Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol09.Issue2.1998:

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Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt

Ge o matic s Inte rnatio nal Inc ., Burlingto n, ON, Canada

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plan-Daryl W. Co we ll

Ec o lo gic al landsc ape planning te c hnique s fo r bio dive rsity and sustainability

Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

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a s r es id en t ia l, in d u s t r ia l, a gr icu lt u r e a n d h a za r d la n d s.

T h e con ce p t of h a za r d la n d s a n d even en v ir on m en t a l p ir ot ect ion a ir ea s m u st b e d is t in gu is h ed fr om t h e la n d s ca p e p la n n in g p a r a -d igm . T h e la t t er is b a se-d on a n ecos y s t em p er s p ect ive (Wh a t is it m a d e of ? H ow d oes it wor k ?) w h er ea s t h e for m er a r e h u m a n va lu ed con ce p t s (w e ca n n ot bu ild in fl ood p la in s ; t h is a r ea con t a in s a r a r e p la n t ). T r a d it ion a l m et h -od s of p r ot ect in g n a t u r a l a r ea s a s r es er ves, n a t ion a l p a r k s, sen sit ive a r ea s, et c. s h ou ld n ot b e u n d er va lu ed , h ow ever, t h ese a r e 1970s con ce p t s w h ich a t t em p t ed t o en su r e t h a t w e wou ld n ot los e a ll n a t u r a l a r ea s w it h in a p la n n in g/ le ga l fr a m ewor k t h a t d em a n d ed h igh va lu e a s a b a sis for p r ot ect ion . In ot h er wor d s, t o b e p r ot ect ed fr om d evelop m en t a n a r ea h a d t o b e t h e b est , t h e on ly, p a r t icu la r ly ed u ca t ion a l, h igh ly a es t h et ic, et c. Alt h ou gh it wor k ed for t h e t im e, it s p en u lt im a t e fa ilu r e wou ld b e t h e est a blis h m en t of n on - fu n ct ion a l “is la n d s of gr een ” w it h in u r b a n / a gr icu lt u r a l d om in a t ed en v ir on m en t s. We w er e on ou r w ay t o s av in g t h e p a r t s bu t n e glect ed t o d et er -m in e w h et h er t h e p a r t s cou ld con t in u e t o fu n ct ion .

T h e a p p lica t ion of la n d s ca p e p la n n in g a s w e d efi n e it con s ist s of t h r ee k ey com p on en t s in clu d in g:

1 t h e p la n n in g fr a m ewor k ; 2 ecologica l a n a ly sis ; a n d 3 im p lem en t a t ion of t h e w h ole.

Planning component

Planning: To de ve lo p e c o lo gic al value s, go als, o bje c tive s and po lic ie s that dire c t the use o f land within the pre vailing planning frame wo rk

T h e p la n n in g com p on en t a llow s t h e in t e gr a -t ion of -t h e ecos y s -t em a p p r oa ch w i-t h in -t h e p r eva ilin g s ociet a l con t ext . Societ y is d efi n ed by t h e s p ecifi c con st it u en cy a n d a d m in ist r a -t ive b ou n d a r ies w h ich m ay b e a m u n icip a li-t y, sp ecia l p la n n in g r e gion , a p r ov in ce or s t a t e, or a n en t ir e n a t ion .

T h e p la n n in g goa ls a n d ob ject ives d et er m in e t h e s p ecifi c s cop e for la n d s ca p e p la n -n i-n g, bu t , m or e im p or t a -n t ly, w ill d efi -n e h ow t h e given con st it u en cy w ill u lt im a t ely im p le-m en t a n d gu id e t h e s y st ele-m . T h ese goa ls a n d ob ject ives a r e n ot st a t ic bu t , sh ou ld b e con s id -er ed a s a s -er ies of a p p r oxim a t ion s t h r ou gh t im e w h ich u lt im a t ely w ill r es u lt in a fu n c-t ion in g ecos y s c-t em a n d h ea lc-t h y s ociec-t y.

T h is la s t p oin t is ver y im p or t a n t . An eco-logica lly b a sed la n d s ca p e p la n is n ot d esign ed a n d im p lem en t ed w it h in a n exis t in g la n d u s e p la n n in g p r ocess w h ich gen er a lly op er a t es in fi ve t o t en yea r cycles. On ce in it ia t ed , t h e sy s t em m u st b e con sid er ed “liv in g” a n d it s fr a m ewor k m u s t b e su fficien t ly fl exible t o

a llow m od ifi ca t ion a s w e lea r n m or e a b ou t ecosy st em p r ocess a n d u n d er t a k e m ea su r es t o r es t or e ecosy st em s. H en ce, ou r t im e sca le m u st b e t h ou gh t of in t er m s of h u n d r ed s of yea r s n ot t en s of yea r s.

Ecological analysis component

Ec o lo gic al analysis: To pro vide the

te c hnic al unde rpinning to allo w e c o lo gic al planning to o c c ur

On ce goa ls a n d ob ject ives a r e d efi n ed , t h e n ext st e p is t o u n d er t a k e t h e a n a ly sis. T h e ecologica l a p p r oa ch t o p la n n in g m u s t in cor -p or a t e r ecogn it ion of ecosy s t em fu n ct ion a n d st r u ct u r e a s w e a r e b est a ble t o d et er m in e given t h e st a t e of k n ow led ge a t a n y p oin t in t h e p la n n in g cycle. E cos y st em s a r e com p lex a n d w e gen er a lly h ave m or e q u est ion s t h a n a n sw er s w h en t r y in g t o u n d er st a n d t h eir p r ocesses. How ever, w e ca n n ot w a it for a ll t h e a n sw er s a s t h e n eed t o u se la n d s for occu p a -t ion a n d r esou r ce h a r ves-t in g is im m ed ia -t e a n d exp a n d in g. T h e r ela t ively n ew scien ce of con ser va t ion b iology p r ov id es gu id a n ce in t h is r e ga r d a n d ca n b e a p p lied d ir ect ly t o la n d s ca p e p la n n in g.

T h e fi eld of con ser va t ion b iology h a s b een d es cr ib ed a s b ein g a r ecen t r esp on se t o t h e b iod iver sit y “cr isis” cr ea t ed by t h e p r esen t h u m a n gen er a t ion w h ich is sy s t em a t ica lly a n n ih ila t in g sp ecies d iver sit y on ea r t h (Meffe a n d Ca r r oll, 1994). It is d efi n ed a s:

…a n ew, sy n t h et ic fi eld t h a t a p p lies t h e p r in cip les of ecology, b iogeogr a p h y, p op u la -t ion gen e-t ics, econ om ics, s ociology, a n -t h r o-p ology, o-p h ilosoo-p h y, a n d ot h er t h eor et ica lly b a sed d iscip lin es t o t h e m a in t en a n ce of b iologica l d iver sit y t h r ou gh ou t t h e wor ld . (Meffe a n d Ca r r oll, 1994)

In u r b a n a n d a gr icu lt u r a l la n d sca p es, p r in ci-p les of con ser va t ion b iology ca n b e u t ilized t o id en t ify, r est or e a n d r econ n ect n a t u r a l la n d -sca p es in a m a n n er w h ich a ccou n t s for ecosy st em st r u ct u r e a n d fu n ct ion . In for est ed la n d s ca p es, t h e p r in cip les ca n b e u t ilized t o m a in t a in ecologica l st r u ct u r e a n d fu n ct ion t h r ou gh t h e u se of a s er ies of p r ot ect ed a r ea s w h ich a r e r e p r esen t a t ive of t h e or igin a l la n d -sca p e d iver sit y a n d w h ich m a xim ize ecologi-ca l in t e gr it y. In t h e la t t er ecologi-ca se, size, d iver sit y a n d ecologica lly b a sed m a n a gem en t p r escr ip -t ion s a r e r eq u ir ed .

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p r es er va t ion of ve get a t ive st r u ct u r e a n d m a in t en a n ce of b iot ic d iver s it y (N os s 1990, 1993). As t h ese m ea s u r es a r e m a xim ized , n a t u r a l a r ea s a r e b et t er s u it ed t o r ecover fr om n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n d ist u r b a n ces a n d , fu r t h er, t h e n eed for h u m a n in t er ven t ion t o m a n a ge t h e ecos y s t em is m in im ized .

In t er ven in g a r ea s ca n t h en b e in t en s ively m a n a ged a n d u t ilized for h u m a n n eed s on a su s t a in a ble b a s is. How ever, even in in t er ven -in g a r ea s, m ea s u r es ca n b e t a k en t o en h a n ce ve get a t ive st r u ct u r e a n d m in im ize

a lt er a t ion s t o t h e soil b a s e.

In t h e ca s e of t h e la n d s ca p e p la n n in g a p p lica t ion for t h e Oa k Rid ges Mor a in e in sou t h er n On t a r io, Ca n a d a (Geom a t ics In t er n a -t ion a l, 1993), for exa m p le, cr i-t er ia w er e s elect ed b a sed on for es t size, p r ot ect ion of w et la n d s, id en t ifi ca t ion of exist in g a n d p ot en -t ia l in -t er con n ec-t ion s, occu r r en ces of h igh q u a lit y w ild life a n d fi s h er ies h a b it a t , a n d t h e p r es en ce of r a r e a n d en d a n ger ed sp ecies. T h e p la n n in g a r ea is a n ext en sive a gr icu lt u r a l, u r b a n , a n d r u r a l r es id en t ia l la n d s ca p e a p p r oxim a t ely 1,250 k m2_{in s ize. Alt h ou gh t h e} p r ecis e con d it ion s con t r ibu t in g t o h igh eco-logica l in t e gr it y is n ot cer t a in , w e id en t ifi ed a n a t u r a l for est size of 30 h a t o b e es sen t ia l in m a in t a in in g ecologica l fu n ct ion . T h is w a s b a s ed on em p ir ica l d a t a w h ich s u gges t ed t h a t t h is size is p a r t icu la r ly sign ifi ca n t w it h r esp ect t o n u m b er s a n d s p ecies of n est in g n eot r op ica l in t er ior b ir d s p ecies (e.g. Bla k e a n d Ka r r, 1984; Robb in s, 1979). T h u s if w e d esign a sy st em t h a t p r ot ect s t h ese exis t in g a r ea s, in cor p or a t es p r op er en v ir on m en t a l m a n a gem en t t ech n iq u es a n d a llow s for exp a n s ion , r es t or a t ion a n d r e-con n ect ion w it h ot h er a r ea s, t h en w e a r e con fi d en t t h a t ecos y s t em fu n ct ion w ill im p r ove. We ca n n ot , h ow ever, say by h ow m u ch it w ill im p r ove.

In d evelop in g t h is p la n n in g fr a m ewor k , w e cou ld focu s on ly on t h os e ecologica l u n it s w h ich cu r r en t ly con sist of n a t u r a l ve get a t ion or, a lt er n a t ively, id en t ify a fu ll r a n ge of u n it s r efl ect in g t h eir d is t r ibu t ion in t h e en v ir on -m en t even if cu r r en t ly u n d er cu lt iva t ion . T h is obv iou sly bu ild s in t h e n eed for r es t or a -t ion a n d la n d ow n er s-t ew a r d sh ip p r ogr a m s -t o m a xim ize b iod iver s it y. On e cou ld a ls o look a t t h e ju xt a p osit ion of n a t u r a l a n d cu lt iva t ed ecologica l u n it s in or d er t o d et er m in e w h ich com b in a t ion (in cor p or a t in g con ce p t s of size a n d in t er con n ect ion ) w ill b est m a xim ize ecologica l fu n ct ion .

T h e d et er m in a t ion of ecosy st em r e p r es en -t iv i-t y is ver y im p or -t a n -t for la n d u se p la n n in g a s it h a s d ir ect im p lica t ion s on is s u es r ela t ed t o b iod iver s it y. F igu r e 1 illu st r a t es a m et h od -ology d evelop ed by t h e a u t h or (Cow ell et a l., 1994) t o u n d er t a k e ga p a n a ly sis of exist in g

p r ot ect ed a r ea s a n d d elin ea t e n ew ecologica l r eser ves.

Alt h ou gh geom or p h ology a n d su r fi cia l m a t er ia ls w er e n ot sp ecifi ca lly m en t ion ed by Meffe a n d Ca r r oll (1994), t h ey p lay a sign ifi -ca n t r ole in d et er m in in g b iod iver sit y a n d a r e a fu n d a m en t a l elem en t of ecology a n d b io-geogr a p h y. For ecologica l a n a ly sis in su p p or t of p la n n in g, a b iot ic fa ct or s ca n b e u sed a s su r r oga t es t o d efi n e ecos y st em s. T h ey h ave t h e a dva n t a ge of b ein g m or e “en d u r in g” t h a n p la n t s or a n im a ls w h ich a r e m or e su sce p t ible t o n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n in d u ced d ist u r b a n ces. Also, a b iot ic d a t a a r e m or e r ea d ily ava ila ble for m a n y r e gion s a n d a r e m or e a m en a ble t o in t er p r et a t ion u sin g t h em a t ic a n d r a d a r sa t ellit e d a t a .

Sp ecifi ca lly, t h e con ce p t of sp ecies a n d la n d -sca p e d iver sit y, a lt h ou gh oft en t h ou gh t of on ly in b iologica l t er m s, ca n b e d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o a b iot ic fa ct or s. T h e p r in cip a l a b ot ic con t r ols r ela t e t o m oist u r e r e gim e, n u t r i-en t st a t u s, a n d m icr o-clim a t e a s r ela t ed t o t op ogr a p h ic p osit ion a n d a sp ect (H ills, 1976). T h ese fa ct or s ca n b e d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o “a lp h a d iver sit y ” (Wh it t a k er, 1965). Alp h a d iver sit y is d efi n ed by Wh it t a k er (Wh it t a k er, 1965, a s r efer en ced in N aveh , 1994) a s sp ecies d iver -sit y occu r r in g w it h in a sp ecifi c h a b it a t . F r om a s ca le p er sp ect ive t h is in cor p or a t es t h e la r gest , m os t d et a iled level of in t er a ct ion a m on g t h e b iot ic a n d a b iot ic fa ct or s.

Wh it t a k er (1965) a lso r efer r ed t o “b et a d iver sit y ” a n d “ga m m a d iver s it y ”. Bet a d iver -sit y is d efi n ed a s sp ecies d iver -sit y occu r r in g b et w een a n d a m on g h a b it a t s, in clu d in g gr a d i-en t s of ch a n ge (la r ge t o m ed iu m s ca les of or ga n iza t ion ). Ga m m a d iver sit y, on t h e ot h er h a n d , is d efi n ed a s la n d sca p e d iver s it y b a sed on geogr a p h ica lly or ecologica lly d efi n ed r e gion s or la n d sca p es (m ed iu m t o sm a ll sca les of or ga n iza t ion ).

In t h e a b sen ce of d et a iled d a t a on sp ecies d iver sit y, w h ich is a p a r t icu la r p r oblem for m ed iu m t o sm a ll s ca les of a p p lica t ion in p la n -n i-n g (Cow ell et a l., 1994), ea r t h scie-n ce d a t a ca n b e s u ccessfu lly u t ilized a s s u r r oga t es t o ve get a t ion a n d w ild life d a t a . A p a r t icu la r ly st r ik in g exa m p le is t h e E n d a n ger ed Sp a ces Ca m p a ign cu r r en t ly b ein g con d u ct ed by t h e Wor ld Wild life F u n d (Ca n a d a ). T h is p r ogr a m is a t t em p t in g t o id en t ify a s ign ifi ca n t p or t ion of t h e Ca n a d ia n la n d s ca p e a s b ein g r e p r esen -t a -t ive of n a -t u r a l ecosy s -t em s (fl or a l a n d fa u n a l d iver sit y ) by u n d er t a k in g ga p a n a ly sis a n d d elin ea t ion in ea ch E cor e gion .

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p r ot ect ion of n a t u r a l la n d s ca p es (Cow ell et

a l., 1994; Kava n a gh a n d Ia cob elli, 1995).

E n d u r in g fea t u r es a r e t h e st a ble la n d for m s a n d s ea for m s on w h ich p la n t a n d a n im a l com m u n it ies exist a n d fu n ct ion . T h e u s e of la n d for m s a s t h e b a sis for r e p r es en t a t ion is b a sed on t h e a ck n ow led gem en t of a la ck of w id es p r ea d , con sist en t b iot ic d a t a a n d is scien t ifi ca lly fou n d ed in t h e a p p r oa ch u n d er -t a k en by Biop h y sica l a n d E cologica l La n d Cla s s ifi ca t ion (E LC) t ech n iq u es sin ce t h e ea r ly 1960s. T h is a p p r oa ch is ele ga n t ly s u m -m a r ized by Row e (1992) a s follow s :

…geom or p h ology – la n d for m , it s com p osi-t ion a n d s osi-t r u cosi-t u r e – is gen eosi-t ic for la n d sca p e ecosy s t em s t h r ou gh it s in fl u en ce on loca l clim a t e, d r a in a ge, soil for m a t ion a n d t h e r ecr u it m en t of p la n t s a n d a n im a ls...is t h e in d is p en s a ble fou n d a t ion of t er r a in a n a ly sis wor ld -w id e.

In t h e E LC a p p r oa ch , clim a t e is t h e m ost im p or t a n t d et er m in a n t of ecos y s t em ch a r a c-t er is c-t ics a c-t coa r s er s ca les of d elin ea c-t ion a n d la n d for m a n d s oils b ecom e m or e im p or t a n t a t fi n er s ca les. Differ en ces in ve get a t ion com m u n it ies on s im ila r la n d for m s, bu t in d iffer -en t la n d cla ss ifi ca t ion u n it s, exp r es s m a cr o-clim a t ic d iffer en ces. Wit h in u n it s, d iffer en ces in ve get a t ion com m u n it ies r efl ect d iffer en ces in p h y s iogr a p h ic sit e, p a r t icu la r ly w it h r esp ect t o s u b s t r a t e t ext u r e, m ois t u r e, a n d m icr oclim a t e (slop e p os it ion a n d a sp ect ). Alt h ou gh w ild life is n ot d ir ect ly u t ilized in d evelop in g m a p p in g u n it s, clim a t e a n d ve ge-t a ge-t ion com m u n ige-t ies a ffecge-t a n d con ge-t r ol ge-t h e d is t r ibu t ion a n d a bu n d a n ce of w ild life. T h er e is a n im p licit a s su m p t ion in t h e E LC fr a m ewor k t h a t r e p r es en t a t ive la n d for m /

ve get a t ion u n it s w ill a lso s u p p or t r e p r esen t a -t ive fa u n a .

T h e m ech a n ics of la n d sca p e p la n n in g u su -a lly in volves -a n h ier -a r ch ic-a l m -a p p in g sy st em w h ich is a fu n d a m en t a l com p on en t t o E LC t ech n iq u es. T h is sy st em ca n b e a p p lied in eit h er a “t op -d ow n ” fa sh ion , a “b ot t om -u p ” fa sh ion , or, p r efer a bly a com b in a t ion of t h e t wo.

T h e t op -d ow n a p p r oa ch is on e of t h e m ost com m on a n d is p a r t icu la r ly su it ed for p la n -n i-n g la r ge a r ea s (p r ov i-n cia l/ st a t e/ -n a t io-n a l) u sin g r em ot e sen s in g t ech n iq u es in com b in a -t ion w i-t h exis-t in g d a -t a . In -t h is a p p r oa ch , on e wor k s t h r ou gh a h ier a r ch y b e gin n in g w it h sm a ll sca le d a t a (1:500,000 t o 1:1 m illion sca les ) a n d p r ogr es sin g t h r ou gh la r ger sca les d e p en d in g on ava ila ble in for m a t ion a n d in ven t or y ca p a b ilit ies. Sm a ll-sca le d a t a b a sed on m a cr o-clim a t e, geom or p h ology, su r fi cia l m a t er ia ls, a n d geology ca n b e u sed t o d efi n e b r oa d r e gion s (E cor e gion s) a n d d ist r ict s (E cod ist r ict s ) w h ich a r e t h en fu r t h er su b d i-v id ed on t h e b a sis of soils a n d i-ve get a t ion in for m a t ion . T h e a u t h or r ecen t ly u n d er t ook t h is a p p r oa ch for n a t u r a l a r ea s p la n n in g in a 2.7 m illion h a for es t ed la n d sca p e of n or t h er n On t a r io (Geom a t ics In t er n a t ion a l In c., 1994) a s w ell a s for t h e en t ir e P r ov in ce of N ew Br u n sw ick (Geom a t ics In t er n a t ion a l In c., 1995a ).

In t h e “b ot t om -u p ” a p p r oa ch , a s r ecen t ly em p loyed Re gion a l Mu n icip a lit y of Ot t aw a Ca r let on , Ca n a d a ’s ca p it a l (Geom a t ics In t er -n a t io-n a l, 1995b ), t h e fu ll r a -n ge of b iot ic a -n d a b iot ic con d it ion s a r e d et er m in ed fi r st . T h is in volves t h e d evelop m en t of d et a iled (1:10,000 or la r ger sca le) ecologica l u n it s w h ich d efi n e t h e fu ll com p lem en t of con d it ion s in a n y given p la n n in g a r ea . T h u s, n on -ve get a t ed clay soils m igh t b e a u n it w h ich r e p r es en t s a gr i-cu lt u r e w h er ea s for est ed d r y coa r se u n it s wou ld r e p r esen t con ifer or m ixed for est on sa n dy soils. For a n y given clim a t e a n d m icr o-clim a t e, t h e u lt im a t e exp r ession of ve get a t ion (in clu d in g a ll ser a l st a ges ) ca n b e

d et er m in ed . A N a t u r a l H er it a ge Sy st em is con st r u ct ed by a ssem blin g ecologica l u n it s in a n y of a va r iet y of w ay s d e p en d in g on ecologi-ca l a n d p la n n in g goa ls r esu lt in g in m a xim u m fl exib ilit y.

Implementation component

Imple me ntatio n: To apply the po lic ie s o f landsc ape planning fo r the lo ng-te rm mainte nanc e o f e c o lo gic al func tio n and fo r the maximizatio n o f e c o lo gic al inte grity

T h e d a t a collect ed a n d a ssem bled t o u n d er -t a k e -t h e ecologica l a n a ly sis a r e a lso v i-t a l -t o t h e im p lem en t a t ion of t h e la n d sca p e p la n . F ir st , a s n ot ed a b ove, t h e la n d sca p e p la n is n ot st a t ic bu t evolves w it h p la n n in g n eed s Step 1

Charac te rizatio n o f Ec o re gio n

Step 2

Charac te rizatio n o f Phys io graphy

Step 3

De te rminatio n o f Lands c ape Units Determination of Representativeness

Step 4

Adequac y of Existing Protec ted Areas

Step 5

Se le c t Ne w Ec o lo gic al Are as Assesment and Selection

Determine Area Requirements Figure 1

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a n d w it h im p r ovem en t s in ou r k n ow led ge of ecologica l p r ocess es. H en ce t h e d a t a b a se, w it h con t in u a l u p d a t in g, ca n b e u t ilized t o ea s ily u p d a t e or r e-v isit t h e p la n by sim p ly a d ju s t in g t h e cr it er ia . T h e u s e of a

Geogr a p h ic In for m a t ion Sy s t em (GIS) t o st or e, a n a ly se a n d u p d a t e t h e in for m a t ion gr ea t ly en h a n ces t h e fl exib ilit y t o im p lem en t la n d sca p e p la n s.

Secon d , on ce t h e la n d sca p e p la n is

d es ign ed , t h er e is a n eed t o u n d er t a k e ecosy s -t em m a n a gem en -t . Gen er a lly, -t h e low es -t level of m a n a gem en t p ossible is p r efer r ed . If ecos y s t em s a r e p er m it t ed t o fu n ct ion n a t u -r a lly, t h en h u m a n in t e-r ven t ion is m in im ized or n ot r eq u ir ed . H ow ever, t h is r ela t es t o eco-logica l in t e gr it y a n d in m os t u r b a n a n d a gr i-cu lt u r a l p la n n in g en v ir on m en t s, s om e d e gr ee of ecos y s t em m a n a gem en t is r eq u ir ed . T h u s, t h e d a t a b a se es t a blis h ed t o d es ign t h e s y s t em ca n a ls o b e u sed a s a b a s is for d es ign in g a n d u n d er t a k in g ecologica l m a n a gem en t . In m os t ca s es a d d it ion a l, s it e s p ecifi c d a t a w ill b e r eq u ir ed a n d t h is ca n b e ob t a in ed a s t im e a n d bu d get s a llow.

At t h e ver y lea st , t h e p la n n in g a gen cies h ave a p ow er fu l t ool t o p r ot ect a r ea s fr om d is t u r b a n ce by fi n e-t u n in g t h e d evelop m en t a p p r ova l p r ocess. Ra t h er t h a n r eq u ir in g a st a n d a r d en v ir on m en t a l im p a ct a ss es s m en t (E IA), a p p r ova l a gen cies ca n s p ecify t h e n a t u r e of t h e p ot en t ia l im p a ct (s) a n d clea r ly id en t ify t h e ecologica l com p on en t s w h ich m ay b e im p a ct ed . Ra t h er t h a n follow in g a st a n d a r d offt h esh elf a p p r oa ch t o u n d er t a k -in g t h e E IA (e.g. s t a n d a r d s p ecies lis t s), p r op on en t s w ill b e gu id ed in t o a d d r es s in g fu n d a -m en t a l a sp ect s of ecosy st e-m p r ocess a n d st r u ct u r e r ela t in g d ir ect ly t o t h e s it e a n d a d ja cen t a r ea s.

Ot h er com p on en t s w h ich m ay for m a p a r t of t h e on goin g im p lem en t a t ion of t h e la n d -sca p e p la n a n d for w h ich t h e d a t a b a se ca n b e u s ed in clu d e t h e follow in g:

• cu m u la t ive effect s a ss es sm en t ; • effect s m on it or in g/ st r es s -r es p on s e; • d evelop m en t of p er for m a n ce s t a n d a r d s for

im p a ct a ssess m en t ;

• la n d s ca p e r e p r es en t a t iven es s; • ecologica l in t e gr it y a n a ly sis ; • en h a n cem en t of b iod iver s it y ; a n d • ecologica l r es t or a t ion .

Im p lem en t a t ion ca p a b ilit ies va r y w id ely fr om ju r is d ict ion t o ju r is d ict ion . T h e k ey fu n d a m en t a ls a r e t o en s u r e t h a t ecos y st em va lu es a r e fu lly con s id er ed in d evelop in g t h e p la n w h ich t h en m u st b e im p lem en t ed w it h d u e con s id er a t ion t o s ociocu lt u r a l cir cu m -st a n ces. T h e -st r en gt h en in g of gover n m en t , cor p or a t e, a n d p u blic in s t it u t ion s m ay b e a s cr it ica l t o im p lem en t a t ion a s t h e d esign of

t h e p la n it self. N ow h er e is t h is m or e ev id en t t h a n in t h e Am a zon b a s in st a t es of Br a zil, su ch a s Ron d ôn ia a n d M a t o Gr osso, w h ich a r e cu r r en t ly d evelop in g d et a iled la n d sca p e p la n s (Zon ea m ien t o Socio-E con óm ico-E cológico – s econ d a p p r oxim a t ion ) (Beck er a n d E gler, 1996). T r em en d ou s la n d u se p r essu r es exist a n d t h e cu r r en t le ga l a n d in st it u -t ion a l in fr a s-t r u c-t u r es a r e lik ely n o-t su fficien -t t o en su r e a d eq u a t e im p lem en t a t ion .

N u m er ou s a r ea s w it h in N or t h Am er ica h ave a lso u n d er gon e la n d sca p e t y p e p la n n in g bu t t h es e t oo a r e su b ject t o n u m er ou s d ifficu l-t ies in im p lem en l-t a l-t ion . T h es e d ifficu ll-t ies r ela t e t o con cer n s for t h e los s of la n d s for for es t h a r vest in g (Geom a t ics In t er n a t ion a l In c., 1994) a n d / or t h e p er ce p t ion of a loss of in d iv id u a l r igh t s on b eh a lf of la n d ow n er s. To d a t e t h er e a r e n o exa m p les of t r u e ecologi-ca lly -b a sed la n d secologi-ca p e p la n s b ein g fu lly im p le-m en t ed .

Role of GIS and remote sensing

T h e fu ll d evelop m en t a n d im p lem en t a t ion of a la n d s ca p e p la n ca n on ly b e a ch ieved by u t ilizin g st a t e-of-t h e-a r t t ech n ologies in GIS a n d r em ot e s en sin g. E edy (1995) d et a ils som e of t h e a dva n t a ges of GIS t ech n ologies a s r ela t ed t o E n v ir on m en t a l Im p a ct

Assess m en t s. T h ese a dva n t a ges r ela t e t o t h e follow in g ca p a b ilit ies of GIS (m od ifi ed fr om E edy, 1995):

• m a n a gem en t of la r ge d a t a set s ; • d a t a over lay t ech n iq u es; • t r en d a n a ly sis;

• m a t h em a t ica l m od ellin g ca p a b ilit ies; • h a b it a t a n a ly sis;

• 3-D v iew in g a n d a n a ly sin g ca p a b ilit ies; • p r esen t a t ion gr a p h ics for p u blic con su lt a

-t ion .

T h ese ca p a b ilit ies a r e even m or e su it ed for la n d s ca p e p la n n in g w it h t h e d ir ect in t e gr a -t ion of s a -t elli-t e d er ived r a s-t er d a -t a s e-t s in clu d in g b ot h sp ect r a l a n d r a d a r t y p e im a ger y. T h e va lu e of r em ot e sen sin g d a t a lies in it s u se t o in t er p r et la r ge a r ea s a t r ela -t ively low cos-t . In -t er p r e-t a -t ion s of -t h e ex-t en -t of n a t u r a l ve get a t ion , b a sic t y p es of ve get a -t ion (for es -t ed , gr a ssla n d , s ava n n a ), m a jor la n d u se ca t e gor ies (in t en sive a gr icu lt u r e, n on in t en sive a gr icu lt u r e, u r b a n , for est h a r -ves t in g), a n d m a jor la n d for m ca t e gor ies (fl ood p la in s, m ou n t a in s, in t er ior a n d coa st a l p la in s, p la t ea u x, d elt a s, b ea ch es, a n d so on ) a r e p a r t icu la r ly u sefu l for la n d sca p e p la n -n i-n g p u r p oses.

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goin g b a sis. La n d s a t T h em a t ic Da t a , for exa m p le, m ay b e a cq u ir ed for v ir t u a lly a n y loca t ion on ea r t h ever y 18 d ay s if r eq u ir ed .

Alt h ou gh t h e a cq u isit ion of GIS a n d r em ot e sen sin g t ech n ologies a s w ell a s t h e es t a blis h m en t of a p p r op r ia t e d a t a b a ses r eq u ir e s u b -st a n t ia l u p -fr on t co-st s, t h es e a r e q u ick ly p a id b a ck by efficien cies in a n a ly sis, u p d a t in g a n d r e p or t in g.

Summary and conclusion

T h e a p p lica t ion of ecologica lly b a sed la n d -sca p e p la n n in g r eq u ir es a d et a iled k n ow led ge of p h y s ica l a n d b iologica l s y s t em s, a n h ier a r ch ica l p la n n in g fr a m ewor k , a n d t h e a p p lica t ion of con s er va t ion b iology p r in cip les. La n d -sca p e level p la n n in g m u st b e u n d er t a k en in b ot h d evelop ed a n d d evelop in g cou n t r ies im m ed ia t ely in or d er t o en su r e t h e m a in t e-n a e-n ce, p r eser va t ioe-n a e-n d ee-n h a e-n cem ee-n t of b iod iver s it y w h ile a t t h e s a m e t im e en su r in g t h e s u s t a in a ble u se of r es ou r ces for bu r geon -in g p op u la t ion s. By ign or -in g ecologica l p r oces s a n d st r u ct u r e in p la n n in g t h e in t en -sit y, m a n a gem en t s t y le a n d t y p e of la n d u s es, ir r evoca ble ecologica l d isa s t er s w ill r es u lt .

Ou r s t a t e of k n ow led ge is con t in u a lly a dva n cin g a n d t h e fi eld of con ser va t ion b iol-ogy is q u it e you n g. In s om e r es p ect s p la n n in g r eq u ir em en t s a r e p u s h in g s cien ce b eyon d it s ca p a b ilit ies t o p r ed ict w h a t wor k s b es t in a n y la n d s ca p e. H ow ever, if w e u t ilize t h e m os t m od er n em p ir ica l ev id en ce a n d a llow for fl exib ilit y, ecologica l r es t or a t ion , a n d ecos y s-t em m a n a gem en s-t , s-t h en a s-t s-t h e ver y lea ss-t w e w ill b e goin g in t h e r igh t d ir ect ion if n ot a ll t h e w ay a t a n y m om en t in t im e.

T h e r a p id d evelop m en t of r em ot e s en s in g a n d geogr a p h ic in for m a t ion s y st em t ech n olo-gies in t h e la st t w en t y yea r s p r ov id e t h e t ools t o in ven t or y, m ea s u r e a n d eva lu a t e t h e p h y si-ca l a n d b iologisi-ca l s y s t em s. T h ese t ech n olo-gies p er m it r a p id , h igh q u a lit y, low cos t d a t a collect ion m ost s u it a ble for a r ea s w h er e k n ow led ge is la ck in g or w ea k a n d w h er e t h e exist in g in fr a s t r u ct u r e m ay b e u n r elia ble a n d logis t ica lly d ifficu lt t o op er a t e. T h ey a r e a lso p a r t icu la r ly su it ed t o a p p lica t ion w it h in m od er n a p p r oa ch es t o la n d sca p e p la n n in g.

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