Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1998] 2 6 0 –2 6 9 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Calculating the cost of an undergraduate Initial

Teacher Education (ITE) course

Neil Burton

Ne ne Co lle ge o f Highe r Educ atio n, No rthampto n, UK

Through a documentary analysis approach, the data included in the validation documentation for a new course designed for under-graduate Initial Teacher Education are used in an attempt to calculate the direct costs of the course. The portion of the costs that are visible are then compared to the pricing policy of the funding agency involved. The devolution of fi nancial responsibility within higher education is suggested as a means of making courses more responsive to market trends.

Introduction

T h i s p a p er offer s a n a p p r oa ch t o ex a m i n i n g t h e cos t s i n cu r r ed by a n i n s t i t u t i on of h i gh er ed u ca t i on op er a t i n g a n u n d er gr a d u a t e In i -t i a l Tea ch er E d u ca -t i on (IT E ) cou r s e. T h e ca s e s t u dy w i ll focu s on a n ew ly p la n n ed cou r s e w h i ch h a s b een d es i gn ed t o op er a t e u n d er ex i s t i n g Gover n m en t , De p a r t m en t for E d u ca t i on a n d E m p loy m en t (DF E E ), r e gu la -t i on s. T h e i n s -t i -t u -t i on , by com m i -t -t i n g -t o r em a i n a p r ov i d er of IT E cou r s es, m a d e t h e d eci s i on t o ch a n ge fr om a fou r - t o a t h r ee-yea r u n d er gr a d u a t e cou r s e m a i n ly on gr ou n d s of m a i n t a i n i n g r ecr u i t m en t (s t u d en t ) n u m b er s a n d t h e av a i la b i li t y of t r a n s i -t i on a l fu n d i n g r a -t h er -t h a n a n ob jec-t ive v i ew of lon g-t er m cos t s a n d i n com e. An a ly s i s of t h i s a p p r oa ch t o cou r s e cos t i n g w i ll b e i n t h e con t ex t of r ecen t p r on ou n cem en t s by t h e ed u ca t i on fu n d i n g b ody, t h e Tea ch er T r a i n -i n g Agen cy (T TA), on fu t u r e IT E p r -i c-i n g p oli cy.

Approaches to financial planning

and budgeting in education

A s i gn i fi ca n t p r ob lem of t h i s s t u dy h a s b een t h e r ela t ive la ck of p r ev i ou s li t er a t u r e on t h e s u b ject of cos t i n g cou r s es i n h i gh er ed u ca -t i on . T h e m a jor i -t y of -t h e av a i la b le li -t er a -t u r e con cer n ed w i t h ed u ca t i on a l m a n a gem en t (Br ook b a n k a n d An d er s on , 1992; Bu s h , 1986,1989; Bu s h et a l., 1980; Cr aw for d et a l., 1994; Si lver, 1983; Wes t Bu r n h a m , 1992) con -cen t r a t es on t h e p er s on n el m a n a gem en t a s p ect s r a t h er t h a n fi n a n ci a l m a n a gem en t . E ven w h en t h e con t r ol of ed u ca t i on a l fi n a n ces a r e con s i d er ed , i t i s fr eq u en t ly i n t er m s of t h e a lloca t i on of d evolved fu n d i n g t o p a r t i cu la r ed u ca t i on a l r es ou r ces (Bu s h a n d Wes t -Bu r n h a m , 1994). T h e over w h elm i n g b u lk of t h e av a i la b le li t er a t u r e con cen t r a t es on fu n d i n g i s s u es (Boot h , 1996; M a ce, 1995; T H E S, 1994, 1995a , 1995b ; Ty s om e, 1996; Wi lli a m s, 1994).

T h i s a p p r oa ch , of con cen t r a t i n g on av a i l-a b le fu n d s r l-a t h er t h l-a n t h e l-a ct u l-a l cos t s, t en d s t o b e en cou r a ged by t h e fu n d i n g b od i es i n Br i t i s h ed u ca t i on w h i ch r ely, t o a ver y la r ge ex t en t , on “for m u la ” m et h od s t o a r r ive a t

a lloca t i on s for p a r t i cu la r i n s t i t u t i on s. Lev a ci c (1989) d er i d es t h e for m u la m et h od u s ed for fu n d i n g s ch ools, i n t h a t ea ch loca l ed u ca t i on a u t h or i t y (LE A) h a s a d i ffer en t for m u la , w h i ch i s b a s ed on h i s t or i ca l cos t -i n gs, a n d t h es e d o n ot r ela t e t o ed u ca t -i on a l a ct iv i t y i n ot h er t h a n gr os s t er m s.

T h i s “t op -d ow n ” m od el for ces ed u ca t i on a l m a n a ger s, given a n ever d ecr ea s i n g r es ou r ce a lloca t i on (i n r ea l t er m s ), t o a t t em p t t o m a k e s av i n gs w i t h ou t a n y en cou r a gem en t t o d i s -cover t h e a ct u a l cos t s of t h e va r i ou s a s p ect s of t h e cou r s e p r ogr a m m es. Beca u s e t h e for -m u la i s d evelop ed fr o-m a n “i n cr e-m en t a l b u d get i n g” a p p r oa ch t o cos t i n g, t h i s i s t h e a p p r oa ch t h a t i n s t i t u t i on s a r e i m p li ci t ly en cou r a ged t o follow. As Lev a ci c (1990) n ot es a b ou t i n cr em en t a l bu d get i n g or h i s t or i ca l fu n d i n g:

i t d oes n ot p r ov i d e a coh er en t a n d i n t e-gr a t ed a p p r oa ch t o m a n a gem en t p la n n i n g w h i ch li n k s r es ou r ce a lloca t i on t o t h e a ch i evem en t of i n s t i t u t i on a l a i m s or p u r p os es.

In s i m p le t er m s, t h e r es ou r ce or fu n d i n g a lloca t i on of p r ev i ou s yea r s d i ct a t es t h e a lloca t i on i n s u b s eq u en t yea r s – a s t ea dy s t a t e or s t a t i c a p p r oa ch w h i ch i s r a t h er a t od d s w i t h t h e dy n a m i c ch a n ges cu r r en t ly fa ci n g IT T.

Dy n a m i c s y s t em s a r e av a i la b le, m os t n ot a b ly t h e P P BS (p la n n i n g, p r ogr a m m i n g, b u d get i n g s y s t em ). T h i s s y s t em w a s d evel-op ed , w i t h i n a n ed u ca t i on a l con t ex t , for t h e Ca li for n i a St a t e De p a r t m en t of E d u ca t i on a n d p u bli s h ed i n t h e d ocu m en t “Con ce p t u a l d es i gn for a P P BS for Ca li for n i a Sch ool Di s -t r i c-t s ” i n 1969 a n d i m p or -t ed i n -t o Br i -t a i n by t h e a ccou n t a n t s Coop er s & Ly b r a n d w h i ch w er e d evelop i n g a n d w r i t i n g s u p p or t d ocu m en t a t i on for t h e i n t r od u ct i on of loca l m a n -a gem en t of s ch ools (LM S). It i s d es cr i b ed -a s “ob ject ive b u d get i n g” (Lev a ci c, 1990), w h er e t h e i n s t i t u t i on s et s clea r a i m s a n d a lloca t es r es ou r ces a ccor d i n gly a n d i n s o d oi n g i d en t i-fi es w h a t ex p en d i t u r e i s b ei n g i n cu r r ed for.

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Calc ulating the c o st o f an unde rgraduate Initial Te ac he r Educ atio n (ITE) c o urse Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 6 0 –2 6 9

s et t i n g of i n s t i t u t i on a l or cou r s e goa ls w i t h m ea s u r a b le ob ject ives, w h i ch a r e t h en cos t ed , w i ll lea d t o a s i t u a t i on w h er e:

T h e r e p r es s i on a n d d u lln es s of t h e cla s s -r oom w i ll i n r ea s e a n d w e w i ll h ave s u c-ceed ed i n cr u ci fy i n g ou r ch i ld r en on t h e cr os s of econ om i c effi ci en cy.

Br ock m a n (1989) s et s ou t t h e d i ffer en ces b et w een p r ogr a m a n d i n cr em en t a l bu d get -i n g (P B a n d IB):

1. P B r eflect s a n ed u ca t i on a l p la n ... 2. P la n n i n g i s h oli s t i c r a t h er t h a n i n cr

e-m en t a l...

3. P la n n i n g by p r ogr a m focu s es on t h e p r ogr a m s t h a t a r e n ew a s d i ffer en t i a t ed fr om t h os e t h a t a r e con t i n u i n g. It em p h a -s i -s e-s t h e m u lt i -yea r i m p a ct of n ew p r o-gr a m s....

4. All p r ogr a m s a ffect a ll ot h er p r ogr a m s i n t h e u n i t ...

5. IB i s eli m i n a t ed ..i n favou r of... zer o b a s ed b u d get i n g (ZBB)

6. Con t i n gen cy fu n d s w i ll n ot b e av a i la b le....

T h r ou gh t h i s p r oces s Br ock m a n (1989) ex p ect s i s s u es of fi n a n ce t o b ecom e a m or e u n d er s t ood a s p ect of t h e ed u ca t ion a l d eci s i on -m a k i n g p r oces s a t a ll levels. T h er e i s en cou r a gem en t t o d efi n e t h e p u r p os e of cou r s es, t o d efi n e clea r ly i d en t i fi a b le t a r get s a n d t o con s i d er d i ffer en t w a y s of a p p r oa ch -i n g p r ob lem s.

ZBB i s, i n s om e r es p ect s, a s i m p li fi ed ver -s i on of P P BS. “It i -s ”, a ccor d i n g t o Lev a ci c (1989), “a clea r a t t em p t t o avoi d h i s t or i ca l b u d get i n g”; a n d “ZBB i s les s com p li ca t ed i n P P BS b eca u s e i t on ly r eq u i r es t h e bu d get m a n a ger t o s p li t u p t h e bu d get i n t o d eci s i on u n i t s. A d eci s i on u n i t cou ld b e a d ep a r t m en t , a cu r r i cu lu m a r ea or a s er v i ce a r ea ”. So i n s t ea d of d efi n i n g “p r ogr a m m es ” for t h e P P BS, ex i s t i n g, r ecogn i s ed cos t cen t r es cou ld b e u s ed .

In com p a r i s on w i t h IB, ZBB em p h a s i s es t a k i n g a fr es h look a t cos t s i n cu r r ed . In cr e-m en t a li s e-m t en d s t o b e b a s ed a r ou n d a fi xed cor e a n d “d eci s i on s a r e b a s ed u p on la s t yea r ’s b u d get ” (Dav i es, 1994), ch a r a ct er i s ed a s “m u d d li n g t h r ou gh ”. Ar ea m a n a ger s, a ccor d i n g t o H a r k ley (1989), w i ll b e r eq u i r ed t o ju s t i fy r es ou r ce a lloca t i on s a n n u a lly, r a t h er t h a n a llow t h em t o r oll over

Dav i es (1994), wor k i n g on t h e p r em i s e t h a t t h e “bu d get i n g p r oces s i s a dy n a m i c on e”, offer s a com p r om i s e, of s or t s, b et w een t h e t r a d i t i on a l i n cr em en t a l a p p r oa ch a n d t h e m or e r a d i ca l ZBB. Us i n g h i s E d u ca t i on a l M a n a gem en t Cycle (F i gu r e 1) a s a s t a r t i n g p oi n t , h e h a s d evelop ed a “bu d get a r y cycle” (F i gu r e 2).

In t h e r ev i ew p a r t of t h e cycle, t h e cu r r en t p os i t i on i s ex p lor ed ; t h en a for eca s t i s m a d e u s i n g a m u lt i -yea r t i m e h or i zon (M YT H ),

con s i d er i n g a lt er n a t ive ch a n ges t o t h e over -a ll r es ou r ce b -a s e; t h e i m p lem en t -a t i on s t -a ge i s w h er e t h e bu d get i s a ct u a lly a lloca t ed ; a n d t h e ev a lu a t i on p h a s e ex a m i n es “h ow w ell t h e r es ou r ce a lloca t i on d eci s i on s h ave en a b led t h e i n s t i t u t i on t o m eet ob ject ives i n a n effec-t ive a n d effi ci en effec-t w a y ” (Dav i es, 1994). As a com p r om i s e, t h i s a p p r oa ch d oes t en d t o favou r t h e i n cr em en t a l a p p r oa ch . T h er e i s, p er h a p s, i n s u ffi ci en t i n ves t i ga t i on of t h e n a t u r e of cos t s i n t h i s a p p r oa ch t o b e a b le t o s u gges t s i gn i fi ca n t ch a n ges t o cu r r en t fu n d -i n g p a t t er n s.

St a r t i n g fr om “k n ow i n g w h a t s om et h i n g cos t s i s t h e fi r s t s t a ge i n w ei gh i n g of i t s v a lu e a ga i n s t t h a t cos t ”, F i eld en a n d P ea s on (1989) t a k e a n a lt er n a t ive a p p r oa ch t o ed u ca -t i on a l fi n a n ci a l m a -t -t er s. T h ey i d en -t i fy five ca t e gor i es of cos t s :

1 d i r ect – e.g. a ca d em i c s t a ff; 2 i n d i r ect – e.g. m a i n t en a n ce of t h e

gr ou n d s ;

3 m a r gi n a l – e.g. t h e cos t of a n ex t r a s t u d en t on a p a r t i cu la r cou r s e;

4 t ot a l – for t h e cou r s e or p er s t u d en t ; 5 op p or t u n i t y – t h e cos t of n ot b ei n g a b le t o

u s e t h e s a m e r es ou r ces t o p r ov i d e a n a lt er n a t ive cou r s e.

T h ey a ls o i d en t i fy w a y s of p er ceiv i n g a n y ou t com es or b en efi t s :

• m ea s u r a b le a n d r ea li s a b le ou t com es – e.g. ch a n gi n g t h e len gt h of t h e s t u d en t d ay ; • m ea s u r a b le bu t u n r ea li s a b le, e.g. r ed u ci n g

t ea ch i n g s es s i on s t o 55 m i n u t es ; • i m m ea s u r a b le ou t com es.

T h i s p r ov i d es a voca b u la r y a n d a b a s i c fr a m ew or k t o op er a t e w i t h i n bu t t h e p r a ct i -ca l i s s u es a r e left u n r es olved . J on es (1989) m a k es a n a t t em p t t o b r i n g m a t h em a t i ca l

Organis atio nal Obje c tive s

Budge ting Organis atio nal

Analys is Planning

Evaluatio n

Imple me ntatio n Figure 1

Educ atio nal manage me nt c yc le

Re vie w

Fo re c as ting Imple me ntatio n

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for m u la e t o t h e p r ob lem a lon gs i d e t h e a s s u m p t i on t h a t “t h e a i m of t h e op er a t i on a l m a n a ger i s t o r ed u ce u n i t cos t s ”, w h er e u n i t cos t i s d efi n ed a s :

cou r s e len gt h × h ou r s t a u gh t p er week n u m b er p r es en t ed for a s s es s m en t ×p a s s r a t e T h e over a ll cos t of a cou r s e b ei n g given by t h e ex p r es s i on :

[(C*H *W )/ X + M ]N Wh er e

C = eq u i p m en t cos t p er h ou r W = w eek s t a u gh t p er yea r H = h ou r s t a u gh t p er w eek X = op t i m u m n u m b er of s t u d en t s M = m a t er i a ls p er s t u d en t N = a ct u a l en r olm en t

Alt h ou gh d es i gn ed w i t h fu r t h er ed u ca t i on i n m i n d , w i t h op en en r olm en t a n d over s u p p ly of h i gh er ed u ca t i on p la cem en t s, i t i s b ecom -i n g a p r ogr es s -ively m or e a p p l-i ca b le m od el for H E .

Bi r ch (1989) d efi n es fou r s t e p s for p r ogr a m m ed b u d get i n g of colle ge-b a s ed cou r s es (F i gu r e 3):

1 s et a d m i s s i on s p oli cy (t a r get en r olm en t ); 2 ca lcu la t e t h e t ot a l s t u d en t h ou r s t h e

cou r s e w i ll r eq u i r e;

3 s et SSR (s t u d en t -s t a ff r a t i o) a n d aver a ge lect u r er h ou r s t o ca lcu la t e s t a ff cos t s t o s er v i ce s t u d en t s ;

4 ca lcu la t e d e p a r t m en t a l (i n t r a -cou r s e) cos t s.

Wi t h t h es e fi n a n ci a l t ools t h e d a t a ob t a i n ed t h r ou gh a n a n a ly s i s of t h e d efi n i t ive cou r s e d ocu m en t a t i on (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ) w i ll b e m a d e.

The funding of Initial Teacher

Education (ITE) and current course

regulations

T h e gover n m en t d e p a r t m en t w i t h r es p on s i -b i li t y for ed u ca t i on , T h e De p a r t m en t for E d u ca t i on a n d E m p loy m en t (DF E E ), w h i ch w a s for m a lly k n ow n a s t h e DF E a n d p r i or t o t h a t t h e De p a r t m en t of E d u ca t i on a n d Sci en ce (DE S), lay s d ow n r e gu la t i on s a s t o t h e s t r u ct u r e, len gt h a n d , t o s om e ex t en t ,

con t en t , of p r i m a r y IT T cou r s es. Fou r -yea r cou r s es, u n d er t h e 1987 r e gu la t i on s (DE S, 1989), a r e cu r r en t ly b ei n g p h a s ed ou t i n favou r of cou r s es d es i gn ed u n d er t h e r e gu la -t i on s fr om Ci r cu la r 14/ 93 (DF E , 1993).

T h er e a r e s ever a l m a jor d i ffer en ces i n cou r s e d es i gn , m os t n ot a b ly a r ed u ct i on i n t h e m od a l len gt h of cou r s e fr om fou r t o t h r ee yea r s (w i t h t h e s a m e q u a li fi ca t i on ); m or e t i m e s p en t i n s ch ool; a n a r r ow er r a n ge of s u b ject ex p er t i s e; a n d a n ex p ect a t i on t h a t s ch ools, w i t h a s u i t a b le t r a n s fer of fu n d i n g fr om H E , w i ll p lay a gr ea t er p a r t i n t h e p r o-fes s i on a l a s p ect s of t h e cou r s es.

T h e s i gn i fi ca n t t a s k of s t u d en t s ’ s ch ool ex p er i en ce s u p er v i s i on i s t r a n s fer r ed t o s ch ools, w i t h a n a p p r op r i a t e t r a n s fer of fu n d s fr om t h e IT T i n s t i t u t i on t o t h e s ch ool. As t h e r es p on s i ble b ody, H E n eed s t o en s u r e t h a t q u a li t y i s m a i n t a i n ed . T h i s t r a n s fer of r es p on s i b i li t y, fr om H E t o s ch ools, n eces s i-t a i-t es i-t h a i-t H E p r ov i d e i-t r a i n i n g i-t o en s u r e i-t h a i-t t ea ch er s, s u p er v i s i n g s t u d en t s i n s ch ools, a r e s u ffi ci en t ly k n ow led gea b le a b ou t t h e cou r s e r eq u i r em en t s a n d a r e s u ffi ci en t ly s k i lled t o b e a b le t o s u cces s fu lly p r ov i d e a p p r op r i a t e s u p p or t . T h er e i s a con s i d er a b le i m p li ca t i on for t r a i n i n g a n d a s s oci a t ed cos t s b u i lt i n t o t h i s t r a n s fer.

T h e fu n d i n g b ody for IT T i n h i gh er ed u ca -t i on , -t h e Tea ch er T r a i n i n g Agen cy (T TA), i s m ov i n g t ow a r d s a “p r i ce t a r i ff ” a p p r oa ch (T TA, 1996), w h er eby, follow i n g a t r a n s i t i on a l p er i od , a ll p r ov i d er s of IT T w i ll r eceive t h e s a m e fu n d i n g p er s t u d en t . T h e ex a m p le “p r i ce” of a p r i m a r y u n d er gr a d u a t e IT T s t u d en t (a s a n ex a m p le for 1996/ 97) i s s et a t £2,609 (a r r ived a t by ca lcu la t i n g t h e aver a ge fu n d i n g p er u n d er gr a d u a t e IT T s t u d en t i n t h e p r ev i ou s yea r ), r e ga r d les s of t h e d i ffer -en t n eed s of t h e s t u d -en t s a n d a ct u a l cos t s of t h e cou r s e. (It s h ou ld b e n ot ed t h a t u n d er t h e p r es en t s et of r e gu la t i on s for IT T cou r s es, a s t h e d u r a t i on of fu ll u n d er gr a d u a t e cou r s es, w i t h eq u iv a len t q u a li fi ca t i on s a n d a d m i s -s i on -s r eq u i r em en t -s, m ay b e ei t h er t h r ee or fou r yea r s, d i ffer en t cou r s es w i ll r eceive ei t h er t h r ee or fou r t i m es t h e p r i ce t a r i ff for “p r od u ci n g” a n eq u iv a len t “ou t p u t ”.)

pro je c t e nro lme nt

s e t o pe rating parame te rs

ave rage c o s t pe r s tude nt

to tal c o s t o f the c o urs e

c alc ulate c o s ts o f re late d ac tivitie s

c o mpare with the pro je c te d inc o me fo r the c o urse Figure 3

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Ad d i t i on a lly, fi n a n ci a l con s t r a i n t s h ave b een i m p os ed on h i gh er ed u ca t i on for s om e con -s i d er a b le t i m e. In r ea l t er m -s, t h e a m ou n t i n s t i t u t i on s r eceive i n fees for ea ch s t u d en t h a s b een fa lli n g for a n u m b er of yea r s i n r ea l a n d , i n s om e ca s es, a b s olu t e t er m s. As J a n d h ya la (1993) n ot es, “t h e cos t of h i gh er ed u ca -t i on r evolves a r ou n d -t h e cos -t of a ca d em i c s t a ff ”; con s eq u en t ly m os t i n s t i t u t i on s h ave a b s or b ed t h es e fi n a n ci a l cu t s by i n t r od u ci n g “p r od u ct iv i t y i m p r ovem en t s ” – i n effect , a llow i n g t h e SSR t o wor s en . At a t i m e of i n cr ea s i n g s t u d en t n u m b er s t h i s h a s b een r ela t ively ea s y t o a ch i eve, w i t h t h e ex i s t i n g s t a ffi n g a n d a ccom m od a t i on i n s t i t u t i on s h ave a t t h ei r d i s p os a l. In s t i t u t i on a l fu n d i n g, i n over a ll t er m s, h a s, a t t h e ver y lea s t , b een m a i n t a i n ed bu t on ly by a cce p t i n g i n cr ea s ed s t u d en t n u m b er s.

It i s t h e i n t en t i on of t h e T TA (1996) t o “r ew a r d ” h i gh q u a li t y p r ov i d er s by a llow i n g t h os e i n s t i t u t i on s t o b i d for ex t r a s t u d en t s, n ot by a llow i n g t h em t o ch a r ge a p r em i u m p r i ce. Si n ce p r ofes s i on a l p la cem en t s for s t u d en t s i n s ch ools w i ll b e r es t r i ct ed i n t h e v i ci n i t y of t h e i n s t i t u t i on , s t u d en t n u m b er s w i ll b e s elf-li m i t i n g – u n les s t h e i n s t i t u t i on w er e t o s et u p s a t elli t e cou r s es i n ot h er geo-gr a p h i ca l loca t i on s, or r em ove t h e n eed for s t u d en t s t o a t t en d ca m p u s -b a s ed cou r s es.

Costing a new undergraduate ITE

course – a case study using

documentary evidence

By t h e i n t a k e of 1999/ 2000 t h e fou r -yea r u n d er gr a d u a t e IT T cou r s e w i ll h ave b een p h a s ed ou t t o b e r e p la ced by t wo t h r ee-yea r BA(QT S) cou r s es – r e p r es en t i n g t h e m a i n d iv i s i on i n p r i m a r y ed u ca t i on i n s ch ools i n t h e cou n t r y, 47 a n d 711 yea r old s. As a m em -b er of t h e cou r s e d evelop m en t t ea m , t h e b a ck gr ou n d t o t h e cou r s e d ocu m en t a t i on (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ) i s k n ow n a n d s o ca n b e d i s cu s s ed h er e. T h i s d oes a ls o m ea n t h a t t h er e i s s om e i n cr ea s ed p ot en t i a l for a u t h or b i a s b eca u s e of t h e clos e r ela t i on s h i p w i t h t h e s u b ject m a t t er.

T h e p h i los op h i ca l i s s u es of t h e or ga n i s a -t i on a n d ed u ca -t i on a l d i r ec-t i on of -t h e n ew cou r s e w er e d i s cu s s ed by t h e cou r s e t ea m d u r i n g t h e d evelop m en t p er i od of 1995 t o 1996. T h e cos t s of t h e p r ov i s i on of s u ch a cou r s e w er e n ot on t h e a gen d a of t h e d evelop -m en t t ea -m s. T h ei r p r i -m e con s i d er a t i on , a lon gs i d e t h a t of en s u r i n g t h a t t h e cou r s e w ou ld b e of h i gh a ca d em i c a n d p r ofes s i on a l q u a li t y, w a s t o m eet t h e DF E (1993) cou r s e r eq u i r em en t s.

T h e b a s i c d es i gn w a s for t h er e t o b e t wo cou r s es, d et er m in ed by a ge-p h a s e s p ecia lis m ,

w h i ch wou ld h ave a s h a r ed cor e of s u b ject s p eci a li s t cou r s es, h en ce t h e d u a l d ocu m en -t a -t i on (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ) w h er e m a n y of t h e s ect i on s, or ga n i s a t i on a lly, a r e i d en t i ca l i n b ot h d ocu m en t s. An eq u a l n u m b er of s t u d en t s for ea ch a ge p h a s e w a s en v i s -a ged , w i t h e-a ch s t u d en t ch oos i n g -a s u b ject s p eci a li s m fr om : E n gli s h , m a t h em a t i cs, s ci en ce, geogr a p h y, h i s t or y, a r t , or p h y s i ca l ed u ca t i on – t h er e w a s a n ex p ect a t i on t h a t t h er e wou ld b e t w i ce a s m a n y s t u d en t s w i s h -i n g t o t a k e E n gl-i s h a s a n y ot h er s u b ject . P er i od s of s ch ool ex p er i en ce, t ot a lli n g 120 d ay s, w er e t o b e even ly s h a r ed b et w een t h e t h r ee yea r s, w i t h t ea ch er s a s s u m i n g t h e r es p on s i b i li t y for s t u d en t s u p er v i s i on i n s ch ool.

T h e t a u gh t s ect i on s of t h e cou r s es ca n b e s u b d iv i d ed i n t o t h r ee ca t e gor i es :

1 s u b ject s t u d i es – t h e s t u dy of a ll of t h e E n gli s h N a t i on a l Cu r r i cu lu m (DF E , 1995) s u b ject s for t h e p r i m a r y p h a s e p lu s r eli -gi ou s ed u ca t i on ;

2 p r ofes s i on a l s t u d i es – p ed a gogy a n d r ela t ed s t u d i es ;

3 s u b ject s p eci a li s m – s t u dy of a s u b ject t o a n a dv a n ced level w i t h s p eci a l r es p ect of t h e n eed s of t h e s u b ject co-or d i n a t or i n t h e p r i m a r y s ch ool.

All of t h es e a r ea s a r e s t u d i ed i n ea ch of t h e yea r s of t h e cou r s e.

Ta b le I s h ow s t h e con t a ct t i m e ex p ect a -t i on s for s -t u d en -t s, b u -t -t h ey w i ll, n a -t u r a lly, b e t a u gh t i n gr ou p s s o fr om t h i s p oi n t t h e SSR a n d a ct u a l gr ou p s i zes b ecom e a cr u ci a l d et er m i n a n t i n t h e ca lcu la t i on s. In a d d i t i on t o t h i s n u m b er of t a u gh t h ou r s t h er e a r e a s i m i la r n u m b er of h ou r s i d en t i fi ed a s “d i r ect ed t i m e”, i n w h i ch t a s k s s et by t h e colle ge a r e t o b e ca r r i ed ou t , a n d “s elf-s t u dy ”, w h i ch i elf-s elf-s elf-ex p la n a t or y (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ).

Ow i n g t o t h e p r ofes s i on a l n a t u r e of t h e cou r s e, s t u d en t s ca n ex p ect t o r eceive i n d i -v i d u a l t u t or a t t en t i on a t -v a r i ou s s t a ges t h r ou gh ou t t h ei r i n i t i a l p r ofes s i on a l d evel-op m en t . F i r s t , a ll s t u d en t s a r e a lloca t ed t wo h a lfh ou r t u t or i a ls p er yea r i n or d er t o d i s -cu s s t h ei r a ca d em i c a n d p r ofes s i on a l

Table I

Co ntac t time e xpe c tatio ns fo r s tude nts

Year Subject Professional Specialist

hours hours hours Totals

1 1 5 6 7 2 2 4 2 5 2

2 1 6 8 4 8 4 8 2 6 4

3 7 2 7 2 4 8 1 9 2

Total 3 9 6 1 9 2 1 2 0 7 0 8

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p r ogr es s a n d t o m a i n t a i n t h ei r r ecor d of p r ofes s i on a l d evelop m en t . Secon d , s t u d en t s w i ll r eceive t u t or s u p p or t w h i ls t on p er i od s of s ch ool ex p er i en ce, of b et w een s i x a n d 19.75 h ou r s d e p en d en t u p on t h e for m of p a r t n er -s h i p -s ch ool t h a t t h ey a r e p la ced w i t h .

T h e cou r s e d ocu m en t a t i on gives s ch ools t h e op p or t u n i t y t o p r ov i d e p r ofes s i on a l p la cem en t s for s t u d en t s a t t h r ee d i s t i n ct p a r t n er s h i p levels. At “level 1” s t u d en t s a r e fu lly s u p er v i s ed by colle ge-b a s ed s t a ff a n d , con s eq u en t ly, t h er e i s n o t r a n s fer of fu n d i n g t o s ch ools. “Level 3” p la cem en t s r ely en t i r ely on t h e s ch ools t o s u p er v i s e, for w h i ch a fee i s p aya b le, a n d p r ov i d e m u ch of t h e p r ofes -s i on a l -s u p p or t for t h e -s t u d en t -s w h i l-s t t h ey a r e i n s ch ool, a n d colle ge-b a s ed t u t or s v i s i t p u r ely t o m od er a t e m a r k i n g p r oced u r es a n d en s u r e q u a li t y t h r es h old s a r e m a i n t a i n ed . It ca n b e s u r m i s ed t h a t “level 2” p a r t n er s h i p s li e b et w een t h es e t wo ex t r em es a n d t h a t t h e s u p er v i s i on a n d s u p p or t r ole i s s h a r ed b et w een s ch ool a n d colle ge. Ta b le II s h ow s t h e n u m b er of t u t or h ou r s a n d t r a n s fer of fu n d i n g a t t a ch ed t o ea ch of t h e t h r ee levels i n ea ch of t h e t h r ee yea r s of t h e cou r s e.

F r om t h e fi gu r es p r ov i d ed i n Ta b les I a n d II, i t i s p os s i ble t o b e gi n t o ca lcu la t e t h e s t a ffi n g r eq u i r em en t for t h e cou r s e a n d fr om t h er e t h e cos t of s t a ffi n g t h e cou r s e. Follow -i n g t h e s t e p s s u gges t ed by B-i r ch (1989) t h e fi r s t d eci s i on t o b e m a d e i s on e of t a r get en r olm en t . Si n ce t h e T TA s et s fa i r ly p r e-d i ct a b le t a r get s for t h e r ecr u i t m en t of ea ch i n s t i t u t i on a n d p r i m a r y IT T cou r s es a r e i n v a r i a b ly over s u b s cr i b ed a t t h i s i n s t i t u t i on , t h en i t i s p os s i ble t o s et over a ll r ecr u i t m en t t a r get s w i t h a con s i d er a b le d e gr ee of con fi -d en ce.

Un for t u n a t ely t h er e a r e t h r ee s i gn i fi ca n t a r ea s of u n cer t a i n t y :

1 t h e b a la n ce b et w een t h e a ge p h a s es i s u n li k ely t o b e even ;

2 t h e d i s t r i bu t i on b et w een s u b ject s i s u n li k ely t o b e eq u i t a b le;

3 t h e n u m b er a n d level of p la cem en t s offer ed i s u n li k ely t o b e fu lly p r ed i ct a b le.

E ven s o t h e n u m b er of t u t or h ou r s ca n b e ca lcu la t ed w i t h i n li m i t s :

• n u m b er of t a u gh t h ou r s (gr ou p ) – 708; • n u m b er of t u t or h ou r s (i n d iv i d u a l) –22.75

(m a x ) t o n i n e (m i n ).

M ov i n g t o s t e p 3 of t h e Bi r ch (1989) a p p r oa ch , i t ca n b e s een t h a t b et w een n i n e a n d 22.75 h ou r s t h er e m u s t b e a n SSR of 1:1 a n d for t h e r em a i n i n g 708 i t ca n b e va r i ed a ccor d i n g t o i n s t i t u t i on a l p oli cy a n d n or m s. Som e i n s t i t u -t i on a l n or m s a r e com m on ly k n ow n w i -t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i on a n d wor k ed t ow a r d s a lt h ou gh , s t r i ct ly s p ea k i n g, t h ey ca n n ot b e ca lled “p oli cy ”. Ap a r t fr om la r ge lect u r es, t h e n or m a l t ea ch i n g gr ou p i s n ot ex p ect ed t o exceed 30 s t u d en t s a n d t u t or s s h ou ld n ot ex p ect m or e t h a n 450 s t u d en t con t a ct h ou r s p er yea r (t h ou gh t h e con t r a ct s t i p u la t es a m a x i m u m of 550) w h i ch r e p r es en t b et w een on e-t h i r d a n d on e-q u a r t er of t h e n u m b er of h ou r s a n a ca d em i c m i gh t b e n or m a lly ex p ect ed t o wor k d u r i n g a yea r. So, wor k i n g a t “m a x i m u m effi ci en cy ”, t u t or s s h ou ld t ea ch gr ou p s of 30 s t u d en t s for 450 h ou r s p er yea r.

At t h i s p oi n t t h e s i t u a t i on m i gh t b e a p p r oa ch ed a s a li n ea r p r ogr a m m i n g p r ob -lem w h er e t h e t u t or p a r a m et er s a r e k n ow n con s t r a i n t s, t h e r ela t ive cos t s of t h e d i ffer en t p a r t n er s h i p levels v a r i a b le con s t r a i n t s a n d t h e op t i m u m n u m b er s a n d d i s t r i bu t i on of s t u d en t s a r e t h e va lu es t o b e s ou gh t . T h i s cou ld t h en b e p lot t ed a ga i n s t t h e p r i ci n g p oli cy i n or d er t o m a x i m i s e r even u e,

r es ou r ce u s e or even p r ofi t . T h es e m u lt i -level ca lcu la t i on s wou ld b e ca r r i ed ou t by a com p u t er u s i n g a n a p p r op r i a t e s oft w a r e p a ck -a ge. Un for t u n -a t ely, t h i s r es e-a r ch er i s n ot aw a r e of t h e ex i s t en ce of s u ch a s oft w a r e p a ck a ge, t h ou gh t h e wor k of Lu cey (1996) s u gges t s t h a t t h ey a r e av a i la b le.

Si n ce a li n ea r p r ogr a m m i n g a p p r oa ch i s n ot fea s i ble i n t h i s i n s t a n ce, i t wou ld s eem a p p r op r i a t e t o u s e t h e av a i la b le d ocu m en t a -t i on -t o ch eck u n d er ly i n g a s s u m p -t i on s b efor e s et t i n g op er a t i on a l goa ls p r i or t o s eek i n g op t i m a l op er a t i on a l con d i t i on s. M a n y of t h e op er a t i n g con d i t i on s a r e s et by r e gu la t i on (DF E , 1993); for ex a m p le, for a d m i n i s t r a t ive p u r p os es i t wou ld b e m u ch les s ex p en s ive for t h e s t u d en t s t o h ave on e, lon g p r ofes s i on a l p la cem en t of 24 w eek s (t o m a k e u p t h e r eq u i r ed 120 d ay s i n s ch ool for a t h r ee-yea r cou r s e), bu t t h e r e gu la t i on s a ls o r eq u i r e t h e s t u d en t t o h ave ex p er i en ce of m or e t h a n on e s ch ool a n d h ave s ch ool ex p er i en ce i n ea ch of t h e yea r s of t h e cou r s e. Beyon d t h i s t h e d eci-s i on t o m a k e t h e p la cem en t eci-s a m i x t u r e of s er i a l (t h e s a m e d ay ea ch w eek over a p er i od of u p t o a s ch ool t er m ) a n d block (com p let ely s ch ool-b a s ed for a p er i od of u p t o h a lf a Table II

Numbe r o f tuto r ho urs and trans fe r o f funding

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

Level £ hrs £ hrs £ hrs

1 0 5 .7 5 0 7 0 7

2 1 2 5 3 .7 5 1 0 0 4 7 5 5

3 2 5 0 2 2 0 0 2 1 5 0 2

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s ch ool t er m ) i s a r gu ed i n t h e r a t i on a le of t h e cou r s e d ocu m en t a t i on (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ) on b ot h a ca d em i c a n d p r ofes s i on a l gr ou n d s (i n t er m s of t h e d evelop m en t of “r eflect ive p r a ct i ce”). In a d d i t i on , t h er e a r e a ls o or ga n i s a t i on a l gr ou n d s, con cer n i n g t h e m os t effi ci en t u s e of t h e av a i la b le a ccom m o-d a t i on – by en s u r i n g t h a t t h e s t u o-d en t s a r e “off ca m p u s ” on a cer t a i n d ay ea ch w eek t h r ou gh ou t a com p let e t ea ch i n g p er i od , t h i s w i ll r ed u ce t h e d em a n d for t ea ch i n g s p a ce on t h a t d ay. By h av i n g ea ch coh or t i n s ch ool on a d i ffer en t d ay, t h e d em a n d for t ea ch i n g s p a ce ca n b e s p r ea d t h r ou gh ou t t h e w eek a n d b et t er m a n a ged .

T h e a s s u m p t i on con cer n i n g t h e eq u i t a b le d i s t r i bu t i on of s t u d en t s b et ween s u b ject s a n d a ge p h a s es i s a ls o b or n e ou t by r efer en ce t o t h e d ocu m en t a t i on – i n p a r t i cu la r, t h e collect ed cu r r i cu lu m v i t a e of t h e cou r s e t ea m s. In or d er t o m a k e m os t effect ive u s e of t h e a ca d em i c a n d p r ofes s i on a l s t a ff av a i la b le cer t a i n s t u d en t d i s t r i bu t i on s a r e m or e d es i r -a b le t h -a n ot h er s.

By r efer en ce t o ot h er s ou r ces of d a t a , i t i s p os s i ble t o d et er m i n e t h e aver a ge cos t of a n ed u ca t i on t u t or – £26,000 p a . T h i s fi gu r e i s s i gn i fi ca n t ly h i gh er t h a n t h e aver a ge for a ca d em i cs i n ot h er a r ea s of t h e i n s t i t u t i on b u t i t i s ex p la i n ed by t h e CVs of t h e s t a ff, a ll of w h om h eld s en i or p os i t i on s (i .e. r ela t ively h i gh ly p a i d ) i n s ch ools p r i or t o m ov i n g i n t o h i gh er ed u ca t i on . E ven s o I h ave r ea s on t o b eli eve t h a t t h e t r u e fi gu r e i s h i gh er s t i ll a ft er t a k i n g i n t o a ccou n t “on cos t s ” s u ch a s p en s i on s.

It i s n ow p os s i ble t o b e gi n t o ca lcu la t e t h e t ot a l cos t of t h e cou r s e given a r a n ge of a lt er -n a t ive s ce-n a r i os. I-n i t i a lly, r efer r i -n g t o t h e “op t i m a l 1” s i t u a t i on i n t h e Ap p en d i x , i t ca n b e ca lcu la t ed fr om t h e av a i la b le d a t a given t h e a s s u m p t i on s con cer n i n g s t u d en t n u m b er s (T TA r e gu la t ed ) a n d s t u d en t d i s t r i bu -t i on , -t h a -t -t h e cou r s e ca n b e -t a u gh -t a -t -t h e cos -t of 9.71 ft e t u t or s. Given t h e s a la r y fi gu r es a b ove, t h i s b ecom es a d i r ect cou r s e cos t of £252,460 (or £1,402 p er s t u d en t ). If t h i s i s com p a r ed t o t h e s u b op t i m a l p os i t i on given i n t h e n ex t ex a m p le t h e cos t p er s t u d en t w i ll h ave r i s en t o £1,668.

Beca u s e of t h e con s t r a i n t s p la ced on t ot a l s t u d en t n u m b er s by t h e T TA, t h e p os i t i on “op t i m a l 1”, i s a s u b op t i m a l a r r a n gem en t – t h e s u b ject s p eci a li s t gr ou p s i zes aver a ge 25.7 s t u d en t s, b elow t h e m a x i m u m effi ci en t n u m b er of 30. To m a k e t h e p os i t i on t r u ly “op t i m a l” ei t h er t h e n u m b er of s u b ject s p e-ci a li s t gr ou p s w i ll n eed t o b e r ed u ced t o s i x (a fa ct or of b ot h 180 a n d 30) or s t u d en t n u m -b er s w i ll n eed t o -b e i n cr ea s ed t o 210. In or d er t o m a i n t a i n a n even b a la n ce b et w een t h e a ge p h a s es a n d a n op t i m u m p os i t i on , s t u d en t

n u m b er s w i ll n eed t o b e i n cr ea s ed fu r t h er t o 240. T h i s s cen a r i o, “op t i m a l 2”, gives a n aver a ge cos t p er s t u d en t of £1,364. Si m i la r op t i m u m p os i t i on s w i ll b e fou n d a t 60 s t u -d en t i n t er v a ls a b ove t h i s fi gu r e.

T h i s ju s t r e p r es en t s t h e cos t of t ea ch i n g w i t h i n colle ge; t o t h i s m u s t b e a d d ed t h e cos t s of i n d iv i d u a l t u t or i a ls a n d s ch ool p la ce-m en t s u p er v i s i on . By ex t en d i n g Ta b le II, a n d given t h e t u t or cos t of £58 p er h ou r

(£26,000/ 450), t h e cos t of p la cem en t s u p er v i s i on ca n b e ca lcu la t ed (Ta b le III). To com -p let e t h e a ca d em i c a n d -p r ofes s i on a l s t a ffi n g cos t s of t h e cou r s e a n a d d i t i on a l s u m of £174 (s i x h a lf-h ou r t u t or i a ls ) m u s t b e i n clu d ed .

Ta b le IV s h ow s t h e m a x i m u m a n d m i n i-m u i-m cos t s of s t a ffi n g t h e cou r s es u n d er t h e con d i t i on s of t h e t h r ee given s cen a r i os. As t h e cos t of a ca d em i c s t a ff i s r e ga r d ed a s a m a jor com p on en t of over a ll cos t s i t i s n ot a b le t h a t a ll of t h e t ot a ls a r e s i gn i fi ca n t ly les s t h a n t h e ex p ect ed fees i n com e fr om t h e cou r s e w h i ch i s £7,827 (£2,609 for t h r ee yea r s ).

T h er e a r e ot h er cos t s d i r ect ly r ela t ed t o t h e cou r s e, t h e m os t s i gn i fi ca n t n on -s t a ffi n g on es b ei n g s ch ool p la cem en t / p a r t n er s h i p ex p en s es a n d r e p r ogr a p h i cs. T h e aver a ge cos t t o t r a n s p or t s t u d en t s t o a n d fr om t h ei r p la cem en t s ch ool i s £2 p er d ay p er s t u d en t , or a p p r ox i m a t ely £80 p er s t u d en t p er yea r (Bu r t on , 1996). At p r es en t r e p r ogr a p h i cs i s ch a r ged p er s u b ject a n d , a s i n d iv i d u a l s u b -ject s a r e t a u gh t a cr os s cou r s es, a p p or t i on i n g cos t s t o p a r t i cu la r cou r s es i s p r ob lem a t i c. Bu t even i f t h e fu ll a m ou n t of t h e d ele ga t ed b u d get w a s a t t a ch ed t o t h es e cou r s es i t w ou ld s t i ll wor k ou t a t on ly £25 p er s t u d en t p er yea r (Dav i es, 1996).

It n ow b ecom es i n cr ea s i n gly d i ffi cu lt t o a t t a ch p a r t i cu la r cos t s t o p a r t i cu la r cou r s es, given t h e cu r r en t a ccou n t i n g s y s t em u s ed w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i on . In t r a -cou r s e cos t s (s t e p fou r of Bi r ch , 1989) a r e i d en t i fi ed by m ea n s of “t op -s li ci n g” a ll i n com e r eceived by t h e i n s t i t u t i on t o p ay cen t r a lly for s u p p or t a n d m a n a ger i a l s t a ff, a ccom m od a t i on , a n d a ll a d m i n i s t r a t ive a n d s u p p or t s er v i ces. T h i s a ls o en a b les t h e i n s t i t u t i on a l m a n a gem en t t o d i r ect fu n d s t o s u p p or t p a r t i cu la r i n i t i a t ives a n d a ct iv i t i es w h i ch d o n ot , d i r ect ly, gen er a t e i n com e (e.g. s om e for m s of i n t er n a lly -fu n d ed a ca d em i c r es ea r ch ).

Com p a r i n g t h e fi gu r e fr om Ta b le V w i t h t h e fees, £2,609 leaves a p p r ox i m a t ely £1,500 for i n t r a -cou r s e cos t s, es p eci a lly w h en i t m u s t b e con s i d er ed t h a t cer t a i n “a r t s ” u n d er gr a d u a t e cou r s es on ly a t t r a ct fees i n t h e r e gi on of £1,600 p.a . t o b e gi n w i t h .

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i n for m a t i on fr om w h i ch ca lcu la t i on s ca n b e gi n t o b e m a d e. Cer t a i n p a r a m et er s a n d con s t r a i n t s ca n b e i d en t i fi ed fr om t h e t ech n i ca l i n for m a t i on s u p p li ed w i t h i n t h e d ocu -m en t a t i on . At b es t t h ou gh , t h i s i s on ly a p a r t i a l v i ew of t h e cos t s a t t r i b u t a b le t o t h e cou r s e; ot h er d ocu m en t a t i on w i ll h ave t o b e s ou gh t , p a r t i cu la r ly t o d o w i t h r oom cos t s a n d t h e cos t of s u p p or t s er v i ces w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u t i on .

In m a n y r es p ect s, a d ocu m en t a r y a n a ly s i s a p p r oa ch t o t h e cos t i n g of a cou r s e i s t h e on ly effect ive op t i on av a i la b le. It i s on ly w h en t h e i n for m a t i on i s w r i t t en d ow n (i n a d ocu m en t of a n y for m a t ) t h a t t h e fi gu r es a n d con s t r a i n t s ca n b e a p p li ed a n d r efer r ed b a ck t o. F r om a gen er a l p er ce p t i on of wor k i n g w i t h fi n a n ci a l i n for m a t i on , for a n y d a t a t o b e w r i t t en d ow n a n d m a d e op en t o p u bli c s cr u t i n y, t h er e u s u a lly h a s b een s om e d e gr ee of ch eck i n g b efor eh a n d t o en s u r e con fi d en ce a n d r eli a b i li t y.

As w i t h a ll for m s of com m u n i ca t i on , t h e d a t a a r e op en t o i n t er p r et a t i on a n d t h e Defi n i t ive Docu m en t s (N en e Colle ge, 1996a , 1996b ) a r e n ot a n exce p t i on . In fa ct i t i s p r e-ci s ely b eca u s e of t h i s op en n es s t h a t t h ey a r e u s efu l t o t h e r es ea r ch er. T h e r es ea r ch er, i n a n a ly s i n g t h e d a t a , m u s t ex p lor e t h e a lt er n a -t ives i n or d er -t o p r op os e a p r ob a b le m ea n i n g fr om w h i ch p r ed i ct i on s a n d con clu s i on s ca n b e m a d e. By u s i n g d ocu m en t s a s t h e b a s i c s ou r ce i t a llow s ot h er r es ea r ch er s t o ca r r y ou t s i m i la r a n a ly s es – on e of t h e t es t s for r eli a b i li t y b ei n g t h a t ot h er r es ea r ch er s w i ll d r aw t h e s a m e con clu s i on s given t h e s a m e d a t a .

T h e p r ob lem , i n t h i s p a r t i cu la r ca s e, i s t h a t t h er e i s on ly on e r elev a n t s ou r ce of d ocu -m en t a r y d a t a . T r i a n gu la t i on a n d r a t i fi ca t i on of t h e i n for m a t i on wou ld on ly b e p os s i ble fr om r ela t ed s ou r ces, i .e. t h os e w h o w r ot e t h e

d ocu m en t . T h e on ly effect ive w a y i n w h i ch t h e ev i d en ce fr om t h e d ocu m en t ca n b e ch a l-len ged i s i f i t fa i ls t o r eflect or d es cr i b e t h e op er a t i on of t h e cou r s e i n p r a ct i ce.

Analysis in relation to approaches

to cost management

By a n a ly s i n g d efi n i t ive cou r s e d ocu m en t a -t i on i -t i s p os s i ble -t o i d en -t i fy a n d cos -t cou r s es i n t er m s of t h ei r d i r ect cos t s q u i t e

a d eq u a t ely. Un for t u n a t ely i n d i r ect , cr os s -cou r s e a n d cen t r a lly a d m i n i s t er ed cos t s a r e m u ch les s ea s y t o a p p or t i on a n d s o b ecom e h i d d en t o t h os e wor k i n g a t t h e p oi n t of d eliv -er y.

T h e s t e p s t h a t Bi r ch (1989) s u gges t s for ca lcu la t i n g t h e cos t of cou r s es i s w ell s t r u c-t u r ed a n d s y s c-t em a c-t i c. Ic-t wou ld h ave b een i n t er es t i n g t o com p a r e t h i s a p p r oa ch w i t h t h e for m u la s u p p li ed by J on es (1989) bu t t h e d ocu m en t a t i on av a i la b le w a s u n a b le t o s u p -p ly a ll of t h e n eces s a r y d a t a . In a n y ca s e t h e for m u la i s i n s u ffi ci en t ly flex i b le t o b e a b le t o t a k e i n t o a ccou n t s t r u ct u r a l ch a n ges w i t h i n t h e cou r s e ca u s ed by s t u d en t s t a k i n g d i ffer -en t s u b ject s p eci a li s m s.

F i eld en a n d P ea s on (1989), w h i ls t n ot offer i n g a p a r t i cu la r a p p r oa ch t o cos t i n g exer -ci s es, d o i d en t i fy s om e of t h e p r ob lem a t i c fea t u r es t h a t wou ld h ave t o b e bu i lt i n t o a n y com p u t a t i on a l a p p r oa ch – i n p a r t i cu la r t h e i s s u e of t h e m a r gi n a l s t u d en t w h o w ou ld n eces s i t a t e t h e i n t r od u ct i on of a n a d d i t i on a l t ea ch i n g gr ou p a n d i n d oi n g s o s i gn i fi ca n t ly r ed u ce t h e effect ive SSR, p ot en t i a lly t o n on -v i a b le le-vels.

ZBB m et h od s of ed u ca t i on a l bu d get i n g offer t h e n ea r es t a p p r oa ch t o cos t cen t r ed (a s op p os ed t o cos t cen t r e) p la n n i n g av a i la b le t o m os t ed u ca t i on a l i n s t i t u t i on s. It en cou r a ges ed u ca t i on a li s t s t o con t i n u a lly r ea p p r a i s e t h e cou r s es av a i la b le i n t er m s of t h e va lu e t h ey offer. Aw a r en es s of t h e cos t s s h ou ld n ot b e w i t h h eld or on ly p a r t i a lly r elea s ed by t h e m a n a ger ; i t i s a p a r t of fu lly ow n i n g a cou r s e w h et h er i t b e i n a cou r s e m a n a gem en t , t ea ch i n g or lea r n i n g r ole.

Table IV

Maximum and minimum s taffing c o s ts

Scenario Supervision Total cost of staffing

(per student) Teaching M ax M in Tutorial M ax M in

Optimal 1 £ 1 4 0 2 .0 0 £ 1 1 4 5 .5 0 £ 9 4 8 .0 0 £ 1 7 4 .0 0 £ 2 7 2 1 .5 0 £ 2 5 2 4 .0 0 Suboptimal £ 1 6 6 8 .0 0 £ 1 1 4 5 .5 0 £ 9 4 8 .0 0 £ 1 7 4 .0 0 £ 2 9 8 7 .5 0 £ 2 7 9 0 .0 0 Optimal 2 £ 1 3 6 4 .0 0 £ 1 1 4 5 .5 0 £ 9 4 8 .0 0 £ 1 7 4 .0 0 £ 2 6 8 3 .5 0 £ 2 4 8 6 .0 0 Table III

Co s t o f plac e me nt s upe rvis io n

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Cost over

Level £ hrs Cost £ hrs Cost £ hrs Cost three years

1 0 5 .7 5 £ 3 3 3 .5 0 0 7 £ 4 0 6 .0 0 0 7 £ 4 0 6 .0 0 £ 1 1 4 5 .5 0 2 1 2 5 3 .7 5 £ 3 4 2 .5 0 1 0 0 4 £ 3 3 2 .0 0 7 5 5 £ 3 6 5 .0 0 £ 1 0 3 9 .5 0 3 2 5 0 2 £ 3 6 6 .0 0 2 0 0 2 £ 3 1 6 .0 0 1 5 0 2 £ 2 6 6 .0 0 £ 9 4 8 .0 0

Table V

The c o s ts pe r s tude nt pe r ye ar appo rtio ne d to c o urs e s

Area Cost

Teaching – maximum suboptimal position £ 2 ,9 8 7 .5 0 / 3

Plus transport £ 8 0 .0 0

Plus reprographics £ 2 5 .0 0

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Coom b s a n d H a lla k (1987) clea r ly k n ow t h e v a lu e of a ccu r a t e fi n a n ci a l i n for m a t i on :

good ed u ca t i on a l cos t a n a ly s t s ca n li t er a lly b e w or t h t h ei r w ei gh t i n gold – p r ov i d ed t h ey a s k t h e r i gh t q u es t i on s a n d a r r ive a t r es p on s i b le a n sw er s, a n d p r ov i d ed t h e d eci s i on m a k er s u n d er s t a n d t h e a n sw er s a n d t a k e t h em s er i ou s ly.

P r ob lem s a p p ea r t o a r i s e w h en t h e cos t a n a -ly s t s a r e ei t h er n ot li s t en ed t o or t h ei r m es-s a ge i es-s n ot fu lly es-s h a r ed w i t h a ll con cer n ed p a r t i es. Wh en m a n a ger s h ave a cces s t o t h e i n for m a t i on con cer n i n g cos t s, t h i s w i ll n eed t o b e com m u n i ca t ed t o t h e cou r s e d es i gn a n d d eliver y t ea m for a p p r op r i a t e a ct i on t o b e t a k en .

The nature of financial

management in relationship to the

planning of new ITE courses

ITE cou r s es a r e, p oss ibly, s om e of t h e m os t h igh ly r e gu la t ed cou r s es in Br it ish h igh er ed u ca t ion . T h e con t en t , s t r u ct u r e, a n d q u a l-it y t h r es h old of cou r s es, t h e st u d en t n u m b er s for ea ch cou r se a n d in s t it u t ion offer s a n d t h e fees p er s t u d en t a r e a ll set , t o a ver y su b s t a n t ia l d e gr ee, cen t r a lly. Wit h even gr ea t er cen -t r a l con -t r ol of -t h ese cou r s es, in -t er m s of a “N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m ” for ITE b ein g con s id -er ed for t h e n ea r fu t u r e, in s t it u t ion s n eed t o b e gin t o con sid er h ow t h ey ca n con t in u e t o en s u r e t h a t t h eir ITE cou r ses m ay con t in u e t o b e s een a s d ist in ct fr om ot h er s.

For m a n y p r osp ect ive st u d en t s, loca t ion is b ecom in g m or e of a n issu e a s r ed u ct ion s in st u d en t gr a n t s m a k e ch oosin g a n in s t it u t ion clos e t o h om e a n in cr ea sin gly a t t r a ct ive p r os p ect . Bu t for t h e m a jor it y of s t u d en t s t h e m a jor im p er a t ive w ill b e ga in in g a cce p t a n ce on t h e “b es t ” cou r se a t t h e “b est ” in s t it u t ion . Wit h b ot h cou r se q u a lit y a n d cou r s e fees b ein g “levelled ”, in st it u t ion s w ill h ave t o exa m in e t h eir cos t s m ost ca r efu lly t o id en t ify h ow t h eir cou r s e(s) w ill b e a ble t o a ffor d som et h in g a b ove ot h er cou r ses for t h em t o m a in t a in a n “ed ge” over t h eir ed u ca t ion a l r iva ls. Wh a t ever t h e d ecision – sch ools fu lly in t e gr a t ed in t o t h e a ssess m en t p r ocess, ava ila b ilit y of t ech n ologicila l r es ou r ces, in t er n ila -t ion a lly r en ow n ed -t ea ch in g s -t a ff – -t h er e w ill b e cost im p lica t ion s. It is t h r ou gh ca r efu l cos t in g of cou r s es fr om t h e ou t s et t h a t t h e k n ow led ge of w h a t ca n b e a ffor d ed in t er m s of “ext r a s ” w ill b ecom e ava ila ble.

In t h e in s t a n ce of t h is ca s e s t u dy, t h e d e gr ee of p er s on a l t u t or s u p p or t for t h e st u d en t t o en s u r e t h eir p r ofession a l a n d a ca d em ic p r ogr es s w a s s et a t a level gr ea t er t h a n it m igh t h ave b een a t a n ot h er in st it u t ion . T h is a ct ion h a s con s id er a ble cost im p lica t ion s in

t er m s of t u t or t im e, p os sibly t h e m ost exp en sive (p er s t u d en t ) r es ou r ce t h a t m ost in st it u -t ion s h ave -t o wor k w i-t h .

The costing of ITE courses in the

wider perspective of higher

education

If, a s in st it u t ion s a r e cla im in g d u r in g cu r r en t sa la r y n e got ia t ion s, p r esen t in com e is b a r ely a d eq u a t e t o cover cos t s, t h en it follow s, fr om t h e ca lcu la t ion s offer ed a b ove, t h a t t h e m a jor -it y of cost s m u st b e d ir ect ly t h e r esp on sib il-it y of cen t r a lly a d m in ist er ed ser v ices r a t h er t h a n d ir ect ly a t t r ibu t ed t o in d iv id u a l cou r ses. On ly £1,100 of t h e £2,609 fee cou ld b e

a ccou n t ed for by d ir ect cou r se cost s. It is a cce p t ed t h a t “t op s licin g” of fees cen -t r a lly is n eces sa r y for in s-t i-t u -t ion s -t o b e a ble t o op er a t e a s r ecogn isa ble b od ies. In st it u -t ion a l a im s, w h ich a r e wor k ed -t ow a r d s for -t h e good of a ll, r eq u ir e fu n d in g, eq u it a bly, fr om a ll in com e gen er a t in g u n it s. Bu t b eyon d t h e b a sic “t a xa t ion ” n eed s ot h er sy st em s a r e p ossible. T h e Br it ish N a t ion a l H ea lt h Ser v ice a n d loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies h ave d em on st r a t ed a n ot h er op t ion – t h e “in t er n a l m a r -k et ” a n d “loca l m a n a gem en t ” r es p ect ively. In b ot h ca ses a s m a ll p r op or t ion of fu n d in g is r et a in ed cen t r a lly a n d t h e r est is d evolved t o t h e p oin t of u se t o en a ble ser v ices t o b e “b ou gh t b a ck ” u s u a lly fr om t h e sa m e b ody t h a t d evolved t h e fu n d t o t h em in t h e fi r st p la ce. T h is m ay a p p ea r t o b e ju st a b a la n ce sh eet exer cise bu t it is t h e op en n ess a n d exch a n ge of in for m a t ion a n d t h e h eigh t en ed aw a r en es s of cost t h a t is a t iss u e.

Wh er ea s in t h e N H S a n d LE As t h e sh a r e of t h e fu n d s is ca lcu la t ed cen t r a lly, in H E t h e fees t h a t in st it u t ion s r eceive for cou r ses is k n ow n a n d , in t h e ca se of ITE , r ea d ily id en t i-fi a ble. To sim p ly d evolve t h e fees ob t a in ed fr om st u d en t s on a cou r se (less a n in st it u t ion “t a x”) a n d r eq u ir e a ll cou r ses t o p ay for t h e a ca d em ic st a ff, t ea ch in g a ccom m od a t ion , lib r a r y ser v ices, a n d a ll of t h e ot h er colle ge ser v ices t h a t t h ey m a k e u se of, wou ld m a k e t h ose w h o d esign a n d d eliver cou r ses a n d t h e in st it u t ion m a n a ger s m u ch m or e aw a r e of cost s.

T h is a p p r oa ch m ay h ave sign ifi ca n t im p li-ca t ion s for som e a r ea s of a li-ca d em ic a ct iv it y, p a r t icu la r ly in t er n a lly fu n d ed r esea r ch or d oct or a l st u d ies. Wou ld t h ey n ow b e fu n d ed on ly if t h ey d ir ect ly su p p or t ed t h e wor k of, or d evelop m en t s in , p a r t icu la r cou r ses? Or wou ld t h ey n ow b e seen a s “n on -p ay ” r ew a r d s for a ca d em ic st a ff ?

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t h a t a ll cou r s es, i n d eed a ll a ct iv i t i es w i t h i n a n i n s t i t u t i on , w i ll n eed t o b e ca r efu lly cos t ed . It i s on ly w h en t h es e d a t a a r e r ea d i ly av a i la b le t h a t d eci s i on s a b ou t fu n d i n g a n d b u d get a lloca t i on s ca n b e m a d e, r ela t i n g fees t o cos t s, fr om a p os i t i on of s t r en gt h .

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Appendix

Table AI

1 8 0 s tude nts (9 0 in e ac h age phas e ) with an e ve n dis tributio n be twe e n s ubje c ts

Optimal 1 Subject Professional Number Subject- Number Total Number

studies studies of specific of teaching of tutor

Year (hours) (hours) groups groups groups hours years

1 1 5 6 7 2 6 2 4 7 1 5 3 6 3 .4 1

2 1 6 8 4 8 6 4 8 7 1 6 3 2 3 .6 3

3 7 2 7 2 6 4 8 7 1 2 0 0 2 .6 7

Totals 3 9 6 1 9 2 1 8 1 2 0 2 1 4 3 6 8 9 .7 1

1 6 0 s tude nts (9 5 / 6 5 age phas e s plit) with 7 0 s tude nts s pe c ialis ing in Englis h

Suboptimal Subject Professional Number Subject- Number Total Number

1 1 5 6 7 2 7 2 4 9 1 8 1 2 4 .0 3

2 1 6 8 4 8 7 4 8 9 1 9 4 4 4 .3 2

3 7 2 7 2 7 4 8 9 1 4 4 0 3 .2 0

Totals 3 9 6 1 9 2 2 1 1 2 0 2 7 5 1 9 6 1 1 .5 5

Additional staffing required for 2 0 less students 1 .8 4 Additional staffing c osts £ 4 7 ,8 4 0 .0 0 Reduc tion in funding (£ 2 ,6 0 9 * 2 0 * 3 years) £ 1 5 6 ,5 4 0 .0 0 Total loss relative to optimal position £ 2 0 4 ,3 8 0 .0 0

2 4 0 s tude nts (1 2 0 in e ac h age phas e ) 6 0 Englis h s pe c ialis ts , 3 0 e ac h o f the o the r 6 s ubje c ts

Optimal 2 Subject Professional Number Subject- Number Total Number

1 1 5 6 7 2 8 2 4 8 2 0 1 6 4 .4 8

2 1 6 8 4 8 8 4 8 8 2 1 1 2 4 .6 9

3 7 2 7 2 8 4 8 8 1 5 3 6 3 .4 1

Totals 3 9 6 1 9 2 2 4 1 2 0 2 4 5 6 6 4 1 2 .5 9

Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

Calculating the cost of an undergraduate Initial

Teacher Education (ITE) course

Neil Burton

Introduction

Approaches to financial planning

and budgeting in education

The funding of Initial Teacher

Education (ITE) and current course

regulations

Costing a new undergraduate ITE

course – a case study using

documentary evidence

Analysis in relation to approaches

to cost management

The nature of financial

management in relationship to the

planning of new ITE courses

The costing of ITE courses in the

wider perspective of higher

education

References

Further reading

Appendix