity of water has
resulted in serious food shortage and other catastrophes especially in the
developing countries (Yajima 2002).
Rice has long been very important for dietary source of human life. This
commodity is vital to fulfilling human food needs, especially in Asia where the
population is very high and per capita available arable land very low (Fresco
2003). Rice cultivation has been an integral part of the culture in large parts of
Asia for centuries. It is not only a staple food, but also a key ingredient of the
region’s culture. Growing paddy rice has been the central livelihood strategy and
is in the blood of most of Asian farmers (Rijsberman 2004).
Two major challenges involving rice in Asia are ensuring the ability of
nations to meet their national and household food security needs with a declining
natural resource base particularly regarding to water and land and the eradication
of extreme poverty and hunger. This is because rice is so central to the lives of
most Asians that any solution to global poverty and hunger must include research
that helps poor Asian farmers earn a decent, reliable income by growing rice that
is affordable to poor consumers (Cantrell 2004). Although the global rice
production has so far been able to meet population demands, a big question has
already arisen on its sustainability. Appropriate action has to be taken in the near
future in order to solve the problem (Nguyen & Ferrero 2006).
Other challenge for paddy rice farmers to increase their productivity is how
to grow more rice with less water. According to Barker et al. (2004), irrigation consumes approximately 80 percent of developed water resources in the
developing countries. Paddy fields account for approximately 50 percent of the
traditional paddy rice production. Some scientists of Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) are currently engaged in a long-term
assessment of the potential to achieve this. This group has also recognized the
high priority of growing more food, including paddy rice, with less water.
Growing more rice with much less water is necessary and possible (Rijsberman
2004).
In line with those efforts, the General Assembly of the United Nation
declared 2004 as the International Year of Rice with the slogan “Rice is Life”,
which is an extraordinary focus for a single crop to acquire such international
recognition. This dedication to a single crop is unprecedented. It acknowledges
the significance of rice as the staple food and a healthy source of grain for the
majority of the developing world, and links its production and ecosystem
management to broader issues of global food security, poverty alleviation,
environmental conservation and the protection of biodiversity (Fresco 2003; Sato
2005).
A good opportunity to produce more rice with less water was opened when a
new method of rice cultivation was introduced in the 1980s by the use of System
of Rice Intensification (SRI) developed originally in Madagascar. It is claimed
that “SRI is a methodology that can contribute to food security by increasing rice
yields to about twice the present world average, virtually without the need of
improved seeds or chemical inputs” as presented by Norman Uphoff, director of
the Cornell International Institute for Food, Agriculture and Development
(CIIFAD), in his keynote on “The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) and its
Relevance for Food Security and Natural Resource Management in Southeast
Asia” (TROZ 2002). It has been tested in China, India, Indonesia, the Philippines,
Sri Lanka and Bangladesh with positive results (Berkelaar 2006).
Some other scientists are, however, still skeptic and argue about the success
of the SRI method. In the beginning of its development, SRI received criticisms
from either practitioners or scientists. The practices recommended by SRI is
somewhat counterintuitive, since it challenges assumptions and practices that have
been applied for hundreds or even thousands of years by traditional rice farmers in
methods should work with any seeds that are now being used. No purchase of new
seeds or the use of new high-yielding varieties (HYV) is required, although some
of the highest yields obtained using SRI have been from the HYVs of paddy.
The SRI practices for paddy cultivation now being recommended to farmers
in Indonesia, particularly in Java, can be categorized as organic rice farming. The
applications of organic rice farming by farmers are mostly sponsored by
non-government organizations (NGOs). Despite the arguments and criticisms
among the rice scientists, the application of SRI method in rice production is
growing among the farmers in West Java including the District of Sukabumi. This
district seems to have the potential in developing the SRI method. Beside the good
and long experience in rice farming of the farmers, this district also has relatively
large area of paddy field with technical irrigation and other infrastructures.
Furthermore, the existence of a training center of rice organic farming with SRI
located in this district (NOSC) would have an important role in supporting the
development of rice organic farming intensification with SRI in this district.
This system seems to be a revolution of paddy cultivation to most farmers in
Asia including those from the District of Sukabumi. In fact, farmers have to have
an open mind to adopt new methods and a willingness to experiment. It might
take some years to get confidence that these methods could consistently raise
production so substantially. Therefore, some more in-depth researches still need to
be conducted concerning the socio-economic, technical, as well as environmental
aspects. One of the research themes at macro level is the analysis on the potential
sustainability of the SRI method when applied in larger scale using modeling
approach.
1.2. Objective
The objective of this study was to analyze the sustainability of organic
farming in rice intensification in the District of Sukabumi through modeling
approach by considering the following aspects:
(1) Productivity and profitability in organic rice production with SRI.
(3) Potential production of organic fertilizers to supply the requirement in the
development of organic rice farming with SRI in the District of Sukabumi.
1.3. Problem Statement
Basically, the concept of SRI comprises certain management practices for
intensive and efficient paddy rice cultivation. The management practices involve
transplanting method and management of soil, nutrient and water which provide
better rice plants conditions, particularly in the root zone. This method is different
from the traditional one with constant field flooding that has been practiced by
Asian farmers for thousands of years. SRI is based on the fact that paddy is not
aquatic plant but it needs more water in the right time. Therefore, flooding is not
necessary and less water is needed through the use of periodical intermittent
irrigation, although increased weeding is required. To some extent, flooding is
even detrimental to paddy plants, i.e., retarding the development of root and the
growth of tillers.
Despite the successfulness of the SRI in rice production as claimed in many
countries including in Indonesia as stated above, there is still a big question about
the sustainability of this system when practiced in large scale, especially the
sustainability of the organic matter supplies appropriate for fertilizing the soil. So
far SRI has only been tried in small scale where water requirement and organic
fertilizers were still manageable. The sustainability of this organic farming system
would still be in question when it is applied in large scale due to its promising
future in intensive rice production. The change from the traditional system into
this SRI system might cause some changes in socio-economic, technical, as well
as environmental aspects of the rice production. Some of the problems that might
be encountered when SRI system is applied in large scale among others are:
(a) Change in environmental factors related to paddy cultivation, particularly in
soil ecology, when the irrigation is changed from flooding to intermittent
system. This will include the soil microorganisms and chemical compounds
produced.
(b) SRI method requires good water management, i.e., water should always be
Block to block irrigation as traditionally applied in paddy fields cannot be
suitable to the intermittent method required in SRI. New irrigation scheme
and land consolidation might be needed in order to apply appropriately the
SRI system in large scale.
(c) Recently organic farming is recommended to produce organic rice which is
preferable by consumers and has less environmental impact compared to the
utilization of chemicals. Large quantity of organic materials or biomass as
the source of organic fertilizers such as compost and bokashi is required. In
small scale, it can be provided by the farmer locally. In large scale, however,
the production of organic fertilizers must be in industrial scale which requires
secured sources of raw materials.
(d) A new approach in macro socio-economic systems related to the adoption of
SRI is needed to develop in order that it can be appropriately applied for
efficient and profitable agri-businesses involving intensive rice farming,
animal farming and organic fertilizer industry.
1.4. Hypothesis
The following hypothesis is used in this analysis: „With the adoption of new
method, level of organic rice productivity and production of organic fertilizers,
District of Sukabumi has the potential in the development of sustainable organic
rice farming with SRI’.
1.5. Usefulness
Effort in increasing rice production is a must in order to overcome problems
in food in the near future, especially in Asia where rice is the staple food for most
of the population. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is claimed to be a new
methodology that can contribute to food security by increasing rice yields to about
twice the present world average, virtually without the need of improved seeds or
chemical inputs and requires less water compared to the conventional one. The
models developed in this dissertation in general can be used as the methodology
in planning the development of organic rice farming with SRI in larger scale in
1.6. Novelty
Novelty of this research is the utilization and modification of some
fundamental models previously developed by other researchers. Verhulst’s growth
model can be used to make predictions of population growth, trend of change of
land-use and productivity of rice. Cobb-Douglas production function can be
developed with new variables in order to calculate the rice production and
profitability. These models can be used in the analysis on the sustainability of
agricultural development in general.
1.7. Literature Review
1.7.1. Organic Farming for Rice Intensification
Development of SRI
The SRI method was developed by Fr. Henri de Laulanie, S.J., a Jesuit
priest, in the early 1980s. He came to Madagascar in 1961 from France and spent
more than 30 years of his life in that country. He worked with Malagasy farmers
to improve their agricultural systems, particularly in rice production, as rice is the
staple food of the country population. Before he died in June, 1995, Laulanie
published one article on SRI in the Journal Tropicultura in 1993 (Berkelaar 2006;
DISIMP 2006).
Laulanie established an agricultural vocational school in 1981 to help rural
youths receive an education relevant to their family or community needs. In 1990,
he together with a number of Malagasy colleagues established an indigenous
non-governmental organization (NGO) called Association Tefy Saina (ATS) (tefy saina in Malagasy means to improve mind). This NGO works with farmers, agricultural professionals and other NGOs to improve to improve production and
livelihood. In 1994, ATS began working with the CIIFAD to promote SRI around
the Ranomafana National Park in eastern Madagascar, supported by the USAID.
This project helped the farmers around the area to find alternatives to their
slash-and burn agriculture, which endangered the precious rain forest ecosystems
Principles of SRI
The SRI practices for paddy cultivation now being recommended to farmers
in Indonesia, particularly in West Java, can be categorized as organic rice farming.
No chemical fertilizers are used; instead, manures and biomass are used either in
its natural condition, or in the forms of compost or bokashi. The main reason for
using organic fertilizers is “cheaper”, readily available and environmentally
friendly. Organic fertilizers are also claimed as having the effect of improving soil
condition including soil structure (Gardjito et al. 2006).
Basically, the concept of SRI comprises certain management practices for
intensive and efficient paddy rice cultivation. The management practices involve
transplanting method and management of soil, nutrient and water which provide
better rice plants conditions, particularly in the root zone. This method is different
from the traditional one with constant field flooding that has been practiced by
Asian farmers for thousands of years. It should be noted that paddy is not aquatic
plant but it needs water more in the right time (Berkelaar 2006; DISIMP 2006).
Four principles of SRI in paddy cultivation are: (1) Early transplanting of
seedlings, i.e., between 10 and 15 days old when the first two leaves have
emerged from the initial tiller or stalk, (2) Seedlings are planted singly rather in
clumps in order that individual plants have room to spread and to send down roots,
(3) Seedlings are planted in a wide spacing square pattern with plenty of space
between them to grow and easy weeding (at least 25 x 25 cm), and (4)
Periodically intermittent irrigation in order that the soil are both moist and aerated
at least during the vegetative growth period, where aerated soil provides aerobic
and anaerobic bacteria an opportunity to contribute to plant growth. These four
practices are different from those traditionally practiced by farmers so far
(Berkelaar 2006; DISIMP 2006).
There are two other practices that are very beneficial and not controversial
when using SRI since they have been long recognized as valuables for crops. The
two practices are weeding and fertilizing. At least two or three weeding are
recommended, in which, the first weeding should be done ten to twelve days after
transplanting and the second weeding within fourteen days. Another one or two
chemical fertilizers especially on the very poor soils. Due to some constraints, the
recommendation on fertilizing switched to the use of compost, with even better
results were observed. Compost adds nutrient to the soil slowly and can also
contribute to a better soil structure (DISIMP 2006).
By applying the SRI practices properly, it is claimed that rice plants have
many more tillers, greater root development, and more grains per panicle. Hence,
SRI methods have at least doubled the yields of any variety of rice that has been
tried. However, farmers have to have an open mind to adopt new methods and a
willingness to experiment. It might take some years to get confidence that these
methods could consistently raise production so substantially (Gardjito et al. 2006).
Sustainability
Many studies on agricultural sustainability have been conducted and
published. The term sustainability used in this research topic related to the
definition used in the sustainable development in general, but limited to certain
local condition. One definition states that sustainable development is defined as
balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of the natural environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but in the indefinite future. Conceptually, the field of sustainable development can be
broken into four constituent parts, i.e., environmental sustainability, economic
sustainability, social sustainability and political sustainability (Wikipedia
Encyclopedia 2007).
Agricultural sustainability in general implies the production of food and
fiber with a mission to guarantee ecological stability, economic viability and
socio-cultural permanence (Lal 1991 in Sands & Podmore 2000). Sustainability
has become one of the forefront issues faced by agriculture. However, it continues
to remain an ill-defined concept. Current literature still struggles with developing
and refining the concept. Sands and Podmore (2000) conducted a study on
sustainability index for agricultural systems. The objective of the index was to
provide a modeling-based, i.e., quantitative measure of sustainability from an
environmental perspective comprising both on- and off-site environmental effects
associated with agricultural stems. According to Singh et al. (2009), sustainability
policy making and public communication in conveying information on countries
and corporate performance in fields such as environment, economy, society, or
technological improvement. The indicators simplify, quantify, analyze and
communicate otherwise complex and complicated information.
Good agricultural systems should be able to develop sustainable farming
which depends on the development of production systems able to reduce soil
erosion, improve physical and biological soil fertility and of course increase
farmer’s income (Dogliotti et al. 2005). Poor management of the livestock waste
can generate increasing rate of pollution, including the emergence of conflicts
with other activities, such as tourism, due to nuisance smells. Therefore,
mastering the management of livestock wastes is deemed necessary by local
authorities. Agronomic research was thus required to help farmers and
extensionists to find ways of matching the supply of organic matter from livestock
to the demand of crops, both within and between farms (Aubry et al. 2006). Since
livestock waste is one of the sources of organic fertilizer, one possible solution is
the utilization of it for the production of organic fertilizer such as compost and
bokashi. This in turn will reduce the risk of environmental pollution. Another
source of organic fertilizer is paddy straw with ample potential production of
about 1.4 times the harvest yield per hectare (Kim and Dale 2004 in ISROI 2009).
The utilization of paddy straw as agricultural waste for the production of compost
offers several benefits either in economic, social or environmental aspects.
Economically, it is always available after harvest for free sustainable production
of compost. Environmentally, it can reduce the possibility of pollution by
converting the waste into compost.
1.7.2. Modeling Approach in Rice Production Study
In general, the main goal of agricultural research is to increase agricultural
production. The continuing growth of the world’s population and the important
share of the agricultural products in the world economy make the increase in
agricultural production will continue to be important. However, the continuing
production increase should currently be under different conditions. The more or
industrial as well as developing countries, has pushed agricultural production to
and, in many cases, over the edge of sustainability. A new challenge of how to
find a new balance between agricultural development and the conservation of the
natural resources is faced in increasing agricultural production by means of, e.g.,
land and water engineering (van Dongen & van Lier 1999).
Agricultural development is a dynamic process and is highly affected by
external conditions which encompass the natural environment as well as
socio-economic and political factors. Many studies concerning agricultural
development, including rice production, have been conducted using modeling
approach and systems simulation. Based on the characteristics of agricultural
systems and dynamic processes involved, system dynamics models have been
widely used in the studies. A lot of variables should be taken into account to
characterize an agricultural type in a certain area more precisely. Table 1.1 shows
a list of variables in agricultural systems as compiled by International
Geographical Union (van Dongen & van Lier 1999).
1.7.3. System Dynamics Modeling
In conjunction with systems simulation, a model is a representation,
abstraction and simplification of real world phenomena as complex systems (Law
& Kelton, 1982; Ford 1999; Hannon & Ruth 2001). The model has to be detailed
and valid in order that an analyst or decision maker could use it for making the
same decisions about a system to be developed and making some experiments
with the system itself. Like other models, a system dynamics model is also a
representative of a real world system that can be used to study the behavior of the
Table 1.1. List of characteristics of agricultural systems
A. Social attributes
1. Percentage of land held in common
2. Percentage of land in labor or share tenancy 3. Percentage of land in private ownership
4. Percentage of land in state, or collective ownership 5. Size of holding according to numbers employed 6. Size of holding according to area of agricultural land 7. Size of holding according to value of output
B. Operational attributes
8. Labor intensity: number of employees per hectare of agricultural land
9. Inputs of animal power: draught units per hectare of agricultural land
10. Inputs of mechanical power: tractors, harvesters, etc. per hectare of agricultural land
11. Chemical fertilizers: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium per hectare of cultivated land
12. Irrigation, irrigated land as percentage of all cultivated land 13. Intensity of cropland use, ratio of harvested to total arable land 14. Intensity of livestock breeding, animal units per hectare of
agricultural land
C. Production attributes
15. Land productivity: gross agricultural output per hectare of agricultural land
16. Labor productivity: gross agricultural output per employee in agriculture
17. Degree of commercialization: proportion output sold off farm 18. Commercial production: commercial output per hectare of
agricultural land
D. Structural characteristics
19. Percentage of land in perennial and semi perennial crops 20. Percentage of total agricultural land impermanent grass 21. Percentage of total agricultural land in food crops 22. Percentage of total agricultural output of animal origin 23. Animal production as percentage of total commercial output 24. Industrial crops (sugar, fiber, rubber, beverages) as percentage
of total agricultural land.
1.8. Methodology 1.8.1. Place and Time
This research was conducted in the areas of the District of Sukabumi, West
Java Province. Data analysis and model simulation were conducted in Farm
Structures and Environment Laboratory, Department of Agricultural Engineering
and Soil Physic Laboratory, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
IPB.
The field research period was tentatively planned to be 12 (twelve) months,
starting from November 2007 through November 2008. The research schedule is
presented in the following Table 1.2.
Table 1.2. Research schedule Activity
Months
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Preparation
Data collection
Data analysis and modeling Report and publication
1.8.2. Data Collection and Analysis
The types of data required in this research were mostly secondary data
consisted of human and animal populations, rice yield, rice production, fertilizers,
labors, etc. The data collected was analyzed and used either as parameters or
variables in the model optimization as well as model validation. A preliminary
study was also conducted in the District of Sukabumi in order to obtain general
information about the application of System of Rice Intensification especially on
organic rice farming. Figure 1.1 is a flow chart showing the process of this
Figure 1.1. Flow chart of research activity
1.8.3. Model Development
Several models were used in the analysis involving productivity and
production models with some related parameters. Many variables have to be taken
into account to characterize an agricultural type in a certain area more precisely.
Referring to the characteristics of agricultural systems as stated in Table 1.1, the
land productivity or yield can be formulated as follows:
YLD = f (S,F,L,W) (1)
where: YLD = Yield or productivity (ton/ha)
S = Seed (kg/ha) F = Fertilizer (ton/ha) L = Labor (m-days/ha) W = Water (1000m3/ha)
Preparation
Yes
No
Report Sufficient?
Data Collection Preliminary Study
Model for predicting the yield of organic rice farming production could be
developed using Verhulst growth model (Burghes & Borrie 1981). The following
Equation (2) was used as the model for the prediction of the yield of organic rice
production through time.
(2)
where Y(t) = yield with respect to time (ton/ha) Y0 = initial yield (ton/ha)
Y∞ = maximum sustainable yield (ton/ha)
γ = coefficient t = time (year)
Equation (2) implies that the yield will level at its maximum value through time.
How long the leveling or maximum condition will be reached depends upon the
limitations on soil fertility and land area. Some historical data is needed to run the
model in order to predict the yield.
II. GENERAL CONDITION OF THE STUDY AREA 2.1. Background
District of Sukabumi is one of the districts located in West Java Province,
Indonesia. The capital of this district is Pelabuhan Ratu, a small town in a coastal
area, which is located in the southern part of this district. Inside this district area,
there is Sukabumi City, a different but has the same administrative level as that of
the District of Sukabumi. The administrative boundaries of this district are District
of Bogor in the North, District of Cianjur in the East, District of Lebak in the West
and Indian Ocean in the South.
This district is chosen as the study area since it has the potential for the
development of rice organic farming including that using the SRI method. The
latter has been developed in this district at least since 2003 after some of the
leading rice farmers participated in SRI training conducted in 2002 in Bandung
(capital city of West Java) as part of PU’s program to strengthen the WUAs (Water
User Associations). The training was provided for farmers from every district in
West Java. Actually, SRI was first practiced in 2000 by some curious
agronomists/farmers (mostly members of local NGOs) in the District of Ciamis.
Due to some reasons, technically and/or non-technically, initially only a few was
convinced to practice it professionally as a new promising method of rice farming
to increase rice production. However, afterwards the planting area of SRI in West
Java has expanded steadily and the total area reached 570 ha (3,000 farmers) in
2005 (Sutarmin et al. 2005).
In 2005 about 68.29% of the total area of paddy field in the district,
amounted to 42,829 ha out of 62,715 ha, was that of with irrigation. The rest was
rainfed paddy field (BPSKS, 2005). Organic rice farming using SRI method needs
paddy field having irrigation with easily managed water requirement. This is true
since this method uses intermittent irrigation system which can save water use
better compared to that of the conventional method of rice farming with flooding
system. Other reason why this district is selected as study area of organic rice
farming with SRI method is because there is a research center for organic rice
Nagrak Organic SRI Center (NOSC). The program offered in the training center is
especially in the form of ‘training of trainers’ (TOT). The activity of NOSC has
been recognized internationally. Considering the condition described above, it is
clearly that this district has the potential to be one of the districts in Indonesia
where organic rice intensification using SRI method can be well developed.
More information about the physical and social-economic conditions of this
district is presented in the following parts (Anonymous 2005).
2.2. Physical Condition
Location of the Study Area
District of Sukabumi is approximately 160 km from Jakarta (capital of
Indonesia). This district has an area of ± 420,000 ha with altitudes ranging from 0
to 2,958 m above the sea level (a.s.l). Geographically, it is located between
106º49’-107º00’ East Meridian and 6º57’ - 7º25’ South Latitude. The
administrative boundaries of this district are 40% with ocean and 60% with land,
i.e., District of Bogor in the North, District of Cianjur in the East, District of
Lebak in the West and Indian Ocean in the South. Map of the District of
Sukabumi and its location in the West Java Province can be seen in Figure 2.1 and
Figure 2.2.
Topography
Most of this district area is hilly land, except in the southern part which is
flat plane spreading from the bay of Ciletuh up to Cikaso and Cimandiri
tributaries. Several mountains are in the northern part, i.e., Mt. Halimun (1,929 m),
Mt. Salak (2,211 m), and the highest is Mt. Gede (2,958 m). Among the rivers
flowing in this area are r. Cimandiri and r. Cikaso, which end up at Indian Ocean.
Topographical condition of this district varies from flat to hilly and
mountains. From the total area (± 420,000 ha), it consists of plane with 0-2%
slope (9.4%), wavy with 2-15% slope (22.0%), hilly with 15-40% slope (42.7%)
varies from 0 to 2,958 m a.s.l. Flat planes are in the coastal areas and mountain bases usually used for paddy fields.
Figure 2.1. Map of the District of Sukabumi
Figure 2.2. Location of Sukabumi in West Java Province
The hydrological condition of District of Sukabumi is influenced by the climatic
factor especially rainfall. According to the topographic pattern, there are five
Sukabumi
watersheds in this area: Cimandiri (with Cipelang, Cicatih, Citarik, Cibodas and
Cidadap branches or sub-watersheds), Cibareno, Ciletuh, Cikaso and Cibuni.
Climatic Condition
District of Sukabumi has the potential to be a very large dry land region.
Currently most of this region comprises areas of estate, yard and forest. This
district has tropical climate of type B (Oldeman) with average rainfall of 2,805
mm/yr and 144 rain days. Air temperature ranges from 20ºC to 30ºC and Relative
Humidity ranges from 85% to 89%. Annual rainfall of 3,000 mm to 4,000 mm
occurs in the northern part and 2,000 mm to 3,000 mm occurs in the middle
through southern part of the district.
Soil
Types of soil spread in the District of Sukabumi are mostly dominated by
Latosol and Podsolik in the southern part with low fertility level. Soil types of Andosol and Regosol are in the hilly areas particularly in Mt. Salak, Mt. Gede and in the coastal area. Aluvial soil is generally in the valley and basin of the rivers. In
general, the types of soil in this district are dominated by mineral soils with various
grade. Table 2.1 shows the soil types and their areas as well as the percentage.
Table 2.1. Soil types in the District of Sukabumi
Type of soil Area (ha) Percentage (%)
Gleisol 6.500 1,6
Alluvial 8.720 2,1
Regosol 2.740 0,6
Andosol 13.430 3,4
Association of Renzina and Combisol 17.430 4,2
Grumosol 23.560 5,7
Mediteran 48.720 11,7
Podsol 65.550 16,0
Latosol 227.160 54,7
Total 414.770 100.0
Land Use
District of Sukabumi has quite large territorial area, i.e., ± 419.970 ha,
amounting to 9.18% of West Java Province area. In 1993, the land use of this region
(14.78%) for paddy fields; 103,443 ha (24.63%) for uplands; 95,378 ha (22.71%)
for plant estate; 1,486 ha (0.35%) for lakes/ponds; 135,004 ha (32.15%) for forest;
and 3,762 ha (0.90%) for others.
This land use data may change from year to year as influenced by the local
development program. For example, the change in the total area of land use for
paddy fields can be seen in the data presented in Table 2.2. Some parts of the paddy
fields may have been changed or converted to real estates, which currently becomes
comment practice by the government especially in Java Island due to the demand of
land for settlement.
The population growth rate in this district varies from year to year (1.93% in
2005) with a population density 539 persons/km2 in 2005. Settlement with high population density is generally located in the town-like center of a sub-district and
along the major roads. The lowest population density occurred in Ciemas
Sub-district (183 persons/km2) and the highest occurred in Sukabumi Sub-district (2,447 persons/km2). Table 2.3 presents the population data of the District of Sukabumi from 1961 to 2005 for further information.
The local government of District of Sukabumi has a vision for 2006 -2010
in its development program: ‘the realization in change of the District of Sukabumi
towards decent, productive and prosperous society’. It has three major missions:
(a) Upgrading the quality of decent human resources, (b) Stabilizing the
government performance and (c) Growing the local economy based on seeded
Table 2.3. Population of District of Sukabumi from 1961 to 2005
Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) are agriculture sector (38.72%), followed by
industrial sector (17.78%), trades, hotel and restaurant (16.15%). These average
figures are for the condition in 2005 and expected to increase in the coming years.
The local development policy of the District of Sukabumi in 2006 – 2010 is
regional based poverty alleviation with the objective to reduce the number of poor
people in each sub-district and interregional gap. The goals are less poor people,
acceleration of development in the less developed areas and the realization of
local poverty alleviation system.
There are nine business sectors for the fulfillment of decent life that are
divided into three groups, i.e., primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary group
consists of agriculture, mining and excavation; the secondary group consists of
processing industry, utilities (electricity, gas and clean water); and the tertiary
group consists of trades, hotel and restaurant, transportation & communication,
finance and services. The primary group dominates in the creation of value added
in this district.
Among the nine sectors, several sectors have dominant influences on the
economy of District of Sukabumi, i.e., agriculture sector with the biggest
contribution followed by the sectors of trades, hotel and restaurant, and processing
industry. The agriculture sector is the core business that has side impact on other
sectors like trades and processing industry, which sector has several sub-sectors of
food crops, plantation estates, animals and their products, forestry and fishery. In
order to push the economic development in this district, the agriculture sector
high economic value. The policy conducted by the local government in pushing the
agriculture sector among others are strengthening the farmer group institutional,
dissemination of technology and development of agribusiness in the villages or
rural areas.
The potential of the agricultural resources is spread mainly in the northern
part of the r. Cimandiri. Good water management and climate causes relatively
more fertile agricultural land area compared to that of the southern part. Most of the
paddy fields are located in this area. Horticultural products, animals and fresh water
fishery are also well undertaken. Besides, this area is also recognized with
plantation commodities such as rubber and tea which are very important to the
economy of this district. Other potential agricultural resource is forestry.
The potential coastal and marine resources are spread particularly in seven
sub-district areas that have direct borders with the Indian Ocean, i.e., ± 117 km long
from the sub-districts of Cisolok, Palabuhanratu, Ciemas, Ciracap, Surade,
Cibitung and Tegalbuleud. The potential products of the areas are fishery, marine
biota, seaweeds, mangrove, turtles, mineral and mining materials, as well as
tourism. Beside for beach tourism, so far the coastal area of this district has been
utilized for fisherman ports.
District of Sukabumi has big market opportunity that has not been optimally
utilized. This becomes the challenge for the local government to make strong
efforts in increasing the prosperity of its society. The potential of the natural
resources needs wise, sustainable and environmentally friendly utilization. From
the regional aspect, it needs the improvement in regional accessibility. From the
human resources aspect, adequate improvement in quality is needed. Therefore,
optimization of the potential utilization is expected to be able to increase the
prosperity of the society characterized by its accessibility to services especially
health and education.
2.4. Closure
District of Sukabumi is the biggest district in the West Java Province.
Agricultural sector gives the biggest contribution to the economy of this district.
processing industry, which sector has several sub-sectors of food crops, plantation
estates, animals and their products, forestry and fishery. The policy conducted by
the local government in pushing the agriculture sector among others are
strengthening the farmer group institutional, dissemination of technology and
development of agribusiness in the villages or rural areas.
In order to push the economic development in this district, the agriculture
sector should smartly make priority in developing commodities that have prospect
and high economic value. One of the important commodities that could be
developed further in this district is rice. Based on the potential agricultural
resources, i.e., good water availability and management as well as suitable climate,
make this district have the big opportunity to increase rice productivity with the
application of new technology or new method available. One of the promising
methods is the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) which is now being assessed
internationally since it promises higher productivity as much as twice the
conventional method in average. Furthermore, organic rice farming using SRI
method is mostly applied in West Java since it is assumed to be environmentally
III. INTRODUCTION OF ORGANIC RICE FARMING WITH SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) IN INDONESIA
3.1. Background
World population growth, expected to reach more than eight billion by 2006,
will cause problems in food as well as water supplies. From earth’s yearly
precipitation of 110,000 km3, about 70,000 km3 (60 percent) returns to the atmosphere again through evapotranspiration process from forests and other
natural ecosystems, cropland and other land surfaces. This portion of water is
called “green water”. The remaining part of about 40,000 km3 (40 percent), which
is called “blue water”, becomes potential water resources for agriculture,
industries, domestic and other uses. About 6,780 km3 (54 percent) of the accessible blue water necessary for human life is utilized various purposes, and
about 70 percent of that is for irrigated farming (Horie 2002; Yajima 2002). The
rapid population growth and industrial development have caused water shortage
which is worsening from year to year. For example, 31 countries mainly in Asia
and Africa, are suffering an absolute lack of water. As a consequence this scarcity
of water has resulted in serious food shortage and other catastrophes especially in
the developing countries (Yajima 2002).
Rice has long been very important for dietary source of human life. This
commodity is vital to fulfilling human food needs, especially in Asia where the
population is very high and per capita available arable land very low (Fresco,
2003). Rice cultivation has been an integral part of the culture in large parts of
Asia for centuries. It is not only a staple food, but also a key ingredient of the
region’s culture. Growing paddy rice has been the central livelihood strategy and
is in the blood of most of Asian farmers (Rijsberman 2004). There are two major
challenges involving rice in Asia. The first is ensuring the ability of nations to
meet their national and household food security needs with a declining natural
resource base particularly regarding to water and land. The second is the
eradication of extreme poverty and hunger. This is because rice is so central to the
lives of most Asians that any solution to global poverty and hunger must include
rice that is affordable to poor consumers (Cantrell 2004). Although the global rice
production has so far been able to meet population demands, a big question has
already arisen on its sustainability. Appropriate action has to be taken in the near
future in order to solve the problem (Nguyen & Ferrero 2006).
Water scarcity and increasing rice production are two major challenges in
the efforts of overcoming the food shortage especially in Asia regions in the near
future. According to Barker et al. (2004), irrigation consumes approximately 80 percent of developed water resources in the developing countries. Paddy fields
account for approximately 50 percent of the irrigated area in Asia. It is assumed
that a great deal of water could be saved in traditional paddy rice production. The
major challenge for paddy rice farmers to increase their productivity is how to
grow more rice with less water. Some scientists of Consultative group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) are currently engaged in a
long-term assessment of the potential to achieve this. This group has also recognized
the high priority of growing more food, including paddy rice, with less water.
Growing more rice with much less water is necessary and possible (Rijsberman,
2004). In line with these efforts, the General Assembly of the United Nation
declared 2004 as the International Year of Rice with the slogan “Rice is Life”,
which is an extraordinary focus for a single crop to acquire such international
recognition. This dedication to a single crop is unprecedented. It acknowledges
the significance of rice as the staple food and a healthy source of grain for the
majority of the developing world, and links its production and ecosystem
management to broader issues of global food security, poverty alleviation,
environmental conservation and the protection of biodiversity (Fresco 2003; Sato
2005).
A good opportunity to produce more rice with less water was opened when
a new method of rice cultivation was introduced in the 1980s by the use of
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) developed originally in Madagascar. It is
claimed that “SRI is a methodology that can contribute to food security by
increasing rice yields to about twice the present world average, virtually without
the need of improved seeds or chemical inputs” as presented by Norman Uphoff,
