MODUL
PENDIDIKAN DAN LATIHAN PROFESI GURU
(PLPG)
PENELITIAN TINDAKAN KELAS
BAHASA INGGRIS
Oleh :
Teguh Sarosa, S.S., M.Hum.
PANITIA SERTIFIKASI GURU RAYON 113
UNIVERSITAS SEBELAS MARET
KATA PENGANTAR
Puji dan syukur dipanjatkan ke hadirat Allah SWT atas rahmat dan karunia yang
dilimpahkan kepada tim penyusun, sehingga panduan workshop Penelitian
Tindakan Kelas ini terselesaikan dengan baik.
Panduan workshop PTK ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan bimbingan kepada
guru khususnya guru bahasa Inggris dalam penyusunan proposal PTK. Panduan
ini dijelaskan langkah demi langkah sehingga akan memudahkan guru dan
mengikuti penyusunan proposal PTK.
Tim penyusun mengucapkan terima kasih kepada semua pihak yang telah
membantu dalam penyususan panduan proposal PTK ini. Apabila di dalam
panduan workshop ini ada kekurangan dan kesalahan, tim penyusun benar-benar
mengakuinya. Oleh karena itu kritik dan saran yang konstruktif sangat diharapkan
demi perbaikan panduan workshop ini.
Akhirnya semoga panduan workshop ini bisa memberikan manfaat kepada kita
khususnya peserta PLPG dalam upapa peningkatan kompetensi dalam bidang
penyusunan proposal PTK.
DAFTAR ISI
DAFTAR ISI ... iii
PANDUAN WORKSHOP PTK ... 1
I. Tujuan workshop PTK ... 1
II. Paparan Materi Workshop PTK ... 1
III. Penyusunan Rancangan Proposal PTK untuk Perbaikan Pembelajaran 19 IV. Output Workshop = Proposal PTK ... 21
PANDUAN WORKSHOP PTK
I. Tujuan workshop PTK
Tujuan workshop Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) ini adalah agar peserta
workshop dapat:
1. memahami konsep PTK
2. mengidentifikasi permasalahan PTK
3. merumuskan masalah PTK
4. merencanakan tindakan perbaikan sesuai sesuai masalah penelitian
5. menyusun tahap pelaksanaan PTK
6. melakukan analisis dan refleksi
7. membuat perencanaan tindak lanjut
8. menyusun proposal PTK yang baik.
II. Paparan Materi Workshop PTK
Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) atau Classroom Action Research
(CAR) merupakan penelitian praktis di bidang pendidikan mencakup
beberapa langkah prosedural yang bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas
pembelajaran atau menyelesaikan masalah yang mungkin timbul selama
proses pembelajaran dengan menerapkan solusi-solusi tertentu yang
relevan dengan masalah. PTK merupakan proses reflektif yang membantu
pengajar untuk eksplorasi atau menguji aspek-aspek dalam proses belajar
mengajar (PBM) dan mengambil tindakan untuk merubah keadaan dan
meningkatkan kualitasnya.
Proposal Penelitian Tindakan Kelas pada umumnya terdiri atas
komponen-komponen sebagai berikut:
i. Judul
ii. Pendahuluan
a. Latar Belakang Masalah
b. Perumusan Masalah
c. Tujuan Penelitian
iii. Tinjauan Pustaka
a. Deskripsi Teori
b. Kerangka Berpikir
c. Hipotesis Tindakan
iv. Metode Penelitian
a. Setting Penelitian
b. Subjek Penelitian
c. Data dan Sumber Data
d. Teknik Pengumpulan Data
e. Validitas Data
f. Teknik Analisis Data
g. Indikator Kinerja
h. Prosedur Penelitian
A. Judul Penelitian
Judul PTK harus memuat dua variable utama yaitu variabel
permasalahan (variabel A) dan variabel solusi atau pemecahan
masalah (variabel B). Judul hendaknya dikemukakan secara
singkat, spesifik, jelas dan mensugesti ketertarikan pembaca
(curiousity).
Di samping itu, judul harus memberikan informasi mengenai
hal-hal yang bersifat spesifik, seperti :subyek, latar atau setting, baik
tempat dan waktu pelaksanaan penelitian.
Format judul:
Keterangan:
Masalah harus jelas, diungkapkan dengan frase yang singkat dan
padat; contoh:
Peningkatan A dengan Menggunakan B (Penelitian Tindakan Kelas di ..., 20...)
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL
USING FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD
B. Latar Belakang Masalah
Penelitian Tindakan Kelas dilaksanakan untuk
memecahkan masalah yang dihadapi para pendidik di kelas yang
mereka ampu atau meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa yang
ditengarai menurun atau di bawah Kriteria Ketuntasan Minimal
(KKM) yang diterapkan. Berdasarkan hal tersebut maka peneliti
haruslah mengungkapkan hal-hal yang mendorong
dilaksanakannya PTK atau menguraikan argumentasi pentingnya
PTK dilakukan dalam poin Latar belakang masalah.
Peneliti perlu menguraikan proses bagaimana cara
menemukan masalah dalam initial research atau preliminary
research. Waktu pelaksanaan preliminary research adalah
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING ENGLISH USING
REFLECTIVE LEARNING
(A Classroom Action Research at the Tenth Grade of SMK Negeri 1 Karanganyar in the Academic Year 2009/2010)
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ READING SKILL THROUGH COLLABORATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
(A Classroom Action Research at the Seventh Grade of SMP Negeri 8 Surakarta Academic Year 2007/2008)
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING COMPETENCE THROUGH SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION
(A Classroom Action Research at the Eleventh Grade of SMA Negeri 1 Sragen in the Academic Year 2007/2008)
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ SPEAKING COMPETENCE THROUGH SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION
(A Classroom Action Research at the Eleventh Grade of SMA Negeri 1 Sragen in the Academic Year 2007/2008)
IMPROVING STUDENTS’ VOCABULARY MASTERY BY USING COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (A Classroom Action Research towards The Second Grade Students of SD Negeri Kalicacing 2 Salatiga in the Academic Year
indefinite, artinya peneliti mempunyai waktu yang tidak terjadwal
karena tahap ini bisa dimulai sejak peneliti sebagai praktisi
pendidik mengajar dan menemukan embrio-embrio permasalahan
yang dihadapi siswanya sampai akhirnya embrio tersebut terbentuk
menjadi pokok permasalahan yang ingin dicari pemecahannya.
Ada beberapa cara yang bisa dilakukan oleh peneliti dalam tahap
initial research ini, antara lain: pengamatan (observation),
wawancara baik terhadap kolega ataupun muridnya mengenai
kesulitan-kesulitan yang dialaminya dalam proses belajar dan
mengajar, dan analisis dokumen baik dari catatan lapangan
maupun tes yang diadakan. Dari hasil analisis data yang didapat di
tahap awal ini maka peneliti dapat mengambil simpulan mengenai
asal masalah atau akar permasalahan yang kemungkinan timbul
dari metode pengajaran yang dipakai, materi pembelajaran atau
media ajar yang digunakan.
Penulisan latar belakang masalah dapat dimulai dengan
uraian kondisi nyata yang terjadi dalam PBM, baik interaksi antara
guru dan murid atau murid dan murid, situasi kelas, dan fasilitas
yang tersedia dalam ruang kelas (hal ini bisa didapatkan dari hasil
pengamatan di initial research). Setelah itu peneliti harus
menguraikan kondisi ideal tentang ruang lingkup pokok
permasalahan dan pada akhirnya peneliti juga harus menjelaskan
kesenjangan yang terjadi antara kondisi nyata dan kondisi ideal
suatu proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Data atau fakta
sebaiknya juga ikut dituliskan sebagai validasi. Data tersebut dapat
berasal dari field note, petikan wawancara, dan hasil tes awal yang
dilakukan yang relevan dengan masalah yang dikemukakan oleh
peneliti.
Penulisan selanjutnya adalah uraian tentang masalah yang
dihadapi oleh peneliti. Peneliti harus mengungkapkan indikator
dari masalah tersebut dan penyebab kenapa masalah tersebut dapat
timbul. Apakah penerapan metode pengajaran atau pembelajaran
yang tidak sesuai dengan kompetensi yang harus dimiliki siswa
diakhir proses pembelajaranya?; atau apakah media ajar yang
digunakan kurang menarik minat siswa sehingga siswa tidak
termotivasi untuk belajar?.
Setelah mengungkapkan penyebab timbulnya masalah,
peneliti menguraikan solusi yang dia berikan untuk memecahkan
masalah tersebut baik dengan penerapan metode mengajar yang
berbeda yang disesuaikan dengan karakteristik siswanya, materi
pembelajaran yang disesuaikan dengan silabi, ataukah dengan
penggunaan media ajar yang menarik. Peneliti harus mencari
referensi tentang kajian teori yang tepat untuk diterapkan guna
mengatasi permasalahan yang dihadapi. Dalam pengungkapan
solusi, peneliti perlu membuat rasionalisasi yang kuat antara
masalah yang dihadapi dengan solusi yang dia tawarkan
berdasarkan teori-teori yang relevan.
Secara singkat latar belakang masalah ditulis secara naratif
dan harus berisi:
1. Kondisi ideal tentang ruang lingkup pokok permasalahan dan
kondisi nyata yang dihadapi dalam ruang kelas.
2. Masalah yang dihadapi dan indikatornya.
3. Penyebab munculnya masalah.
4. Solusi, berupa konsep yang didukung rasionalisasi yang kuat.
Urutan penyajiannya bisa 1 – 4, atau 2,3,1,4 .
C. Perumusan dan Pemecahan Masalah
Permasalahan merupakan bagian terpenting dalam proposal
PTK. Karena dari sinilah tergambar secara jelas masalah yang
dihadapi dan solusi yang digunakan untuk memecahkan masalah
tersebut. Permasalahan merupakan hal nyata yang ditemui dalam
kelas berdasarkan pengamatan, wawancara atau analisis dokumen.
Permasalahan tersebut dibuat secara jelas dan rinci tertuang dalam
rumusan masalah yang mengkaitkan hubungan antar variabel yang
Format rumusan masalah berbentuk pertanyaan:
1. Bagaimanakah solusi yang ditawarkan peneliti dapat
memecahkan masalah?
2. Apakah kelebihan dan kekurangan penerapan
teknik/metode/media ketika diterapkan pada kelas?
Contoh perumusan masalah:
D. Tujuan
Tujuan Penelitian Tindakan Kelas menyatakan target
tertentu yang akan diperoleh dari kegiatan penelitian yang
direncanakan. Tujuan penelitian harus dinyatakan secara spesifik
dalam pernyataan yang jelas. Kemukakan secara singkat tujuan
penelitian sesuai dengan permasalahan yang telah teridentifikasi
dan terumuskan di bab sebelumnya. Tujuan dirumuskan dalam
bentuk kalimat deklaratif.
Contoh:
1. CAN THE USE OF FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL ?
2. TO WHAT EXTEND THE USE OF FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL ?
3. WHAT HAPPENS WHEN FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD IS APPLIED?
4. HOW DO THE EIGHT GRADE STUDENTS PARTICIPATE IN TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS BY USING FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD?
1. TO IDENTIFY WHETHER THE USE OF FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD CAN IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL.
2. TO IDENTIFY TO WHAT EXTEND THE USE OF FOUR SQUARE
WRITING METHOD IMPROVE STUDENTS’ WRITING SKILL.
3. TO ANALYZE WHAT HAPPENS WHEN FOUR SQUARE WRITING METHOD IS APPLIED.
E. Manfaat
Manfaat penelitian berisi deskripsi singkat tentang manfaat yang
dapat diperoleh setelah PTK selesai dilaksanakan. Kemukakan
manfaat teoritis (kepentingan ilmiah) dan manfaat praktis
(kepentingan terapan). Manfaat itu dapat dirinci menurut penerima
manfaat PTK, seperti peneliti, guru/kolaborator, murid, sekolah,
peneliti lain, pengambil kebijakan.
Contoh:
1. For students: It is hoped that the result of the study can improve students’ writing skill.
2. For the teachers: The teacher can improve their teaching
techniques by elaboration the use of four square writing technique.
3. For theoritical application: It is hoped that the result of the study
can give additional information of language teaching activity
especially teaching writing.
F. Tinjauan Pustaka
Kajian pustaka menguraikan teori, temuan, dan bahan penelitian
lain yang diperoleh dari acuan (buku atau jurnal ilmiah) yang dijadikan
landasan untuk melakukan penelitian yang diusulkan. Kemukakan kajian
teori yang relevan dengan variabel masalah maupun variabel tindakan.
Berdasarkan urutan, kemukakan terlebih dahulu kajian teori yang gayut
dengan variabel masalah dan baru kemudian kajian teori yang gayut
dengan variabel tindakan. Sejalan dengan contoh judul yang telah
dikemukakan, peneliti menguraikan kajian teori tentang Kemampuan
Menulis dan selanjutnya teori tentang Four Square Writing Method.
Uraian dalam Kajian Pustaka dibawa untuk menyusun kerangka atau
konsep yang akan digunakan dalam penelitian. Dalam hubungan ini
hendaknya diusahakan pustaka yang relevan dan terbaru. Dengan
demikian, dalam bagian ini hendaknya dikemukakan hipotesis tindakan.
Dalam landasan teori perlu dikemukakan deskripsi teori dan
a. Deskripsi Teori
Deskripsi teori dalam suatu penelitian merupakan uraian sistematis
tentang teori (dan bukan sekadar pendapat pakar atau penulis buku) dan
hasil-hasil penelitian yang relevan dengan variabel yang diteliti. Berapa
jumlah kelompok teori yang perlu dikemukakan atau dideskripsikan akan
bergantung pada luasnya permasalahan dan secara teknis bergantung pada
jumlah variabel yang diteliti. Oleh karena itu, makin banyak variabel yang
diteliti, maka akan makin banyak teori yang perlu dikemukakan.
Deskripsi teori paling tidak berisi tentang penjelasan terhadap
variabel-variabel yang diteliti melalui pendefinisian, dan uraian yang
lengkap dan mendalam dari berbagai referensi sehingga ruang lingkup,
kedudukan dan prediksi terhadap hubungan antarvariabel yang akan
diteliti akan menjadi lebih jelas dan terarah.
Teori-teori yang dideskripsikan dalam proposal maupun laporan
penelitian dapat digunakan sebagai indikator apakah peneliti menguasai
teori dan konteks yang diteliti atau tidak. Variabel-variabel penelitian yang
tidak dapat dijelaskan dengan baik, baik dari segi pengertian maupun
kedudukan dan hubungan antarvariabel yang diteliti, menunjukkan bahwa
peneliti tidak menguasai teori dan konteks penelitian.
Untuk menguasai teori maupun generalisasi-generalisasi dari hasil
penelitian, peneliti harus rajin membaca. Orang harus rajin membaca dan
menelaah yang dibaca itu setuntas-tuntasnya agar ia dapat menegakkan
landasan yang kokoh bagi langkah-langkah berikutnya. Untuk dapat
membaca dengan baik, peneliti harus mengetahui sumber-sumber bacaan.
Sumber-sumber bacaan dapat berupa buku-buku teks, kamus (khususnya
kamus istilah), ensiklopedia, jurnal ilmiah, internet, dan hasil-hasil
penelitian.
Sumber bacaan yang baik harus memenuhi tiga kriteria, yaitu
relevansi, kelengkapan, dan kemutakhiran (kecuali penelitian sejarah,
penelitian ini justru menggunakan sumber-sumber yang lama). Relevansi
yang dikemukakan, kelengkapan berkenaan dengan banyaknya sumber
yang dibaca, kemutakhiran berkenaan dengan dimensi waktu. Makin baru
sumber yang digunakan, makin mutakhir teori tersebut.
Terdapat sejumlah prinsip dalam memilih sumber pustaka.
Prinsip-prinsip itu dikemukakan berikut ini.
(1) Relevansi
Telaah pustaka sering disebut landasan teoretis. Oleh karena itu,
sumber pustaka yang digunakan harus benar-benar relevan, berisi
pernyataan-pernyataan yang dapat digunakan sebagai acuan dan
kerangka pemikiran dalam memecahkan masalah penelitian. Relevansi
tersebut juga dapat ditinjau dari kesesuaian antara sumber pustaka itu
dengan disiplin ilmu yang dibahas.
(2) Kemutakhiran
Prinsip ini sangat penting dengan pertimbangan bahwa ilmu dan
teknologi telah makin berkembang dengan pesat dan kemajuan zaman
menghendaki peneliti memilih teori yang mutakhir.
(3) Akurasi dan Kualitas
Jika sejumlah data dikemukakan oleh seseorang penulis dan data
tersebut akan kita gunakan untuk menyusun sebuah rancangan
penelitian, maka kita perlu mempertanyakan apakah data tersebut
akurat dan dapat dipertanggungjawabkan validitasnya. Sementara itu,
sumber data yang berkualitas adalah sumber data yang memuat uraian
tentang suatu teori atau konsep yang teliti berdasarkan pemikiran yang
akurat, luas, mendalam, clan disajikan secara sistematis. Di samping
itu, perlu juga dipertimbangkan kewenangan atau otoritas penulisnya.
b. Kerangka Berpikir
Kerangka berpikir merupakan lanjutan dari deskripsi teori yang berisi
Kerangka berpikir ini harus mengemukakan bagaimana variabel B
dapat digunakan untuk menyelesaikan masalah sehingga variabel A
meningkat. Untuk memperkuat argumen atas rasionalisasi yang
diajukan, peneliti dapat mengutip hasil-hasil penelitian terdahulu yang
relevan dengan penilitian yang akan dilakukan.
Seorang peneliti harus menguasai teori-teori ilmiah sebagai dasar
bagi argumentasi dalam menyusun kerangka permikiran yang
membuahkan hipotesis. Kerangka pemikiran ini merupakan penjelasan
sementara terhadap gejala-gejala yang menjadi objek permasalahan
(Suriasumantri, 1986). Kriteria pertama agar suatu kerangka pemikiran
bisa meyakinkan sesama ilmuwan adalah alur-alur pikiran yang logis
dalam membangun suatu kerangka berpikir yang membuahkan
kesimpulan yang berupa hipotesis.
Kerangka berpikir merupakan sintesis tentang hubungan
antarvariabel yang disusun dari berbagai teori yang telah
dideskripsikan. Berdasarkan teori-teori yang telah dideskripsikan itu
selanjutnya dianalisis secara kritis dan sistematis sehingga
menghasilkan sintesis tentang hubungan antarvariabel yang diteliti.
Sintesis tentang hubungan antarvariabel tersebut selanjutnya
digunakan untuk merumuskan hipotesis.
Kerangka berpikir yang baik antara lain memuat (1)
variabel-variabel yang akan diteliti harus dijelaskan dan (2) diskusi dalam
kerangka berpikir harus dapat menunjukkan dan menegaskan
pertautan/hubungan antarvariabel yang diteliti dan ada teori yang
mendasari. Dalam PTK, berdasarkan kajian teori yang telah dilakukan,
penyusun proposal harus mampu menjelaskan bahwa bentuk tindakan
yang akan dilakukan dapat mengatasi permasalahan.
c. Perumusan Hipotesis
Perumusan hipotesis penelitian merupakan langkah ketiga dalam
kajian pustaka, setelah peneliti mengemukakan landasan teori dan
rumusan masalah penelitian. Oleh karena itu rumusan masalah
penelitian biasanya disusun dalam bentuk kalimat pertanyaan.
Dikatakan sementara karena jawaban yang diberikan baru didasarkan
pada teori yang relevan, belum didasarkan pada fakta-fakta yang
empiris yang diperoleh melalui pengumpulan data. Jadi, hipotesis juga
dapat dinyatakan sebagai jawaban teoretis terhadap rumusan masalah
penelitian, belum jawaban yang empirik. Hipotesis merupakan
kesimpulan kerangka berpikir.
Berdasarkan uraian di atas jelaslah bahwa tinjauan pustaka
menguraikan teori, temuan, dan bahan penelitian lain yang diperoleh
dari acuan (buku atau jurnal jurnal ilmiah), yang dijadikan landasan
untuk melakukan penelitian yang diusulkan. Uraian dalam tinjauan
pustaka dibawa untuk menyusun kerangka atau konsep yang akan
digunakan dalam penelitian. Berdasarkan teori dan kerangka berpikir
itulah selanjutnya dikemukakan hipotesis tindakan atau hipotesis kerja.
Contoh :
Based on the theories and rationale above, the hypothesis is formulated
as follows: four square writing method can improve students’ writing
skill.
G. MetodePenelitian
Penelitian Tindakan Kelas adalah penelitian partisipatif
kolaboratif yang dilaksanakan oleh seorang peneliti (praktisi
pendidikan) dan kolaborator dalam setting pendidikan dengan ruang
lingkup terbatas. Hasil PTK adalah solusi untuk perbaikan suatu
variabel pembelajaran; solusi ini bersifat unik dalam arti tidak serta
merta dapat digunakan atau diadopsi oleh praktisi lain untuk
diimplementasikan di setting yang berbeda.
Untuk mencapai tujuan penelitian dan memperoleh manfaat
penelitian sebagaimana yang telah dirumuskan perlu dipilih metode
penelitian yang tepat. Sebagaimana telah dikemukakan bahwa
setting penelitian, subjek penelitian, data dan sumber data, teknik
pengumpulan data, teknik pemeriksaan validitas data, teknik analisis
data, indikator kinerja, dan prosedur penelitian. Uraian berikut ini akan
menjelaskan komponen-komponen tersebut secara singkat.
a. Setting Penelitian
Setting penelitian mengacu pada waktu dan tempat penelitian
dilakukan.
A Classroom Action Research at the Eighth Grade of SMP Negeri 19
Surakarta in the Academic Year 2009/2010
Contoh:
Penelitian ini dilakukan di Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri 19
Surakarta tahun akademik 2009/2010. Pemilihan tempat itu didasarkan
pada pertimbangan (1) ...., (2) ...., dsb.
Penelitian ini berlangsung selama tiga bulan, yaitu September
sampai dengan November 2009. Rincian kegiatan penelitian tersebut
adalah sbb.: persiapan penelitian, koordinasi persiapan tindakan,
pelaksanaan (perencanaan, tindakan, monitoring dan evaluasi, dan
refleksi), penyusunan laporan penelitian, seminar hasil penelitian,
penyempurnaan laporan berdasarkan masukan seminar, serta
penggandaan dan pengiriman laporan penelitian.
b. Subjek Penelitian
Subjek penelitian adalah siswa yang terlibat dalam pelaksanaan
pembelajaran. Disebutkan berpa jumlah siswa tersebut dan juga jumlah
siswa laki-laki dan siswa perempuan.
Contoh:
Subjek penelitian tindakan ini adalah siswa kelas VIII A SMP
Negeri 19 Surakarta. Siswa kelas VIII A berjumlah 30 orang, yang
c. Data dan Sumber Data
Pada bagian ini hendaknya dikemukakan jenis data apa saja yang
dibutuhkan serta sumber data tersebut. Jenis data yang dijelaskan
disesuaikan dengan fokus penelitian.
Contoh:
Data penelitian yang dikumpulkan berupa informasi tentang proses
pembelajaran menulis, kemampuan siswa dalam menulis, motivasi
siswa dalam menulis serta kemampuan guru dalam menyusun rencana
pembelajaran dan melaksanakan pembelajaran (termasuk penggunaan
strategi pembelajaran) di kelas. Data penelitian itu dikumpulkan dari
berbagai sumber yang meliputi:
(1) Informan atau nara sumber, yaitu siswa dan guru.
(2) Tempat dan peristiwa berlangsungnya aktivitas pembelajaran
(3) Dokumen atau arsip, yang antara lain berupa Kurikulum, Rencana
Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran, basil karangan siswa, dan buku penilaian.
d. Teknik Pengumpulan
Sejalan dengan data yang akan dikumpulkan serta sumber data
yang ada selanjutnya dikemukakan teknik pengumpulan data.
Contoh:
Teknik yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data di atas meliputi
Pengamatan, wawancara atau diskusi, kajian dokumen, angket, dan tes
yang masing-masing secara singkat diuraikan berikut ini.
1) Pengamatan
Pengamatan yang peneliti lakukan adalah pengamatan berperan serta
secara pasif. Pengamatan itu dilakukan terhadap guru ketika
melaksanakan kegiatan belajar mengajar di kelas maupun kinerja siswa
selama proses belajar mengajar berlangsung. Pengamatan dilakukan
posisi itu, peneliti dapat secara lebih leluasa melakukan pengamatan
terhadap aktivitas belajar-mengajar siswa dan guru di kelas.
Pengamatan terhadap guru difokuskan pada kegiatan guru dalam
melaksanakan pembelajaran menulis dengan menggunakan strategi
komposisi terkendali dan terarah. Pengamatan terhadap kinerja guru
juga diarahkan pada kegiatan guru dalam menjelaskan pelajaran,
memotivasi siswa, mengajukan pertanyaan dan menanggapi jawaban
siswa, mengelola kelas, memberikan latihan dan umpan batik, dan
melakukan penilaian terhadap hasil belajar siswa. Sementara itu,
pengamatan terhadap siswa difokuskan pada tingkat partisipasi siswa
dalam mengikuti pelajaran, seperti terlihat pada keaktifan bertanya dan
menanggapi stimuli baik yang datang dari guru atau teman lain,
keaktifan siswa dalam mengerjakan tugas, dan sebagainya.
2) Wawancara atau diskusi
Wawancara atau diskusi dilakukan setelah dan atas dasar hasil
pengamatan di kelas maupun kajian dokumen. Wawancara atau diskusi
dilakukan antara peneliti dan guru. Wawancara atau diskusi dengan
guru dilaksanakan setelah melakukan pengamatan pertama terhadap
kegiatan belajar mengajar (KBM) dimaksudkan untuk memperoleh
informasi tentang berbagai hal yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan
pembelajaran bahasa Inggris, khususnya Pembelajaran menulis.
Wawancara dengan guru dilakukan pada Agustus 2009. Dari
wawancara itu serta kegiatan pengamatan dan kajian dokumen yang
telah dilakukan diidentifikasi permasalahan-permasalahan yang ada
berkenaan dengan pembelajaran menulis serta faktor-faktor
penyebabnya. Selain untuk mengidentifikasi permasalahan,
wawancara/diskusi dilakukan setelah dan atas dasar hasil pengamatan
di kelas maupun kajian dokumen dalam setiap siklus yang ada. Diskusi
antar anggota tim peneliti dapat dilakukan di sekolah. Kegiatan diskusi
itu dipimpin oleh peneliti. Dalam kegiatan diskusi itu, pemimpin
diskusi melakukan hal-hal berikut: (1) meminta pendapat guru tentang
antara lain adalah mengungkapkan kelebihan dan kekurangannya serta
perasaan-perasaan yang bersangkut-paut dengan kegiatan itu; (2)
mengemukakan catatan tentang basil pengamatannya terhadap KBM
yang dilakukan guru sesuai dengan fokus penelitian, mengemukakan
segi-segi kelebihan dan kekurangannya; (3) mendiskusikan hal-hal
yang telah dikemukakan baik oleh guru maupun peneliti untuk
menyamakan persepsi tentang hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan oleh guru
dalam kegiatan pembelajaran menulis. Dengan perkataan lain, pada
akhir setiap kegiatan diskusi disepakati hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan
pada siklus berikutnya untuk meningkatkan keefektifan penerapan
strategi four square writing method untuk meningkatkan kemahiran
menulis siswa.
3) Kajian dokumen
Kajian juga dilakukan terhadap berbagai dokumen atau arsip yang ada,
seperti Kurikulum, Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran yang dibuat
guru, buku atau materi pelajaran, hasil tulisan atau karangan siswa, dan
nilai yang diberikan guru.
4) Angket
Angket diberikan kepada para siswa untuk mengetahui berbagai hal
yang berkaitan dengan aktivitas menulis atau mengarang dan aktivitas
membaca. Angket ini diberikan dua kali, yaitu sebelum kegiatan
penelitian tindakan dan pada akhir penelitian tindakan. Dengan
menganalisis informasi yang diperoleh melalui angket tersebut dapat
diketahui peningkatan kualitas proses atas kegiatan menulis siswa serta
dapat diketahui ada tidaknya peningkatan motivasi siswa dalam
menulis.
5) Tes
Pemberian tes dimaksudkan untuk mengukur seberapa jauh hasil yang
diperoleh siswa setelah kegiatan pemberian tindakan. Tes mengarang
diberikan pada awal kegiatan penelitian untuk mengidentifikasi
kekurangan atau kelemahan siswa dalam mengarang dan setiap akhir
Dengan perkataan lain, tes disusun dan dilakukan untuk mengetahui
tingkat perkembangan kemampuan menulis siswa sesuai dengan siklus
yang ada.
e. Teknik Pemeriksaan Validitas Data
Suatu informasi yang akan dijadikan data penelitian perlu diperiksa
validitasnya sehingga data tersebut dapat dipertanggungjawabkan dan
dapat dijadikan sebagai dasar yang kuat dalam menarik simpulan.
Teknik yang digunakan untuk memeriksa validitas data antara lain
adalah triangulasi dan review informan kunci
Triangulasi adalah teknik pemeriksanaan validitas data dengan
memanfaatkan sarana di luar data itu untuk keperluan pengecekan atau
pembandingan data itu (Lexy 7. Moleong, 1995: 178). Teknik
triangulasi yang digunakan antara lain berupa triangulasi sumber data
dan triangulasi metode pengumpulan data. Misalnya, untuk
mengetahui kesulitan-kesulitan yang dihadapi siswa dalam kegiatan
mengarang dan faktor-faktor penyebabnya, peneliti melakukan hal-hal
berikut: (1) memberikan tes mengarang dan selanjutnya menganalisis
hasil karangan itu untuk mengidentifikasi kesalahan yang masih
mereka buat dan (2) melakukan wawancara dengan guru untuk
mengetahui pandangan guru tentang hambatan-hambatan yang dialami
siswa dalam mengarang, fasilitas pembelajaran yang dimiliki atau
tidak dimiliki sekolah, kegiatan pembelajaran mengarang di kelas,
penilaian yang dilakukan guru, dan sebagainya.
Review informan kunci adalah mengkonfirmasikan data atau
interpretasi temuan kepada informan kunci sehingga diperoleh
kesepakatan antara peneliti dan informan tentang data atau interpretasi
temuan tersebut. Hal ini dilakukan melalui kegiatan diskusi antar tim
peneliti setelah kegiatan pengamatan maupun kajian dokumen.
f. Teknik Analisis Data
Teknik analisis yang digunakan untuk menganalisis data-data yang
komparatif (statistik deskriptif komparatif) dan teknik analisis kritis.
Teknik statistik deskriptif komparatif digunakan untuk data kuantitatif,
yakni dengan membandingkan hasil antarsiklus. Peneliti
membandingkan hasil sebelum penelitian dengan hasil pada akhir
setiap siklus. Misal: membandingkan rerata nilai kemampuan menulis
siswa pada kondisi sebelum tindakan, setelah siklus I, setelah siklus II,
dan seterusnya. Teknik analisis kritis berkaitan dengan data kualitatif.
Teknik analisis kritis mencakup kegiatan untuk mengungkap
kelemahan dan kelebihan kinerja siswa dan guru dalam proses belajar
mengajar berdasarkan kriteria normatif yang diturunkan dari kajian
teoretis maupun dari ketentuan yang ada. Hasil analisis tersebut
dijadikan dasar dalam menyusun perencanaan tindakan untuk tahap
berikutnya sesuai dengan siklus yang ada. Analisis data dilakukan
bersamaan dan/atau setelah pengumpulan data.
g. Indikator Kinerja
Pada bagian ini perlu dikemukakan atau dirumuskan indikator
sebagai tolok ukur keberhasilan penelitian yang dilakukan. Indikator
kinerja merupakan rumusan kinerja yang akan dijadikan acuan dalam
menentukan keberhasilan atau keefektifan penelitian.
Contoh:
Peningkatan kemampuan menulis siswa.
Misalnya:
Anak yang memperoleh nilai 7,5 lebih dari 70 %
Nilai rata-rata menulis siswa meningkat (dari 60 menjadi 77)
H. Jadwal Penelitian
penyusunan jadwal PTK mengacu pada proses pelaksanaan
tahapan PTK, seperti pre research, planning, Action, Observation,
No. Kegiatan Waktu Pelaksanaan
Bagian ini memuat semua sumber pustaka yang digunakan dalam
penelitian. Penulisan daftar pustaka disusun urut berdasarkan
abjad. Masing- masing referensi ditulis urut berdasarkan nama,
tahun, judul buku, kota penerbit, nama penerbit. Judul buku dicetak
miring.
Contoh:
Hopkins, David. 1993. A Teacher’s Guide to Classroom Reasearch. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Nunan, David. 1998. Language Teaching Methodology. London:
Prentice Hall International.
Straus, Anselm & Corbin, Juliet. (2003). Dasar-dasar Penelitian
(Terjemahan oleh Muhammad Shodiq dan Imam
Muttaqien). Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Offset.
Suwandi, Sarwiji. (2004). “Pemantapan Peran Bahasa Kebangsaan sebagai Alat Kohesi Nasional” dalam Katharina Endriati Sukamto (Ed.). Menabur Benih Menuai Kasih. Jakarta:
Yayasan Obor Indonesia.
III. Penyusunan Rancangan Proposal PTK untuk Perbaikan
Pembelajaran
Rancangan proposal Penelitian Tindakan Kelas terdiri dari beberapa
tiga bagian utama yaitu introduction (Pendahuluan), theoritical review
(Kajian Pustaka), dan research method (metode penelitian).
Bagian Pendahuluan terdiri atas background of the study (latar
belakang masalah), problem statements (rumusan masalah), objective of
the study (tujuan penelitian), dan benefits of the study (manfaat
penelitian).
Bagian Kajian Teori (Theoritical review) berisi tentang teori-teori yang
mendukung topik atau judul penelitian. Berkaitan dengan judul di bawah
ini maka kajian teorinya terdiri atas review on speaking, review on
audio-lingual method, review on Youtube video, teaching speaking through
audio-lingual method, dan penelitian terkait sebelumnya.
Bagian Metodologi Penelitian terdiri atas setting, metode penelitian,
metode pengumpulan data, dan metode analisis data.
Masing-masing bagian tersebut bisa dilihat pada contoh di bawah ini:
Judul. Improving Students' Speaking Skill through Audio-lingual Method by Using YouTube Videos (A Classroom Action Research at the Twelfth Grade
Students of SMA 2 Magetan in Academic Year 2010/2011)
Introduction ... ...
A. Background of the Study ... ...
C. Objectives of the Study ... ...
D. Benefits of the Study ... ...
Theoretical Review ... ... ...
A. Review on Speaking ... ...
1) The Nature of Speaking ... ...
2) The Elements of Speaking ... ...
3) Micro and Macro Skill of Speaking ... ...
4) Teaching Speaking Skill ... ...
a. Problems and Solutions to Overcome Speaking Activity ..
b. Principles in Designing Speaking Techniques ...
c. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance ...
5) Testing Speaking ... ...
a. The Types of Speaking Test ... ...
b. The Scoring Rubric ... ...
B. Review on Audio-Lingual Method ... ...
1) The Nature of Audio Lingual Method ... ...
2) The Characteristics of Audio-lingual Method ...
3) The Advantages of Audio-lingual Method ...
C. Review on YouTube Videos ... ...
1) The Nature of Video ... ...
2) The Benefits of Video ...
D. Teaching Speaking through Audiolingual Method by Using Videos .
1) Teaching Speaking through Audio-lingual Method...
2) The Use of YouTube Video in Teaching Speaking through
Audio-lingual Method ... ...
E. Review on Related Research ... ...
1) Review on Related Research to the Use of the Audio-lingual
Method in Teaching Speaking ...
2) Review on Related Research to the Use of the YouTube
Video in Teaching Speaking ... ...
F. Rational ... ...
Research Method ... ...
A. The Context of the Study ... ...
B. The Method of The Research: Action Research ... ...
1) The Nature of Action Research ... ...
2) Characteristics of Action Research ... ...
3) The Models of Action Research ...
4) The Procedure of Action Research ... ...
C. The Technique of Collecting Data... ...
D. The Technique of Analyzing Data ... ...
IV. Output Workshop = Proposal PTK
Berdasarkan kerangka yang telah dipaparkan di atas, proposal penelitian
tindakan kelas dapat dikembangkan sebagai berikut:
Introduction
A.Background of the Study
Today, education is doing a basic innovation related to the school
curriculum. The innovation demands the use of media and the learning method.
The National Education Department has changed the previous
curriculum-Competence Based Curriculum – into the new one called Kurikulum Tingkat
Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) and in English language it is called by School Level
Based Curriculum (SLBC). One of the English teaching aims in Senior High School is to develop the students’ competence in communicating both oral and written language to resolve their daily problems. The communicative competence
taught in learning English covers four skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing
(Permendiknas No.23, 2006).
In School Level Based Curriculum or Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan (KTSP) 2006, students of the twelfth grade of SMA/MA are expected
to achieve the following competences in speaking. In standard competence, the
students can express meaning in a short functional text and a monologue
organized as narrative, explanation, and discussion in the daily life context. While
text, formal and informal, by using accurate, fluent and acceptable oral language
in the context of daily life organized as narrative, explanation, and discussion.
Based on the standard of competence and basic competence stated by the
curriculum, it is assumed that the twelfth grade students of SMA are skilful in
speaking short functional texts, narrative, explanation, and discussion. Yet, in fact,
the students of class XII IPA 1 of SMA 2 Magetan in academic year 2011/2012
were not able to fulfill what the curriculum demands. That was what the
researcher found when she was conducting her pre-observation to students of the
twelfth grade (XII IPA 1) of SMA 2 Magetan. She found that the students were
great at answering some extracted questions, but when they had to use English in
an oral way spontaneously, they found themselves difficult to do so. It was emphasized by the classroom teacher’s statement. He said “Kalau secara teori dia itu bagus, tapi kalau suruh praktek gak bisa. Malah pada diem, akhirnya kelasnya jadi sepi.” In other words, most of the students in the classroom are passive in joining the teaching learning process especially in speaking, because they have
difficulties in using the language in real communication.
It was revealed through pre-research questionnaires distributed to the
students that they faced difficulties in speaking, there are: on which 32 of 39
students (91.4%) have difficulties in pronunciation, 32 of 39 students (91.4%)
have difficulties in vocabulary, and 34 of 39 students (87.18 %) have difficulties
in fluency.
Beside questionnaire and interview, the fact that the students lacked
speaking skill on narrative was also supported by the findings of pre test
conducted by the researcher on March 9th, 2011 which showed that the students'
mean score on speaking was only 50.58. Meanwhile, the students' individual score
ranged from 33.0 as the lowest score until 76.0 as the highest score and only three
of 40 students passed the minimum score required by the school, namely 70.0.
Based on the pre test, it was found that the students faced several language
skills problems reflected on their performance in speaking. Those include: (1)
students not able to pronounce the distinctive sounds of a language clearly enough
so they cannot distinguish them, (2) students not able to put words together in
correct word order (cannot using proper language function), (3) students cannot
logically, and (5) students cannot produce fluent speech at different rates of
delivery.
In addition to these language skills problems, there were also several
classroom situation problems reflected in the situation of speaking class itself. The
classroom situation problems included: (1) the classroom situation is very noisy.
Most students do non-academic activities rather than focus on the lesson, (2) the
students are not active and creative, it can be seen when they are asked to do
exercise, most of them only wait for their friend who have finished to do the
exercise, and then they just copy it, (3) students tend to refuse when teacher asks
them to practice in front of class, the students keep silent, (4) students do not give
full attention to the teacher, and (5) the teaching learning process is boring, which is shown by the students’ laying their head down on the table.
All these problems above might be well caused by several factors, namely: (1) the teacher’s merely asking the students to complete exercise book fails to boost students’ initiatives to speak, (2) the teacher seldom uses a media to support teaching and learning activity, (3) the students do not like to speak, because they
lack of vocabularies.
Speaking indeed is not as simple as it seen. Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. In other word, as Underwood (1997: 11) states: “speaking is creative process; speakers are almost always in the position of formulating what
they are saying as a result of the behaviour of their listeners or as a result of added thought of their own”. Speaking here means the individual’s ability in expressing his or her ideas. It needs not only physical performance but also psychological
performance to have a qualified speaking that is speaking in communicative and
correct way. In order to develop this communication skill the students must be
active, by not only mastering the theory but also having enough practices. Ur
(1996: 120) also provides some characteristics of successful speaking activity:
1. Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allotted to
the activity in fact occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but
often most time is taken up with teacher talk or pauses.
2. Participation is even.Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority
of talkative participants: all get a chance to speak, and contributors are
3. Motivation is high.Learners are eager to speak: because they are interested
in the topic and have something new to say about it, or because they want
to contribute to achieving a task objective.
4. Language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in
utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an
acceptable of language accuracy.
As solutions to overcome the problems above, the researcher proposes to use “YouTube videos” through Audio-lingual method to help the students improve their speaking skill. The videos used in this study were taken from
YouTube.com. It is a site that does not discriminate among its user (Langer, 2010:
74). YouTube videos are one of the audio visual media. They are easy to find out
because You Tube videos are a very popular web video sharing site that lets
anyone store short videos for private or public viewing. By using this media, the
students can compare their own voice with the pronunciation model. Besides,
there are some advantages to the teacher who uses YouTube videos in teaching
speaking. Harmer (2003: 290) states that video can enhance simulation, not only
because it can provide feedback when students can watch themselves and evaluate
their performance, but also because the presence of a video help to make media
more realistic. Furthermore, Stempleski and Tomalin (1990: 3) add that the
introduction of a moving picture component as a language teaching aid is a crucial addition to the teacher’s resources. It will help students through motivation, communication, non verbal aspects, and cross-cultural comparison.
a. Video presentation exploits students’ motivation in language learning
classroom. Children and adults feel their interest quicken when language is
experienced in a lively way though video.
b. Teachers have observed how a video sequenced used in class make students
more ready to communicate in the target language.
c. The American psychologist, Robert Merabian, has estimated that as much as
80 percent of our communications is non-verbal. Our gesture, expression,
posture, dress and surroundings are as eloquent as what we actually say video
allows us to see this in action and to freeze the moment to study the
d. Video offers cross-cultural comparison. Observing differences in cultural
behaviour is not suitable training for operating successfully in alien
community. It is also a rich resource for communication in the language
classroom.
In addition, to solve the students’ problems in speaking skill, as a good English teacher, he or she should be able to understand and select the appropriate
language teaching approach or technique to his students. This is very important
because a language teaching approach or technique gives many influences for
everything that he or she does in his/ her classroom. This is in line with Brown
(1994: 74) who says that an approach or theory of language and language learning
takes great importance. The approach to language teaching methodology is the
theoretical rationale that underlines everything that teachers do in the classroom.
As Prabhu points out in Tudor (1996: 120):
What the teacher does in the classroom is not solely, or even primarily,
determined by the teaching method he or she intends to follow. There is a
complex of other forces at play, in varied forms and degrees.
The method variable, then, plays a very important role in determining what goes
on in the classroom.
One of the language teaching methods which can be implemented to solve the senior high school students’ problems in speaking skill is Audio-lingual Method. Its focus was on the learner’s ability to gain the communicative skill of listening and speaking in target language. There are several reasons why Audio-lingual Method can improve the students’ speaking skill. According to James and Huckin (1997: 10), Audio-lingual method paid systematic attention to
pronunciation and intensive oral drilling of basic sentence patterns. Students were
taught grammatical points through examples and drills rather than through
analysis and memorization of rules. In addition, Nagaraj (1996:79) shows some
main features of the Audio-lingual method:
1. The Audio-lingual method treated each language skill separately:
2. This method focused primarily on the skill of listening and speaking, in accordance with Moulton’s first slogan: Language is speech, not writing.
3. The skill of writing and reading were not neglected, but the focus
throughout remained on listening and speaking.
4. Dialogues were the main feature of the audio-lingual syllabus, and
they were the chief means of presenting language items. They also
provided learners an opportunity to practice, mimic and memorize
bits of language.
5. Pattern drills were an essential part of his method and used as an
important technique for language teaching/ learning.
6. The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching
aid. It gave learners an opportunity to mimic a model and memorize
language patterns.
7. Like a direct method, the audio-lingual method too tried to avoid the
use of the mother tongue, though perhaps not so rigidly.
Finally, considering the characteristics of Audio-lingual method, YouTube
videos, the students' speaking skill, and the situation of speaking class, the
researcher had a strong belief that implementing Audio-lingual method by using
YouTube videos can improve the students' speaking skill.
B.Problem Statement
Related to the background of the study above, the problems in this
research are formulated into the following:
a. Does implementing Audio-lingual Method by using YouTube videos improve
speaking skill of XII IPA 1 students at SMA 2 Magetan in 2011/2012?
b. How is the class situation when Audio-lingual Method by using YouTube
videos is implemented in speaking class?
1. Identifying whether implementing Audio-lingual Method by using YouTube
videos improve speaking skill of XII IPA 1 students at SMA 2 Magetan in
2011/2012.
2. Describing the situation in the classroom when Audio-lingual Method by
using YouTube videos is implemented in speaking class.
D.Benefits of the Study
From the research findings, it is expected that there would be benefits
given to teacher, students, and other researchers. Those are:
a. For the students; the students can explore YouTube videos to practice speaking outside class, and the study can enhance the students’ ability in conducting speaking skill.
b. For the teacher; the teacher can use YouTube videos to refine his speaking
class by conducting collaborative action research through Audio-lingual
method, as well as he expected when this study was still lasting,
c. For other researchers; other researchers can use the findings of this study as a
basic for conducting further studies.
Literature Review
A.Review on Speaking 1. The Nature of Speaking
Speaking is often regarded as the most important skill to be mastered,
especially by one who learns language, speaking then can also be used as a tool to
measure if one knows a language so he will be referred as the speaker of the
language. Ur in his book (1996: 120) states:
“Of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing), speaking
seems intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred to as ‘speakers’ of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing, and many if not most foreign language learners are
primarily interested in learning to speak.”
The definition of speaking varies according to some experts. Nunan (1989:
utterance in a range of pronunciation. In addition, Burkart (1998) states that
speaking is an activity that involves three areas of knowledge, the first is
mechanics which include pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
According to Syakur (1987: 5), speaking is a complex skill because at least
it is concerned with components of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and
fluency.
1. Pronunciation
Pronunciation is the student’s way to utter English well. Besides, pronunciation is one of the difficult language components of a grammar made up
of the elements or principles to determine how sound vary and pattern in a
language.
2. Vocabulary
Vocabulary means the appropriate diction which is used in conversation.
Without having a sufficient vocabulary, one cannot communicate effectively or
express ideas in both oral and written form. Having limited vocabulary is also a
barrier that precludes learners from learning a language. Language teachers,
therefore, should process considerable knowledge on how to manage an
interesting classroom so that the learners can gain a great success in their
vocabulary learning.
3. Grammar
It concerns with how to arrange a correct sentences in conversation. It is in
line with explanation given by Lewis and Hill (1997:82) that it can develop the
ability to understand and respond quickly, and the ability to articulate. The utility
of grammar is also to learn the correct way to gain expertise in a language in oral
and written form.
4. Fluency
It can be defined as the ability to speak fluently and accurately suited with
professional necessity. Basically, being fluent means able to keep the language
coming. There may be mistakes, fillers and repetition, but there are no unusually
long pauses in the flow of talk. In interactive speaking activities, the instructors
are trying to get the students to communicate their own ideas, opinion and wishes.
The emphasis on fluency implies two things. First, an error correction policy
instructors should encourage the risk taker. Second, the activities the instructor
present should reflect promote fluency.
From the definition above, it can be concluded that speaking is ability to
say something which involves the ability in using the word in the correct order,
correct pronunciation, right grammatical form, fluency and choice of words in
meaningful context (vocabulary) in the process of interpreting and negotiating
meaning in conveying message to establish and maintain communication.
2. The Elements of Speaking
Language is a tool used to communicate with others. One of the ways is by
speaking. In order to express their ideas in the spoken form, they should
understand some elements of speaking. Harmer (2003: 269-270) proposes four
elements for spoken production: (1) connected speech: effective speakers of
English need to be able not only to produce the individual phonemes (as in saying
I would have gone) but also the use fluent connected speech (as in I’d’ve gone); (2) expressive devices: native speakers of English change the pitch and stress of
particular parts of utterance, very volume and speed, and shown by other physical
and non verbal (paralinguistic) means how they are feeling; (3) lexis and
grammar: spontaneous speech is marked by the use of a number of common
lexical phrase, especially in the performance of certain language functions; (4)
negotiation language: effective speaking benefits from the negotiatory language
we use to seek clarification and to show the structure of what e are saying.
3. Micro and Macro Skill of Speaking
Brown (1994: 257) mention some micro and macro skill of speaking, there
are:
a. Produce chunks of language of different lengths.
b. Orally produce differences among the English phoneme and
allophonic variants.
c. Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed
positions, rhythmic structure, and intonational contours.
d. Produce reduced forms of words and phrases.
e. Use an adequate number of lexical units (words) in order to
f. Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery.
g. Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic
devices-pauses, fillers, self-corrections, backtracking-to enhance
the clarity of the message.
h. Use grammatical word classes (noun, verbs, etc.), system (e.g.,
tense, agreement, pluralization), word order, patterns, rules, and
elliptical forms.
i. Produce speech in natural constituents-in appropriate phrases,
pause groups, breath groups, and sentence constituents.
j. Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms.
k. Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse.
l. Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to
situations, participants, and goals.
m. Use appropriate registers, implicature, pragmatic conventions, and
other sociolinguistic features in face-to-face conversations.
n. Convey links and connections between events and communicate
such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information,
given information, generalization, and exemplification.
o. Use facial features, kinesics, “body language”, and other nonverbal
cues along with verbal language in order to convey meanings.
p. Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as
emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for
interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and
accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding
you.
Micro and macro skills are the way the students organize the features of
language. Based on micro and macro skills above, the students have to: (1) orally
produce differences among English phonemes and stress patterns, (2) produce
reduce forms of words and phrases, (3) use grammatical word classes (nouns,
verbs, etc.), system (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), (4) produce fluent
4. Teaching Speaking Skill
a. Problems and Solutions to Overcome Speaking Activities
Teaching speaking is not an easy job. There are many problems in
teaching speaking. In teaching speaking, teacher or lecturer should recognize the
difficulties and problems encountered by learners in following the speaking
activities. Ur (1996: 121) mentions that there are four common problems dealing
with speaking activities faced by learners, they are as follows:
1) Inhibition
Differs with other skill activities, in speaking activities, learners are often
inhibited about trying to say things in another language in the classroom
because of afraid of making mistakes, fearful of criticism or loosing face, shy,
etc.
2) Nothing to say
Sometimes learners cannot produce any utterances because of they have no
motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be
speaking.
3) Low or uneven participation
The tendency of domination of minority learners who are good in speaking in
the activities will make the others have little time or chance to participate.
4) Mother-tongue use
In a class where the learners share the same mother tongue, they tend to use it
since it is easier for them to do that.
Ur (1996: 121-122) also mentioned some ideas to overcome those
problems, here are the ideas:
1) Use group work
It is increases the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period
and lowers the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of
the full class.
2) Base the activity on easy language
Generally, language used in a discussion is lower than the language used in
and produced by participants. This is useful to let them speak fluently with
minimum hesitations.
3) Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest
The clearer the purpose of the discussion, the more motivated participants
will be.
4) Give some instruction or training in discussion skills
If the task is based on group discussion then include instructions about
participation when introducing it.
5) Keep students speaking the target language
Teacher has to monitor how well the group teamwork is run. Teacher has to
be as close as possible to the group to keep the students talk speaking in the
target language.
b. Principles in Designing Speaking Techniques
Brown (1994: 268-270) mentions that there are some principles in
designing speaking techniques must be known by teachers and lecturers, they are
as follows:
1) Techniques should cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based
focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and
fluency.
Teachers can use many attractive techniques as jigsaw technique, games,
discussion. However, they have to make sure that the technique designed to
help learners perceive and use the building blocks of language. In the same
time, try to make any drilling activities as meaningful as possible, so it will
interest the learners.
2) Techniques should be intrinsically motivating.
Teachers have to try at all times to appeal the learners’ ultimate goals and interest, to their need for knowledge, for status, for achieving competence, autonomy, and for “being all that they can be”.
3) Techniques should encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful
Teachers should provide authentic contexts and meaningful interaction in the
classroom.
4) Provide appropriate feedback and correction.
By giving appropriate feedback and correction, it will be very useful for the learners’ development in learning language.
5) Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.
Teachers should integrate the two skills since both can reinforce each other.
Skills in producing language are often initiated through comprehension.
6) Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.
Teachers need to design conditions where the conditions are supporting the
learners to initiate oral communication, for example, asking questions, giving
directions, providing information. It is expected to be able to lead the students
to increase the oral communicative competence that includes the ability to
initiate conversation, to nominate topics, to ask questions, to control
conversation, and to change the subject.
7) Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
The concept of strategic competence is one that few beginning language
learners are aware of. Students can be aware of oral communicative purposes
by practicing such strategies as follows:
a)Asking for clarification (what?)
b)Asking someone to repeat something (Huh? Excuse me?)
c)Using fillers (Uh, I mean, Well) in order to gain time to process.
d)Using conversation maintenance cues (Uh huh, Right, Yeah, Okay, Hm)
e)Getting someone’s attention (Hey, Say, So)
f)Using paraphrases for structures one can’t produce
g)Appealing for assistance from the interlocutor (to get a word or phrase, for
example)
h)Using formulaic expression (at the survival stage) (How much does_cost?
How do you get to the_?)
It can be concluded that the techniques should cover the language-based
focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency
by drilling activities as meaningful as possible.
c. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance
Brown in his book entitled Teaching by Principles (1994: 266-268)
mentions that there are six types of classroom speaking performance, they are:
1) Imitative
In this type of speaking performance, learners spend their time to
initiate speech, for example, they are practicing an intonation contour, trying
to pinpoint a certain vowel sound, etc. intonation of this kind is carried out
not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some
particular element of language form. A type that can be concluded in this type
and can be classified in the communicative language classroom is drilling.
Drills offer students an opportunity to listen and to repeat certain string a
language that may pose some linguistic difficulty – enter phonological or
grammatical.
Here are some guidelines for successful drills:
a) Keep them short (a few minutes of class hour only)
b) Keep them simple (preferably just one point at a time)
c) Keep them “snappy”
d) Make sure students know why they are doing the drill
e) Limit them to phonology and grammar points
f) Make sure they ultimately lead to communicative goals
g) Don’t overuse them
2) Intensive
This type is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical
aspect of language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated or it can be even
from part of some pair work activity.
3) Responsive
This activity is short replies to the teacher or students initiated
4) Transactional (dialogue)
Transactional is an extended form of responsive language.
Transactional dialogue is not just limited to give the short respond but it can
convey or exchange specific information.
5) Interpersonal (dialogue)
Interpersonal dialogue is designed for maintaining social relationships
than for the transmission of fact or information. This conversation involves
some or all the following factors:
a) A casual register
b) Colloquial language
c) Emotionally charge language
d) Slang
e) Ellipsis
f) Sarcasm
g) A covert “agenda”
6) Extensive (Monologue)
The form of monologues can be as oral reports, summaries, or
perhaps, short speeches. These monologues can be planned or impromptu.
This speech is designed for students at intermediate and advanced level.
5. Testing Speaking a. The Types of Speaking Test
Thornbury (2005: 125-126) mentions the most commonly used spoken test
types are these:
1) Interviews: these are relatively easy to set up, especially if there is a room
apart from the classroom where learners can be interviewed.
2) Live monologues: the candidates prepare and present a short talk on a
pre-selected topic.
3) Recorded monologues: these are perhaps less stressful than a more public
performance and, for informal testing, they are also more practicable in a way
that live monologues are not.
4) Role-play: most students will be used to doing at least simple role-plays in
5) Collaborative task and discussions: these are similar to role-plays except that
the learners are not required to assume a role but simply to be themselves.
The kind of oral production that students are expected to carry out in the
classroom is live monologue. Students at intermediate to advanced levels are
called on to give extended monologues in the form of oral reports, or summaries.
b. The Scoring Rubric
Ur (1996: 135) provides five points as the scale for rating the accuracy and
five points as the scale for rating the fluency of English of second language
learners. The students are tested on fluency and accuracy, and may get a
maximum of five points on each of these two aspects, ten points in all. The scale
can be seen in the table 2.1 below:
Table 2.1. The Scale of Speaking Test
Accuracy Score
Little or no language produced 1
Poor vocabulary, mistakes in basic grammar, may
have very strong foreign accent 2
Adequate but not rich vocabulary, makes obvious
grammar mistakes, slight foreign accent 3
Good range of vocabulary, occasional grammar slips,
slight foreign accent 4
Wide vocabulary appropriately used, virtually no
grammar mistakes, native-like or slight foreign
accent
5
Fluency Score
Little or no communication 1
Very hesitant and brief utterances, sometimes
difficult to understand 2
Gets ideas across, but hesitantly and briefly 3
