Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 ,3 [1997] 9 4 –1 0 1 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]
Financial decision making: teacher involvement and
the need for trust
Geoffrey Newcombe
Busine ss Manage r, Kambala Girls’ Sc ho o l, Ro se Bay, Australia
John M cCormick
Le c ture r, Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n Studie s, Unive rsity o f Ne w So uth Wale s, Sydne y, Australia
Fenton Sharpe
Pro fe sso r o f Educ atio nal Administratio n, Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n Studie s, Unive rsity o f Ne w So uth Wale s, Sydne y, Australia
Suggests that a desire on the part of teachers to be more involved in the corporate affairs of the school may stem from a lack of trust in the decision makers and the decision-making processes. To assist those involved in the management of schools, presents a theoretical frame-work for research and a fi nancial decision-making model, based on the estab-lishment of a management philosophy built on trust. Demonstrates how this model helps to differentiate man-agement and classroom or technical decisional issues. Identifi es the roles and responsibilities of those involved in the processes. Outlines procedures for effective fi nancial decision making at the school site.
Introduction
T h e ed u ca t ion sy st em s of m a n y cou n t r ies a r e exp er ien cin g a p er iod of r a d ica l r efor m . Gov -er n m en t s a r e a t t em p t in g t o im p r ove in st r u c-t ion a l q u a lic-t y a n d lea r n in g ou c-t com es c-t h r ou gh t h e im p lem en t a t ion of s ch ool-b a s ed m a n a ge-m en t (Wh it e, 1989). A d oge-m in a n t t h ege-m e of t h is r efor m m ovem en t h a s b een t h e d evelop m en t of colle gia l a n d p a r t icip a t ive d ecision -m a k in g p r oced u r es a t t h e s ch ool level (Weis s et a l., 1992).
T h e focu s on t ea ch er in volvem en t in d eci-s ion m a k in g ieci-s n ot w it h ou t h ieci-st or ica l p r ece-d en t (Rice a n ece-d Sch n eiece-d er, 1992). E ece-d u ca t ion a l r esea r ch er s h ave lon g s t u d ied t h e effect s of p a r t icip a t ive d ecision m a k in g (Con w ay, 1984; Rice a n d Sch n eid er, 1992). In 1972 Alu t t o a n d Bela sco n ot ed t h a t m u ch of t h e r es ea r ch h a d b een b a s ed on t h e im p licit a ss u m p t ion t h a t t ea ch er s h ave a d esir e t o in cr ea se t h eir a b s olu t e in volvem en t in a ll for m s of d ecis ion m a k in g a n d t h a t t h er e is a d ir ect r ela t ion sh ip b et w een in cr ea sed t ea ch er p a r t icip a t ion a n d im p r oved ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es. Su ch a r ela -t ion s h ip r em a in s u n con fi r m ed (Im b er a n d Du k e, 1984; Tay lor a n d Lev in e, 1991).
A m a jor com p on en t of s ch oolb a s ed m a n -a gem en t r efor m h -a s b een t h e d ele g-a t ion of fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t t o t h e sch ool sit e. T h e ext en t of d ele ga t ion in m a n y cou n t r ies s u g-gest s t h a t ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies b elieve t h a t it w ill lea d t o im p r oved sch ool effect iven es s (Kn igh t , 1993). T h e r a t ion a le for r efor m a p p ea r s t o b e t h a t fi n a n cia l d ecis ion m a k in g n ea r t h e p oin t of d eliver y of s er v ice w ill closely r efl ect t h e n eed s a n d p r ior it ies of t h e s t u d en t s a n d t h e sch ool com m u n it y. Dele ga -t ion of fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en -t -t o -t h e sch ool level h a s a n u m b er of cr it ica l im p lica t ion s for p r in cip a ls a n d t ea ch er s if t h is b elief is t o b e op er a t ion a lized . Ca r efu l s t r a t e gic m a n a ge-m en t is r eq u ir ed for p r ogr a ge-m ge-m es, r es p on s ive t o s ch ool n eed s, t o b e id en t ifi ed , p r ior it ized , im p lem en t ed , eva lu a t ed a n d r ev iew ed . T r a d it ion a l bu d geit in g p r oced u r es sh ou ld b e su p p or t ed by a com p on en t of p r ogr a m m e bu d get -in g t o en s u r e t h a t r esou r ce exp en d it u r e is closely r ela t ed t o ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es (J on es, 1989). P r ogr a m m e bu d get in g n ot on ly
cost s t h e r esou r ces t o b e p r ov id ed bu t id en t i-fi es t h e sch ool’s p olicies u n d er w h ich t h e p a r t icu la r ser v ices or p r ogr a m m es a r e ju st i-fi ed .
Devolu t ion of fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t t o t h e sch ool sit e r ecogn izes t h e im p or t a n ce of p a r -t icip a -t ive d ecision m a k in g in ed u ca -t ion a l or ga n iza t ion s (Du ign a n , 1990). T h e level of p a r t icip a t ion in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g n eed s t o b e ext en d ed t o t h e cla ssr oom t ea ch er ; ot h er w ise sch ool sit e fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t cou ld b e ju st a n ot h er for m of cen -t r a lized con -t r ol, w i-t h -t h e p r in cip a l a -t -t h e “cen t r e”. H ow ever, in a n a t t em p t t o est a blish a h igh level of t ea ch er in volvem en t in d eci-sion m a k in g a n d t o p r om ot e a n im a ge of self-m a n a geself-m en t , soself-m e sch ools h ave est a blish ed a d m in ist r a t ive st r u ct u r es t h a t , in effect , d ist r a ct t ea ch er s fr om t h eir p r im a r y in st r u c-t ion a l r ole (Rob er c-t son , 1993). Som e c-t ea ch er s a r e r eq u ir ed t o a t t en d m a n y m eet in gs su ch a s bu d get com m it t ees, fi n a n cia l p la n n in g gr ou p s a n d st a ff d evelop m en t com m it t ees. T h ey a r e en cou r a ged t o b e in volved in a p let h or a of fi n a n cia l issu es r a n gin g fr om in com e gen er a t ion t o m a r k et in g a n d lon g-t er m fi n a n cia l p la n n in g. Desp ig-t e g-t h is w id e r a n ge of a p p a r en t p a r t icip a t ion , in m a n y ca ses t ea ch er s fi n d t h a t , w h ile t h ese com m it -t ees cr ea -t e a n illu s ion of in volvem en -t , -t h ey ca n a ct u a lly im p ed e a n y r ea l t ea ch er in fl u -en ce (Im b er a n d Du k e, 1984). Wh ile som e t ea ch er s a gr ee t h a t , in som e ca ses, t h e p ot en -t ia l b en efi -t s of p a r -t icip a -t ion m ay ou -t w eigh t h e cost s of t h eir in volvem en t , t h ey (t h e t ea ch er s) feel t h a t t h er e is lit t le p os sib ilit y of t h ese p ot en t ia l b en efi t s b ein g a ct u a lly a ch ieved , u n less t h eir level of p a r t icip a t ion is m a t ch ed w it h a sim ila r level of in fl u en ce over t h e fi n a l d ecis ion ou t com es (Du k e et a l., 1980).
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
a b ilit ies, a n d t h e k n ow led ge a n d s k ills of ot h er s, in t h is a r ea . T h e m a n a gem en t of m on ey a n d t h e p ow er a n d con t r ol a s s ocia t ed w it h it m ay cr ea t e a n en v ir on m en t in w h ich t h e d e gr ee of com p et en ce, in t e gr it y, fa ir n ess a n d op en n es s of p eop le a n d p r ocess a r e in ev it a bly s cr u t in ized .
It is t h e exp er ien ce of t h e fi r s t a u t h or in p r es en t in g t h e Ma s t er ’s cou r s e, “F in a n cia l is su es in ed u ca t ion ”, a t t h e Un iver s it y of N ew Sou t h Wa les t h a t t ea ch er s oft en h ave a n in h er en t d is lik e of fi n a n cia l m a t t er s. T h is d is lik e m ay s t em fr om a la ck of s k ills in t h e a r ea , fr om a s u s p icion t h a t t ea ch er em p ow er -m en t in fi n a n cia l d ecision -m a k in g is -m er ely a eu p h em ism for bu d get a r y cu t b a ck s, fr om a con v ict ion t h a t su ch bu s in ess m a t t er s in t r u d e in t o t ea ch er s’ p r ofes sion a l t im e, or fr om a n exp ect a t ion t h a t t ea ch er s w ill n ever b e t old t h e “fu ll st or y ” con cer n in g t h e sch ool’s fi n a n cia l s it u a t ion , a m on g ot h er p os s ib ilit ies.
In cir cu m st a n ces w h er e p a r t icip a t ive d eci-sion m a k in g is b a sed on fu ll d is clos u r e of in for m a t ion , a n a b sen ce of p er ceived b ia s in t h e d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocess a n d effect ive im p lem en t a t ion of t h e d ecision s r es u lt in g fr om t h e colla b or a t ive p r ocess, r es ea r ch h a s sh ow n t h a t in cr ea sed t r u s t in t h e sch ool’s a d m in is t r a t ion oft en r es u lt s (Con ley et a l., 1988). How ever, in ca s es w h er e m is r e p r es en -t a -t ion of in for m a -t ion is u s ed -t o m a n ip u la -t e d ecis ion s (Ra s m u s sen a n d Rot h st ein , 1990) or t h er e is a n u n d er ly in g a u t h or it a r ia n
a p p r oa ch by p r in cip a ls d es p it e a p olicy w h ich p r ofes s es d em ocr a t ic in volvem en t of t ea ch er s (Br ow n , 1990; Kir by, 1992), r es en t m en t , a n ger a n d a t ot a l la ck of con fi d en ce in t h e a d m in is -t r a -t ion of-t en d evelop (Du k e e-t a l., 1980).
An y m is r e p r es en t a t ion , cir cu m ven t ion or fa ilu r e t o d isclos e fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion p la ces t ea ch er s in t h e fr u s t r a t in g p osit ion of b ein g in volved in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r oces s bu t w it h v ir t u a lly n o r ea l in fl u en ce over d ecis ion ou t com es.
Som e s t u d ies (Du k e, 1978; Lor t ie, 1975) su g-gest ed t h a t t ea ch er s h ave lit t le d es ir e t o b e in volved in d ecis ion m a k in g u n less it r ela t es t o cla s s r oom p r a ct ice. In fa ct , Rob er t s on fou n d t h a t t ea ch er s in volved in t h e m a n a ger -ia l a n d cor p or a t e life of t h e s ch ool r e p or t ed a n u n d er m in in g of t h eir com m it m en t t o t h e cla s sr oom . Op p or t u n it ies for cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t w er e sa id t o b e r ed u ced , lit t le t im e w a s ava ila ble t o con fer w it h collea gu es, les s on p r e p a r a t ion w a s a ffect ed a n d in volve-m en t w it h s t u d en t s ou t sid e t h e cla s s r oovolve-m w a s lim it ed . Tea ch er s fou n d t h a t t h er e w a s “lit t le t im e for p er s on a l a n d p r ofes sion a l r efl ect ion for d evelop in g a s en se of p ed a gogic p u r p os e” (Rob er t s on , 1993). Des p it e t h es e d is in cen t ives t o t ea ch er p a r t icip a t ion in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g, in a sch ool
en v ir on m en t w h er e t h er e is a p er ceived la ck of op en n ess r e ga r d in g fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion a n d a b elief t h a t t h er e m ay b e in efficien t m a n a gem en t of fu n d s a n d p er ceived b ia s in t h e a lloca t ion of r esou r ces, it is lik ely t h a t t ea ch er s w ill seek som e level of in volvem en t in a n a t t em p t t o s ecu r e efficien cy a n d eq u it y in r es ou r ce a lloca t ion .
Theory as a basis for best practice
Alt h ou gh t h er e h a s b een con sid er a ble r esea r ch in t o p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g in gen er a l, lit t le h a s b een d on e s p ecifi -ca lly in t h e a r ea of t ea ch er p a r t icip a t ion in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g. Res ea r ch er s a p p ea r t o h ave com b in ed fi n a n cia l is su es w it h ot h er d ecision iss u es. At t h e sa m e t im e, ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t or s seem r elu ct a n t t o a ck n ow led ge t h e n eed for a t h eor et ica l a p p r oa ch t o t h e p r ocess of d ecision m a k in g, feelin g t h a t su ch a n a p p r oa ch wou ld b e t oo fa r r em oved fr om t h e r ea lit ies of ever yd ay p r a ct ice (Bu s h , 1989). Bu sh r e p or t s t h a t m a n y p r a ct it ion er s p r efer t o fa ce t h e ch a llen ges of d evolved fi n a n cia l r esp on sib ilit y by a p p ly in g a “t r ia l a n d er r or ” a p p r oa ch r a t h er t h a n by wor k in g w it h in a n es t a blish ed set of t h eor et i-ca l gu id elin es. T h is a p p r oa ch is, of cou r se, a for m of t h eor izin g b a sed on “u n s p ok en a ssu m p t ion s a n d u n r ecogn ized lim it a t ion s” (H u gh es, 1986) a n d t en d s t o p r od u ce a ver y n a r r ow ou t look on or ga n iza t ion a l
p r oced u r es. A cen t r a l p u r p os e of t h is p a p er is t o p r op ose a t h eor et ica l fr a m ewor k for r esea r ch in t h e a r ea of t ea ch er in volvem en t in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g.
In con st r u ct in g t h e fr a m ewor k , t h is p a p er is gu id ed by t h e t h eor y d evelop ed t h r ou gh t h e lit er a t u r e on p a r t icip a t ive d ecision m a k in g a n d or ga n iza t ion a l ou t com es. A d et a iled a n a ly sis of t h is lit er a t u r e w ill a ls o id en t ify sp ecia l sit u a t ion a l fa ct or s t h a t a p p ea r t o a ffect t ea ch er s ’ a t t it u d es t ow a r d s p a r t icip a -t ion in fi n a n cia l d ecision -m a k in g p r ocesses.
Relevant research
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
d efi n ed by r eleva n ce a n d exp er t is e” (H oy a n d Ta r t er, 1993, p. 5). H oy a n d Ta r t er (1993) p r o-p osed t h a t if t ea ch er s h ave a o-p er son a l s t a k e in t h e iss u e, a n d t h e k n ow led ge t o con t r ibu t e, t h en t h ey s h ou ld b e in volved in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess. T h e ext en t of t h eir in volve-m en t wou ld b e d et er volve-m in ed by t h e p r in cip a l’s p er ce p t ion of t h eir com m it m en t t o t h e or ga n iza t ion a l goa ls of t h e sch ool.
T h e H oy a n d Ta r t er m od el a ss u m es t h a t p r in cip a ls d et er m in e t h e zon e of a cce p t a n ce for t h eir t ea ch er s (Rice a n d Sch n eid er, 1992). H ow ever, a d m in is t r a t or s ’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir ow n zon e of in fl u en ce a r e gen er a lly gr ea t er t h a n t h e t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h eir zon e of a cce p t a n ce (Clea r a n d Sea ger, 1971). A t ea ch er ’s zon e of a cce p t a n ce is n ot ext er n a lly d et er m in ed . It is a n a m a lga m of p er son a lit y, exp er ien ces, r ole exp ect a t ion s a n d va r iou s s it u a t ion a l va r ia bles s u ch a s a n in d iv id u a l’s p er ce p t ion of t h e s ch ool en v ir on m en t a n d t h e s ch ool’s a d m in ist r a t or s.
Tea ch er s h ave b een fou n d t o r a t e “t im e” a s t h e m a in d et er r en t t o in volvem en t in d ecis ion m a k in g (Du k e et a l., 1980). T h er efor e, t h e H oy a n d Ta r t er m od el fa ils t o con s id er sit u a t ion s w h er e s om e t ea ch er s, even t h ou gh exp er t is e a n d r eleva n ce exis t , p r efer t o ext en d t h eir zon e of a cce p t a n ce a n d a llow cer t a in d eci-s ion eci-s t o b e m a d e by ot h er eci-s. Su ch eci-s it u a t ion eci-s cou ld r efl ect a t ea ch er ’s a b solu t e p r efer en ce for t h e cla s sr oom or cou ld r efl ect t h e in fl u -en ce of s it u a t ion a l fa ct or s su ch a s d ecision con t en t , op en n es s of com m u n ica t ion a n d t r u s t in t h e a d m in is t r a t ion . In s u ch cir cu m -s t a n ce-s “in d iv id u a l-s m ay feel le-s -s -s t r on gly a b ou t t h e n eed t o p a r t icip a t e in t h e d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocess ” (Con ley et a l., 1988).
T h e con ce p t of d ecis ion con t en t is im p or -t a n -t for a m or e com p le-t e u n d er s-t a n d in g of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g a n d t h e a s s ocia t ion b et w een t h e in d iv id u a l a n d t h e p a r t icu la r d ecision iss u e w a s in ves t iga t ed (M oh r m a n et a l., 1978) u s in g P a r s on ’s (1960) fu n ct ion a l a n a ly sis t o id en t ify t wo d ecis ion a l d om a in s (t ech n ica l a n d m a n a ger ia l). T h e t ech n ica l d om a in en com p a s s es is s u es d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o t h e p er for m a n ce of t h e op er a t ion a l fu n ct ion s of t h e or ga n iza t ion ; on e of t h e m a in p u r p oses of t h e m a n a ger ia l d om a in is t o p r ov id e t h e r es ou r ces r eq u ir ed t o s u p p or t t h e t ech n ica l fu n ct ion . In t h e s t u dy by Moh r m a n et a l. (1978) 12 d ecision a l a r ea s (Alu t t o a n d Bela sco, 1972) w er e u s ed a n d t h ese, a s exp ect ed , fa ct or ed in t o t wo d ecis ion d om a in s. T h e fi n a n cia l is su e “p la n n in g s ch ool bu d get s ” w a s fou n d t o fi t in t h e m a n -a ger i-a l d om -a in .
Us in g t h is m u lt i-d om a in a p p r oa ch , M oh r m a n et a l. (1978) fou n d t h a t t ea ch er s r e p or t ed a h igh er level of a ct u a l a n d d esir ed in volvem en t in t h e t ech n ica l d om a in t h a n in t h e m a n a ger ia l d om a in . How ever, in a p p a r en t
con t r a d ict ion , t h eir level of d es ir ed in volve-m en t in volve-m a n a ger ia l d ecision volve-m a k in g w a s fou n d t o b e h igh er t h a n t h eir level of a ct u a l in volvem en t . In a t t em p t in g t o exp la in t h is a p p a r en t p a r a d ox, t h e r esea r ch er s p r op osed t h a t t ea ch er s w er e m or e con cer n ed w it h t h e level of co-or d in a t ion b et w een t h e m a n a ger ia l a n d t ech n ica l d om a in s t h a n w it h t h eir d ir ect p a r t icip a t ion in m a n a ger ia l d ecis ion m a k in g. T h e d ifficu lt y in clea r ly s e p a r a t in g issu es in t o t h e t wo d om a in s w a s a lso seen a s a p ossi-ble exp la n a t ion for t h e a n om a ly (Con ley, 1991). Tea ch er s ’ d esir e t o in cr ea se t h eir p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g in t h e m a n a ger -ia l d om a in m ay r efl ect t h eir la ck of t r u st in t h e d ecision m a k er s a n d t h e d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocesses. T h eir in cr ea s ed d esir ed in volve-m en t volve-m ay b e seen a s a “bu ffer ” a ga in st a t t em p t s by m a n a gem en t t o r ed u ce a n y in fl u -en ce ga in ed by t ea ch er s in t h e in st r u ct ion a l a r ea . Tea ch er s m ay see t h eir in volvem en t in m a n a ger ia l d ecis ion m a k in g t o b e n ecessa r y t o s a fe gu a r d t h eir in fl u en ce over cla ssr oom p r a ct ice, r a t h er t h a n for a n y in t r in sica lly wor t h w h ile p u r p ose (Moh r m a n et a l., 1978; T h om p son , 1967). T h eir r ea ct ion s m ay a lso st em fr om a p er ce p t ion t h a t a d m in ist r a t or s fr eq u en t ly p er ceive p a r t icip a t ion a s som e-t h in g a le-t r u is e-t ica lly b ese-t ow ed on e-t ea ch er s (Con ley et a l., 1988), r a t h er t h a n a s a p r ofes-sion a l con t r ibu t ion by t ea ch er s. T h ese r esu lt s a r e gen er a lly con sist en t w it h ot h er fi n d in gs (Ba ch a r a ch et a l., 1990; Sch n eid er, 1984).
Befor e in fer en ces con cer n in g t ea ch er s’ d esir ed in volvem en t in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g a r e d r aw n fr om t h e wor k of
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
t h e s t u dy, 19 d ecision it em s w er e u s ed a n d w er e fou n d t o fa ct or in t o t h e fou r d ecis ion a l d om a in s of t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k . F in a n -cia l is s u es w er e a ga in clu st er ed u n d er t h e gen er a l h ea d in gs of fa cilit ies p la n n in g, bu d -get d evelop m en t a n d exp en d it u r e p r ior it ies a n d w er e fa ct or ed in t o t h e st r a t e
gic-or ga n iza t ion a l d om a in . F in d in gs s h ow ed t h a t d ecis ion a l d e p r iva t ion in t h e s t r a t e gic-or ga n iza t ion a l d om a in w a s n e ga t ively r ela t ed t o job s a t is fa ct ion a n d w a s m or e a p p a r en t in secon d a r y t h a n in p r im a r y s ch ools. T h is r esu lt w a s exp la in ed by t h e fa ct t h a t
secon d a r y t ea ch er s wor k in a m or e com p lex, d ecen t r a lized en v ir on m en t t h a n p r im a r y t ea ch er s a n d a r e m or e aw a r e of d e p r iva t ion in r esou r ce a lloca t ion a n d ot h er fi n a n cia l is su es, t h er eby d ecr ea sin g t h eir job sa t is fa c-t ion . Wh ile c-t h is r es ea r ch (Ba ch a r a ch ec-t a l., 1990) in volved m or e fi n a n cia l iss u es t h a n p r ev iou s s t u d ies, it d id n ot clea r ly id en t ify t h em a s p ot en t ia lly h av in g a d ir ect or in d i-r ect effect on in st i-r u ct ion a l a ct iv it ies.
Rice a n d Sch n eid er (1992) r e p lica t ed a st u dy ca r r ied ou t by T h ier b a ch in 1980 a n d r e p or t ed in Sch n eid er (1984). T h ey sou gh t t o d et er m in e w h et h er a d eca d e of r efor m in t h e a r ea of t ea ch er em p ow er m en t h a d sign ifi ca n t ly ch a n ged t ea ch er s’ levels of d ecision a l p a r t ici-p a t ion , s a t isfa ct ion w it h d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocess es a n d in t er es t a n d exp er t is e in d ecision a l is s u es. T h e st u dy s p ecifi ca lly con s id -er ed w h et h -er t ea ch -er s’ in t -er es t s in t ech n ica l a n d m a n a ger ia l iss u es h a d ch a n ged over t im e. F a ct or a n a ly sis w a s a p p lied t o 20 d eci-sion a l is s u es, d iv id in g t h em in t o t wo d om a in s, in st r u ct ion / t ech n ica l a n d s ch ool-w id e/ m a n a ger ia l. T h is st u dy clea r ly id en t i-fi ed t wo i-fi n a n cia l iss u es con t a in ed in t h e lis t in g of d ecision is s u es. “P r e p a r in g su b ject d e p a r t m en t or in st r u ct ion a l t ea m bu d get s ” w a s fou n d in t h e in st r u ct ion a l/ t ech n ica l d om a in , w h ile “a lloca t in g m a t er ia ls a n d eq u ip m en t t o su b ject d e p a r t m en t s or t ea m s ” w a s loca t ed in t h e sch oolw id e/ m a n a ger ia l d om a in . A clea r d is t in ct ion w a s m a d e b et w een fi n a n cia l iss u es d ir ect ly a ss ocia t ed w it h in st r u ct ion a l a ct iv it ies a n d t h os e r ela t ed m or e t o s ch oolw id e p r oced u r es. Resu lt s fr om t h e st u dy in d ica t ed t h a t d esp it e t en yea r s of a t t en t ion t o t ea ch er em p ow er -m en t , t ea ch er s con t in u ed t o d es ir e -m or e p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g t h a n t h ey a r e cu r r en t ly a ffor d ed . T h e r e p lica t ed st u dy sh ow ed , a s d id t h e or igin a l s t u dy, t h a t t ea ch -er s r e p or t ed low levels of a ct u a l in volvem en t a n d h igh er levels of d esir ed in volvem en t in m a n a ger ia l/ sch oolw id e is su es. Wh ile t ea ch -er s con t in u ed t o r e p or t h igh -er levels of d eci-sion a l d e p r iva t ion in m a n a ger ia l iss u es t h a n in in s t r u ct ion a l is su es, a n ot icea ble t r en d h a d em er ged w it h fi n a n cia l d ecision a l is su es. Bu d get in g, d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o cla s s r oom
a ct iv it ies, r e p or t ed t h e secon d h igh est level of d e p r iva t ion in t h e t ech n ica l d om a in , w h ile s ch oolw id e r esou r ce a lloca t ion w a s on e of t h e low es t r e p or t ed levels of d e p r iva t ion in t h e m a n a ger ia l d om a in . It is im p or t a n t t o n ot e t h a t t h e in cr ea se in em p h a sis on fi n a n cia l issu es coin cid es w it h a glob a l t r en d t o d ecen -t r a lize fi n a n cia l d ecision s -t o -t h e p oin -t of d eliver y of t h e ed u ca t ion a l ser v ice. T h e m a in d eliver y p oin t for t h es e s er v ices is t h e cla ss-r oom ; h en ce it is v it a l t h a t ss-r eleva n t t ech n ica l d ecision s a r e t r u ly d evolved t o t h is level a n d n ot m er ely r e-cen t r a lized in t h e p r in cip a l a n d a sm a ll n u m b er of execu t ive st a ff.
Alt h ou gh a n a n a ly s is of t h e r es ea r ch lit er a t u r e on t ea ch er in volvem en t in d ecision m a k in g h a s u n cover ed n o d et a iled em p ir ica l st u d -ies in t o t ea ch er s’ p a r t icip a t ion in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g, it h a s r a ised a n u m b er of s ign ifi ca n t q u est ion s. Ca n fi n a n cia l issu es b e ca t e gor ized in t o t ech n ica l a n d m a n a ger ia l d om a in s? Do t ea ch er s w a n t t o b e in volved in fi n a n cia l d ecis ion m a k in g in t h e t ech n ica l d om a in ? Wh a t fa ct or s a ffect t ea ch er s’ a t t i-t u d es i-t ow a r d s p a r i-t icip a i-t ion in gen er a l d eci-s ion m a k in g in t h e m a n a ger ia l d om a in ? Do t ea ch er s feel t h eir level of in fl u en ce in d et er -m in in g d ecision ou t co-m es is co-m -m en su r a t e w it h t h eir level of in volvem en t in t h e d eci-s ion -m a k in g p r oceeci-seci-s?
In con sid er in g t h ese q u es t ion s a n u m b er of p oin t s em er ge. Tea ch er s m ay h ave a p r efer -en ce for in volvem -en t in d ecision m a k in g t h a t d ir ect ly a ffect s t h eir cla ssr oom p r a ct ice (Ba ch u s, 1992; Br id ges, 1967; Du k e, 1978; Lor t ie, 1975); fu ll d isclosu r e of a ll fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion is r e ga r d ed by t ea ch er s a s essen -t ia l for effec-t ive fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g (H a r t m a n , 1985); a n d effect ive d ecision m a k -in g -in fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t r elies on a cli-m a t e of t r u st , op en n ess a n d cli-m u t u a l b en efi t (Ca ldw ell a n d Misk o, 1984).
Ot h er st u d ies (Ba ch u s, 1992; M oh r m a n et a l., 1978; Rice a n d Sch n eid er, 1992) h ave r evea led t h a t t ea ch er s r e p or t ed h igh er levels of d e p r iva t ion r e ga r d in g m a n a ger ia l or sch oolw id e issu es. T h is a p p a r en t ly p a r a d oxi-ca l sit u a t ion , w h er e t ea ch er s h ave in d ioxi-ca t ed a d es ir e for gr ea t er p a r t icip a t ion in a n a r ea in w h ich t h ey d er ive lit t le s a t isfa ct ion , h a s b een a d d r ess ed by a n u m b er of r esea r ch er s (Con ley, 1989; Moh r m a n et a l., 1978;
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
m a n a gem en t issu es essen t ia l t o fu t u r e ca r eer op p or t u n it ies. T h er e is n o p a r a d ox for t h ese t ea ch er s. T h ey d es ir e t o b e in volved a n d w ill a ch ieve s a t isfa ct ion fr om t h eir in volvem en t . N ot a ll t ea ch er s d es ir e a dva n cem en t in t h e m a n a ger ia l sect or ; som e s ee even a low level of in volvem en t in fi n a n cia l d ecis ion m a k in g in n on -t ech n ica l or m a n a ger ia l iss u es a s d et r a ct in g fr om va lu a ble cla s s r oom t im e. T h ey v iew m a n a ger ia l fi n a n cia l d ecis ion m a k in g on ly in t er m s of a m ech a n is m for d eliver in g d ecision ou t com es s u p p or t ive of t h eir t ea ch in g a ct iv it ies. If t h e s it u a t ion a l con d it ion s n eces s a r y for t h is m ech a n is m t o wor k effect ively a r e p er ceived by t ea ch er s t o b e in p la ce, t h en t h eir d esir e t o b e in volved in t h e p r oces s is lik ely t o d ecr ea se. If t ea ch er s ju d ge t h e d ecision ou t com es t o b e
in eq u it a ble, ill-con ceived a n d n ot s u p p or t ive of t h eir t ea ch in g effor t s t h en t h ey w ill feel it n eces sa r y t o b e in volved . A m a jor s it u a t ion a l va r ia ble a s s ocia t ed w it h t h es e con d it ion s is con ce p t u a lized a s “or ga n iza t ion a l t r u s t ” (Ga m son , 1968).
The concept of trust and financial
decision making
In a s t u dy by Alu t t o a n d Bela sco (1972), t r u s t , con ceived a s t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h e fr ien d lin es s or ot h er w is e of t h eir s ocia l en v i-r on m en t , w a s n ot fou n d t o b e s ign ifi ca n t ly a s s ocia t ed w it h va r y in g levels of sa t is fa ct ion . T h is r es u lt w a s con t r a r y t o t h e ea r lier wor k of Ben n is (1967) w h o fou n d t h a t h igh er levels of job s a t is fa ct ion w er e a s socia t ed w it h in cr ea s ed t r u s t . Bot h s t u d ies w er e lim it ed by s m a ll s a m p les a n d b ot h d efi n ed t r u s t fr om a p er s on a l r a t h er t h a n or ga n iza t ion a l p er sp ec-t ive.
Som e r es ea r ch er s p er ceived t r u s t a s a glob a l p er s on a lit y t r a it (Ros en b er g, 1956; Rot t er, 1971) w h ile ot h er s (Ga m s on , 1968) con sid er ed it fr om a n or ga n iza t ion a l or ien t a -t ion . Or ga n iza -t ion a l -t r u s -t is d efi n ed a s -t h e p r ob a b ilit y t h a t cer t a in d ecis ion ou t com es, p r efer r ed by a n in d iv id u a l or gr ou p, w ill r es u lt w it h ou t t h e in volvem en t of t h a t in d i-v id u a l or gr ou p in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r oces s. It is a r gu ed t h a t or ga n iza t ion a l t r u s t is t h e m a jor d et er m in a n t of a n in d iv id u a l’s or ien t a t ion t ow a r d s t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r oces s es of t h e or ga n iza t ion . In Ga m s on ’s (1968) s t u dy, or ga n iza t ion a l t r u s t w a s st r on gly r ela t ed b ot h t o over a ll sa t is fa ct ion a n d t o s a t is fa ct ion w it h in volvem en t in d ecis ion m a k in g, w h ile p er son a l t r u s t fa iled t o p r ed ict s u ch a s s ocia t ion s.
Ga m son ’s con cept of tr u st w a s descr ibed by Dr iscoll (1978) a s a politica l a ssessm en t of a n or ga n iza tion ’s decision m a k er s. He fou n d th a t, r e ga r dless of th e r ela tion sh ip between a ctu a l
a n d desir ed pa r ticipa tion , tea ch er s w ith a gr ea ter de gr ee of tr u st in h ier a r ch ica l deci-sion m a k er s wer e m or e sa tisfi ed w ith th eir level of pa r ticipa tion in decision m a k in g.
T r u s t , id en t ifi ed a s in t er p er son a l or dya d ic t r u s t , m ay a lso b e con ceived a s a glob a l m ea -su r e of t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h e d ecision m a k er s or t h e d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocesses (Scot t , 1980). Resea r ch er s (Bu t ler a n d Ca n t r ell, 1984; Rob er t s a n d O’Reilly, 1974; Tya gi, 1985) h ave u sed t h e m u lt i-d im en sion a l n a t u r e of t r u st , a s exp lor ed by J en n in gs (1971) a n d Ga b a r r o (1978), t o d et er m in e a m ea su r e of dya d ic t r u st . T h e d im en sion s u sed in clu d ed in t e gr it y, com p et en ce, con sist en cy, loya lt y, fa ir n ess a n d op en n ess.
T r u s t , in a fi n a n cia l con t ext , m ay b e con -ce p t u a lized in t er m s of b ot h or ga n iza t ion a l a n d dya d ic t r u st . T h is t r u st ca n b e con ceived a s t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s of: t h e in t e gr it y of t h e d ecision m a k er s a n d t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocesses; t h e exp er t ise of t h e d ecision m a k er s a n d t h e effect iven ess of t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r oces ses; t h e con sis t en cy of t h e d ecision ou t com es, t h e d e gr ee of fa ir n ess of t h e d ecision ou t com es; a n d t h e d e gr ee of d isclos u r e of fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion .
If t ea ch er s a r e wor k in g in a n en v ir on m en t w h er e t h er e is fu ll d isclosu r e of fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion , a n d w h er e t h ey p er ceive t h a t u n b ia sed d ecision s a r e m a d e by d ecision m a k er s sk illed in t h e p a r t icu la r fi n a n cia l d ecision a r ea , t h en t h eir level of t r u st w ill b e h igh . St u d ies (Du k e et a l., 1980) h ave sh ow n t h a t t ea ch er s a r e w ell aw a r e of t h e cost s a s w ell a s t h e b en efi t s a s socia t ed w it h p a r t icip a -t ion in a n y for m of d ecision m a k in g. T h u s, if t r u st in t h e sch ool’s fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k er s a n d d ecision -m a k in g p r oces ses is h igh , t ea ch er s m ay, t h r ou gh a sim p le cost b en efi t a n a ly sis, b e ver y select ive w h en d et er -m in in g t h e n a t u r e of t h e fi n a n cia l d ecision issu es w it h w h ich t h ey w ill b ecom e in volved . T h eir focu s w ill a lm ost cer t a in ly t h en b e on t h ose d ecision s m or e d ir ect ly a ffect in g t h eir wor k a s t ea ch er s.
A conceptual framework
An a n a ly sis of r eleva n t r esea r ch lit er a t u r e in t h e a r ea of t ea ch er p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g a n d t h e con cep t s of or ga n iza t ion a l a n d dya d ic t r u st m ay b e u sed t o d evelop a t h eor et ica l fr a m ewor k for t ea ch er p a r t icip a -t ion in d ecision m a k in g in a fin a n cia l con -t ex-t .
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
d ecis ion s p er t a in in g d ir ect ly t o in st r u ct ion a l m a t t er s t h a n t o in fl u en ce d ecision s r ela t in g t o m a n a ger ia l iss u es (Du k e, 1978; Lor t ie, 1975). T h eir d esir ed p a r t icip a t ion in t h e m a n -a ger i-a l d om -a in d e p en d s on t h eir p er ce p t ion s of t h e fi n a n cia l d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess es a n d of fi n a n cia l d ecis ion m a k er s. An im p or t a n t s it u a t ion a l va r ia ble a ffect in g t h ese p er -ce p t ion s h a s b een id en t ifi ed a s or ga n iza t ion a l a n d dya d ic t r u s t (t r u s t ). T r u s t h a s b een con ce p t u a lized in t er m s of t h e in t e gr it y, con sis -t en cy a n d fa ir n ess of -t h e d ecis ion m a k er s a n d t h e d ecis ion -m a k in g p r ocess es ; t h e exp er t is e of t h e d ecis ion m a k er s, t h e effect iven es s of t h e p r oces s es a n d t h e d e gr ee of d isclos u r e of fi n a n cia l in for m a t ion .
Practical implications for schools
T h is p a p er h a s con s id er ed p a r t icip a t ive d eci-sion m a k in g fr om a t h eor et ica l p er sp ect ive. In or d er t o d r aw som e p r a ct ica l s t r a t e gies fr om t h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k p r es en t ed , it is n eces s a r y fi r st t o v iew p a r t icip a t ive fi n a n -cia l d ecis ion m a k in g in t h e over a ll con t ext of t h e fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t of sch ools.
If s ch ools a r e t o cr ea t e wor k in g en v ir on -m en t s for t ea ch er s b a sed on t r u s t , t h en a n u m b er of is su es, b ot h in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l t o sch ools, m u st fi r st b e a d d r es s ed . Som e of t h es e is s u es a r e b eyon d t h e scop e of t h is p a p er. T h ey in clu d e a r ev iew of t h e w ay sch ools a r e fu n d ed , b a s ed on eq u it y con s id er -a t ion s ; cl-a r ifi c-a t ion of t h e r ole of t h e sch ool cou n cil in t h e fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t of t h e sch ool; d et er m in a t ion of t h e r ole of t h e p r in -cip a l, b e it fi n a n cia l m a n a ger, ed u ca t ion a l lea d er or a com b in a t ion of b ot h ; t r a in in g of k ey p er s on n el (on e or t wo) in fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t of sch ools ; a n d a b a sic level of t r a in -in g for cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s (s u b ject co-or d in a t co-or s a n d t h e lik e) in t h e a r ea s of st r a t e-gic m a n a gem en t p r ocess es, bu d get in g, n e go-t ia go-t ion a n d go-t ea m wor k .
On ce t h es e issu es a r e r es olved , it is p os sible t o est a blis h a n en v ir on m en t of t r u s t t h r ou gh t h e im p lem en t a t ion of s t r u ct u r es a n d p r oces s es b a s ed on in t e gr it y, op en n ess, con -sist en cy, fa ir n ess a n d a p r ofes sion a l a p p r oa ch t o fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g. T h ese p r ocess es m u s t clea r ly d ist in gu ish b et w een t h e fi n a n -cia l is s u es a ss o-cia t ed w it h t h e t ech n ica l a s p ect s a n d t h ose a ss ocia t ed w it h t h e m a n -a ger i-a l -a s p ect s of s ch ools. T h is w ill give t ea ch er s a n op p or t u n it y t o m in im ize t h eir in volvem en t in fi n a n cia l is su es r ela t in g t o t h e m a n a ger ia l or cor p or a t e life of t h e s ch ool a n d t o con cen t r a t e t h eir effor t s on a com m it m en t t o cla s s r oom p r a ct ice a n d t o t h eir s t u d en t s.
A financial decision-making model
T h e follow in g m od el is s u gges t ed for a s ch ool w h er e t h e m a n a gem en t p h ilosop h y is b a sed on t h e con ce p t of t r u s t a s con ce p t u a lized in
t h is p a p er. T h e m od el a ssu m es t h a t t h e u lt i-m a t e r esp on sib ilit y for t h e fi n a n cia l i-m a n a ge-m en t of t h e sch ool r est s w it h t h e ch ief execu t ive officer (CE O) of t h e sch ool (t r a d i-t ion a lly i-t h e p r in cip a l, a li-t h ou gh i-t h is n eed n oi-t b e t h e ca se). T h e sch ool cou n cil is t h e m a in gover n in g b ody of t h e sch ool. T h e cou n cil is a ssist ed by t h e CE O a n d u s u a lly com p r ises r e p r esen t a t ives of t h e sch ool com m u n it y, in clu d in g t ea ch er s a n d in som e
cir cu m st a n ces sen ior st u d en t s. A st a ff fi n a n ce com m it t ee (SF C) p r e p a r es t h e bu d get wor k p a p er s a n d a dv ises t h e CE O on a ll fi n a n -cia l m a t t er s. T h is com m it t ee s h ou ld con sist of t wo or t h r ee m em b er s of t h e st a ff w h o h ave r eceived in t en sive t r a in in g in fi n a n cia l m a n -a gem en t of sch ools. In som e c-a ses t h e p r in cip a l m ay b e a m em b er of t h is com m it t ee. Mem -b er sh ip of t h e SF C sh ou ld -b e a ck n ow led ged by a p er iod a llow a n ce a n d / or by a m on et a r y a llow a n ce.
T h e m a in fu n ct ion s of t h e SF C a r e: t o est i-m a t e t h e sch ool’s a n n u a l r even u e; t o p r ov id e r eleva n t in for m a t ion t o a ll cos t cen t r e m a n -a ger s (m -a n -a ger i-a l -a n d t ech n ic-a l) in or d er t o a ssist t h em w it h t h eir bu d get su b m ission s; t o colla t e bu d get in for m a t ion fr om a ll cost cen -t r es; a n d -t o p r e p a r e wor k d ocu m en -t s for -t h e bu d get wor k gr ou p (BWG). T h ese d ocu m en t s d et a il a ll a n t icip a t ed r even u e a n d p r op osed bu d get s for a ll m a n a ger ia l a n d t ech n ica l cost cen t r es. T h e BWG u su a lly com p r ises t h e CE O (a ss u m ed t o b e t h e p r in cip a l), a r e p r esen t a t ive fr om t h e SF C a n d a ll cost cen t r e m a n a ger s, a n d m eet s t o d ecid e on r eq u ir ed exp en -d it u r e cu t s in ca ses wh er e t h e t ot a l of t h e exp en ses fr om a ll cost cen t r es exceed s t h e a n t icip a t ed r even u e of t h e sch ool. Th e SF C d oes n ot h ave a d ecision -m a k in g r ole; it a ct s a s a secr et a r ia t t o t h e BWG a n d sh ou ld b e seen a s a n u n b ia sed colla t or a n d d ist r ibu t or of in for m a t ion . Th e SF C p r e p a r es t h e fi n a l bu d get a n d for w a r d s it t o t h e CE O for p r esen t a -t ion -t o a n d r a -t ifi ca -t ion by -t h e sch ool cou n cil.
T h e fl ow ch a r t in F igu r e 1 illu st r a t es t h e d ecision -m a k in g seq u en ce w h ich occu r s in t h e a r ea of fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en t . It is im p or -t a n -t -t o n o-t e -t h a -t -t h e on ly in volvem en -t of cla ssr oom t ea ch er s in fi n a n cia l d ecision m a k in g is w h en t h ey m eet w it h t h eir cost cen t r e gr ou p s t o p r e p a r e a n d p r ior it ize t h eir r esou r ce r eq u ir em en t s for t h e com in g yea r.
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
m a d e ava ila ble t o a ll cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s a n d t h eir t ea m s.
P a r t icip a n t s in t h e p r ocess n eed t o b e a cu t ely aw a r e of t h eir r oles a n d r es p on s ib ili-t ies. T h e p r in cip a l’s m a in r ole is ili-t o en su r e t h a t d ecision s a r e a lw ay s m a d e w it h in t h e b r oa d fr a m ewor k of s ch ool n eed s (es t a blis h ed in t h e m is s ion st a t em en t ) a n d t h e p olicies of a n y ext er n a l a u t h or it y. T h e p r in cip a l s h ou ld t r y t o m in im ize a n y s elf-ser v in g b eh av iou r fr om cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s (Du ign a n , 1990), t o h igh ligh t a n y obv iou s im b a la n ces in t h e a lloca t ion of r es ou r ces a n d t o fa cilit a t e cor -d ia l r ela t ion s w it h in t h e gr ou p. Cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s h ave a cr it ica l r ole in t h e p r ocess. T h ey m u s t en t h u sia st ica lly p u r s u e t h e r es ou r ces r eq u ir ed t o im p lem en t t h eir t ea m ’s a ca d em ic goa ls, w h ile b ein g m in d fu l of t h e over a ll n eed s of t h e s ch ool. T h ey m u st u n d er -s t a n d t h e im p licit r u le-s of t h e p r oce-s-s a n d avoid a m b it r eq u est s a n d cla im s a b ou t t h e d ir e con s eq u en ces t h a t w ill r es u lt s h ou ld cla im a n t s b e d en ied a p a r t icu la r bu d get r eq u est . Cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s sh ou ld h ave a t h or ou gh u n d er s t a n d in g of t h e com p let e fi n a n cia l d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess a n d , t h r ou gh t h eir b eh av iou r a n d com m en t , h elp t o con vey t o a ll s t a ff t h e in t e gr it y a n d effec-t iven es s of effec-t h e p r ocess.
If t h e p r ocess is p er ceived by t ea ch er s t o b e effect ive, op en a n d fa ir, it w ill h elp t o a llay t h e s u sp icion s a n d u n cer t a in t ies com m on ly a ss o-cia t ed w it h fi n a n o-cia l d ecision m a k in g. P a r t ic-ip a t ion a t a ll levels in t h e p r ocess (fr om t ea m m em b er t o m a n a ger ) d evelop s a sen s e of com m it m en t , coh esion a n d con fi d en ce a m on g s t a ff. T h r ou gh t h e cos t cen t r e m a n a ger s, t ea ch er s w ill ob t a in a w h ole-sch ool v iew of t h e r es ou r ce n eed s a n d p r ior it ies. Cos t cen t r e
m a n a ger s w ill h ave a vest ed in t er est in r esou r ce a lloca t ion d ecision s b ein g a cce p t ed by t h eir t ea m (H a r t m a n , 1985).
T h e p r ocess w ill gr ea t ly r ed u ce t h e n eed for t h e m a jor it y of t ea ch er s t o b e in volved in m a n a ger ia l fi n a n cia l issu es a n d w ill m in i-m ize t ea ch er s ’ in volvei-m en t in fi n a n cia l issu es in t h e t ech n ica l d om a in . T h is, in t u r n , sh ou ld h ave a p os it ive im p a ct on cla ssr oom p r a ct ice.
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Figure 1
Ge o ffre y Ne wc o mbe , Jo hn Mc Co rmic k and Fe nto n Sharpe
Financ ial de c isio n making: te ac he r invo lve me nt and the ne e d fo r trust
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 3 [1 9 9 7 ] 9 4 –1 0 1
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