Barriers to women managers’ advancement in
education in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1996] 1 8 –2 3 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]
M arie Brown
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Sue Ralph
Le c ture r in Educ atio n, Unive rsity o f Manc he ste r, UK
Attempts to explain women’s lack of achievement in educational management, both in countries in the developed world and in Africa, particularly Uganda. Suggests that women are hindered by both internal and external barriers which keep them from advancing; internally in the main owing to the effects of socialization and sex stereotyping, and externally because
organizations so structure the behaviour of their workforce that women limit their performance because they are locked into low-power, low-visibility, dead-end jobs. Points out that these barriers are particularly applicable to women educational managers in Uganda, whose
advancement is further impeded by the cultural imperatives of male dominance and suppression. Highlights a number of strategies which can help Ugandan women to overcome these barriers,such as a sensitization programme to alert women to the opportunities available, and affirmative action by the government to put equality of opportunity as a high priority on the Ugandan national agenda.
Most of t h e lit er a t u r e on wom en in ed u -ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t r ela t es t o r esea r ch a n d ob ser va t ion s m a d e in t h e UK, w est er n E u r op e, Au st r a lia a n d t h e USA. It su ggest s t h a t , a lt h ou gh wom en for m a m a jor it y a m on g t ea ch er s in b ot h p r im a r y a n d secon d a r y sch ools, t h ey a r e ser iou sly u n d er -r e p r esen t ed in sen ior m a n a gem en t p osit ion s. T h is is n ot ju st a UK or E u r op ea n p h en om en on bu t is t o b e fou n d in t h e r esea r ch lit er a t u r e on t h e USA a n d ot h er cou n t r ies[1] w h er e wom en ’s u n d er r e p r esen t a t ion in sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d a d m in ist r a t ion h a s b een h igh ligh t ed in r ecen t r esea r ch [2-4]. In gen er a l m a n a gem en t , a t sen ior levels, wom en a r e sh ow in g t h a t t h ey h ave t h e p ot en t ia l t o em er ge a s a n ext r a or d i-n a r ily va lu a ble r esou r ce ii-n m a i-n a gem ei-n t t ea m s[5]. T h eir t r a d it ion a l r ea lm of exp er i-en ce h a s b ei-en t h e p r iva t e sp h er e, in w h ich va lu es of in t er con n ect ed n ess a n d r ela t ion -sh ip s h ave a lw ay s h eld p r im a r y
im p or t a n ce[6], bu t t h ese sk ills a r e n ow a ssu m in g im p or t a n ce in t h e m a n a gem en t of or ga n iza t ion s a t a ll levels[7].
Disp a r it ies a m on g sch ools in t er m s of size, loca t ion a n d fa cilit ies d em a n d d iffer en t ia t ion in r esp on sib ilit ies a n d m a n a gem en t st y les. Vin n in gs[8] t a lk s of a n “a n d r ogy n ou s” a d m in ist r a t or or a d m in ist r a t ion , w h ich is sen sit ive, em p a t h et ic in d ea lin g w it h p eop le, a sser t ive a n d a ble t o m a n a ge p ow er a n d con fl ict , t o m en t ion bu t a few ch a r a ct er ist ics. T h e a n d r ogy n ou s m a n a gem en t st y le com b in es m a le a n d fem a le lea d er sh ip ch a r a ct er -ist ics. Sin ce it m ay b e d ifficu lt t o loca t e t h ese ch a r a ct er ist ics in on e p er son , a n y in st it u -t ion a l lea d er sh ip s-t r u c-t u r e sh ou ld h ave a com b in a t ion of m a n a gem en t , a d m in ist r a t ion a n d or ga n iza t ion a l r oles w h ich ca n p r om ot e a n a n d r ogy n ou s a d m in ist r a t ion . T h e lea d er, in t u r n , sh ou ld b e a n effect ive colla b or a t or w h o ca n en su r e colla b or a t ion a t a ll levels.
T h er e st ill a p p ea r s t o b e a gen d er b ia s op er a t in g in m a n y ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza t ion s in t er m s of r ecr u it m en t t o sen ior m a n a ge-m en t t ea ge-m s. A st u dy exa ge-m in in g t h e select ion a n d p r e p a r a t ion of sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s, com m ission ed by t h e US N a t ion a l In st it u t e of E d u ca t ion in 1983 (Ba lt zell a n d Den t ier, cit ed by McCu r dy [9]), sp ecifi ca lly exa m in ed t h e select ion of sch ool p r in cip a ls for gen d er b ia s. T h e st u dy fou n d t h a t t h er e w a s a n “old b oy
n et wor k ” op er a t in g in m a n y p a r t s of t h e cou n t r y, a n d t h a t t h is n et wor k w a s r esp on si-ble for m ost of t h e p r esen t d ay ed u ca t or s in m a n a gem en t p osit ion s in t h e USA. Aft er exa m in in g t y p ica l select ion p r oced u r es, t h e r esea r ch er s r em a r k ed t h a t t h ese p r ocesses a r e p r ob a b ly n ot m er it -b a sed en ou gh t o r esu lt in lea d er s w h o ca n m eet t h e m a n y em er gin g n eed s of t h e t im es. T h is sit u a t ion , w h ich is r e p lica t ed in ot h er cou n t r ies[1], is exa cer -b a t ed -by t h e cu r r en t a n d gr ow in g n eed t o en su r e t h a t t h e ch a n gin g d em ogr a p h ics of sch ools a n d societ y a r e a p p r op r ia t ely r efl ect ed in t h e lea d er sh ip of sch ools[6].
Tw en t y yea r s a go, w h en sch ools w er e exp a n d in g, ga in in g p r om ot ion seem ed a lm ost a u t om a t ic. P la n n in g a ca r eer a p p ea r ed a lm ost a su p er fl u ou s exer cise, sin ce m ost a m b it iou s t ea ch er s h a d a ser ies of job s w h ich t ook t h em r a p id ly t ow a r d s m a n a gem en t p ost s. Tod ay ’s gen er a t ion of t ea ch er s n eed s t o b e r a t h er m or e sy st em a t ic in it s a p p r oa ch t o p r om ot ion , esp ecia lly if t h e u lt im a t e a im is a h ea d sh ip. T h e va st m a jor it y of sen ior st a ff h ave wor k ed t h eir w ay st ea d ily t h r ou gh a con st r u ct ive ser ies of job s in or d er t o b ecom e su it a bly p r e p a r ed for sen ior m a n a gem en t r oles. T h is is a d ifficu lt t a sk for a n y t ea ch er bu t it is esp ecia lly d ifficu lt for wom en [1]. We wou ld n ot su ggest t h a t t h er e is som e sor t of d elib er a t e exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior p ost s, w h ich wou ld b e ille ga l in a n y ca se, bu t t h a t m a n y wom en p er ceive t h ey a r e b ein g d en ied a ccess t o su ch p osit ion s[10].
Marie Bro wn and Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’ advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
over im p or t a n t m a n a gem en t d ecision s is ver y lim it ed [11].
T h er e is n o r ea son w h y sch ools sh ou ld or ga n ize t h em selves in t h e w ay s ou t lin ed a b ove, bu t w h a t is ver y ev id en t is t h a t t h e exclu sion of wom en fr om sen ior levels of m a n a gem en t or fr om a ccess t o m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t t r a in in g is su r ely n ot b en efi cia l t o t h e ed u ca t ion of st u d en t s, p a r t icu la r ly fem a le on es. Ma le-d om in a t ed h ier a r ch ies in sch ools d o lit t le for n ew wom en en t r a n t s t o t h e p r ofession . Wh a t m ay r esu lt is a gen er a -t ion of fem a le -t ea ch er s w i-t h ou -t -t h e in fl u en ce or su p p or t of a p p r op r ia t e r ole m od els a n d m en t or s.
Internal and external barriers to
progress
A n u m b er of m od els h ave b een u sed by r esea r ch er s t o exp la in wom en ’s la ck of a ch ievem en t in t h is fi eld . H a n sot a n d Tya ck [12] h ave su ggest ed t h r ee m od els. T h e fi r st is b a sed on t h e p r em iss t h a t wom en a r e h in d er ed by in t er n a l b a r r ier s w h ich k ee p t h em fr om a dva n cin g, in t h e m a in ow in g t o t h e effect s of socia liza t ion a n d sex st er eot y p -in g. In t h is m od el wom en a r e seen a s v ict im s, n eed in g t o b e r esocia lized so t h a t t h ey ca n fi t in t o a m a le wor ld . T h e secon d m od el is b a sed on t h e b elief t h a t or ga n iza t ion s st r u ct u r e t h e b eh av iou r of t h eir m em b er s, so t h a t wom en lim it t h eir p er for m a n ce b eca u se t h ey a r e lock ed in t o low -p ow er, low v isib ilit y, d ea d -en d job s. T h e t h ir d m od el is b a sed on t h e p r em iss t h a t t h e wor ld is m a le d efi n ed a n d m a le r u n , a n d t h a t m a le d om in a n ce su p p r esses wom en . Sh a k esh a ft [13] favou r s t h e t h ir d m od el a s t h e m ost u sefu l for exp la in in g wom en ’s low a ch ievem en t in sch ool m a n a gem en t . Sh e feels t h a t in t er n a l b a r r ier s, su ch a s low self-im a ge, la ck of con fi d en ce a n d la ck of m ot iva t ion or a sp ir a t ion , r esu lt fr om t h e socia l con t ext of m en h old in g p ow er a n d p r iv ile ge over wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft offer s t wo m od els t o h elp w it h t h e d iscu ssion of fem a le a sp ir a t ion s. F ir st , sh e su ggest s t h a t wom en d o a sp ir e bu t in a d iffer en t w ay t o m en a n d , if ju d ged by t h e t r a d it ion a l m a le d efi n it ion , m ay n ot a p p ea r t o a sp ir e. Secon d , wom en a sp ir e bu t or ga n iza -t ion a l a n d socie-t a l b a r r ier s p r even -t wom en fr om a ck n ow led gin g or a ct in g on t h eir a sp ir a t ion s, so it a p p ea ir s t h a t t h ey la ck a sp iir a -t ion . If a sp ir a -t ion is m ea su r ed a ga in s-t m a le exp er ien ce, t h en wom en d o a sp ir e, bu t t o d iffer en t p ost s t h a n m en . T h e t r en d is for wom en t o a sp ir e t o b e com p et en t , exp er i-en ced t ea ch er s a n d for m i-en t o a sp ir e t o b e m a n a ger s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s.
Wh a t ever t h e r ea son s, a n u m b er of st u d ies su p p or t t h e n ot ion t h a t t h e m ot iva t ion for en t er in g t ea ch in g d iffer s for m en a n d wom en : m ost en t er t ea ch in g t o t ea ch bu t m ost m en en t er t ea ch in g t o
a d m in ist er [13, p. 87].
Sh e a lso d escr ib es b a r r ier s of over t a n d cover t sex d iscr im in a t ion . T h ese ca n b e m or e su b t le, bu t n o less p ow er fu l in t h eir effect in h in d er in g t h e p r ogr ess of wom en .
Sh a k esh a ft [13] list s t h e follow in g fa ct or s: • la ck of focu s on fem a le st u d en t s; • la ck of fem a le r ole m od els; • la ck of ch ild ca r e;
• p oor m ed ica l ser v ices for fem a le p r oblem s; • gen d er -b ia sed r ea d in g m a t er ia l;
• less ca r eer su p p or t fr om fa m ily a n d p eer s for wom en t h a n m en ;
• m a le n et wor k in g exclu d in g wom en ; • wom en h av in g m or e fi n a n cia l r est r ict ion s
p la ced on t h em t h a n m en ;
• t h e d ifficu lt ies of com b in in g a h igh st a t u s job w it h t h e r ole of w ife a n d m ot h er ; • b eca u se of a n a n d r ocen t r ic wor ld v iew,
t r a d it ion a l fem a le q u a lit ies n ot b ein g h igh ly va lu ed , “com p et en t a n d fem a le d o n ot go t oget h er ”[14];
• m a le em p loyer s feelin g t h a t wom en ca n n ot cop e w it h t h e em ot ion a l a n d p h y sica l st r ess fou n d in sch ool m a n a gem en t [15];
• em p loyer s exp ect in g wom en t o d o t h in gs d iffer en t ly, a n d in a less effect ive w ay t h a n m en .
In m a n y r esea r ch st u d ies it h a s b een fou n d t h a t wom en w h o d o a ch ieve a r e m ost lik ely t o b e t h ose w h o con for m t o st er eot y p es of t h e a ch iev in g wom a n .
Dav id son a n d Coop er [16] sh a r e t h e op in ion of Sh a k esh a ft r e ga r d in g t h e sim ila r it y of m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s:
Wh en com p a r in g m a le a n d fem a le m a n a ger s in t er m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d p er -for m a n ce, n u m er ou s cr oss-cu lt u r a l st u d ies a n d r ev iew s h ave con clu d ed t h a t t h er e a r e fa r m or e sim ila r it ies t h a n d iffer en ces in t er m s of m a n a ger ia l efficien cy a n d p er for -m a n ce[16, p. 16].
Marie Bro wn and Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’ advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
Barriers to women’s progress in
Uganda
We wou ld n ow lik e t o focu s on som e of t h e m ost sign ifi ca n t b a r r ier s t h a t effect wom en ’s en t r y in t o ed u ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t in Uga n d a . We n eed t o b e gin by look in g a t t h e ed u ca t ion a l h ist or ies of gir ls a n d wom en in t h a t cou n t r y. UN ICE F [17] r e p or t s t h a t in Uga n d a , gir ls a n d b oy s h ave a n eq u a l r igh t t o sch oolin g in p r in cip le. H ow ever, in p r a ct ice gir ls a r e less lik ely t o a t t en d sch ools. In t h e ea r liest yea r s of p r im a r y sch oolin g, p r im a r y yea r s on e a n d t wo, t h er e is a good a t t en d a n ce by b ot h gir ls a n d b oy s a n d t h e n u m b er s a r e r ou gh ly sim ila r. How ever, a s gir ls con t in u e t h r ou gh t h eir ed u ca t ion , m or e a n d m or e d r op ou t , esp ecia lly a s t h ey r ea ch p r im a r y yea r s fi ve t o seven . T h e d r op -ou t r a t e is m u ch h igh er for gir ls, a s ev id en ced by t h e n e ga t ive cor r ela t ion b et w een t h e r a t io of gir ls en r olled t o b oy s by gr a d e level. In 1990, for exa m p le, gir ls con st it u t ed 46 p er cen t of p u p ils in p r i-m a r y on e bu t on ly 38 p er cen t of p u p ils in p r im a r y seven [17]. Gir ls fa ce m or e p r oblem s of d r op ou t in Uga n d a n sch ools t h a n b oy s, bu t it is a p r oblem for b ot h sexes. St u d en t s a r e cu r r en t ly d r op p in g ou t of sch ool a t ever y level. For in st a n ce, ou t of t h e ch ild r en w h o en r olled in p r im a r y on e in 1975, 90 p er cen t r ea ch ed p r im a r y seven . By 1992, 70 p er cen t of t h e ch ild r en w h o b e ga n p r im a r y on e in 1986 h a d d r op p ed ou t . T h is m ea n s t h a t on ly 30 p er cen t r ea ch ed p r im a r y seven . T h is d r op -ou t r a t e h a d in cr ea sed t o 47 p er cen t by 1991[18]. Gir ls in Uga n d a n p r im a r y a n d secon d a r y sch ools d o n ot r eceive a d eq u a t e a dv ice a n d cou n sellin g a n d a r e for ced t o m a k e t h eir ow n d ecision s or con su lt m em b er s of t h eir p eer gr ou p w h o m ay b e ill in for m ed . H av in g w ellt r a in ed p er son n el, w h o h ave a good u n d er -st a n d in g of gir ls’ p r oblem s a n d a r e a ble t o p r ov id e r e gu la r gu id a n ce a n d cou n sellin g wou ld h elp t o r ed u ce t h e p r oblem . T h is wou ld h elp r elieve su ch p r essu r es for gir ls a n d a lso en cou r a ge t h em t o p r ogr ess a ca d em ica lly a n d socia lly. Am on g a sa m p le of Uga n d a n wom en su r veyed in 1988, 64 p er cen t r e p or t ed t h a t t h ey d id n ot fi n ish or go b eyon d p r im a r y sch ool level ow in g t o la ck of sch ool fees, w h ile 8 p er cen t d iscon t in u ed t h eir sch oolin g ow in g t o p r e gn a n cy [17].
T h e r esu lt s of t h e p r im a r y leav in g cer t ifi -ca t e d et er m in e en t r y t o secon d a r y sch ools. Gir ls d o less w ell t h a n b oy s in t h is exa m in a -t ion , exce p -t in E n glish [17]. By -t h e -t im e -t h ey r ea ch secon d a r y sch ool, t h e p r op or t ion of gir ls t o b oy s is on e h a lf t h a t fou n d a t t h e p r im a r y level. Ma n y sch ools a cce p t gir ls w it h low er q u a lify in g m a r k s t h a n b oy s in or d er t o a t t r a ct gir ls, bu t t h er e a r e m a n y m or e b oy
s-on ly t h a n gir ls-s-on ly secs-on d a r y sch ools, so t h a t , over a ll, t h er e a r e few er p la ces ava ila ble for gir ls. Uga n d a h a s over 622 secon d a r y sch ools w it h a t ot a l p op u la t ion of over 230,119 st u d en t s, of w h om 60.2 p er cen t a r e m a le a n d 39.8 p er cen t a r e fem a le. T h er e a r e m or e t h a n 10,996 t ea ch er s, of w h om 82.6 p er cen t a r e m a le a n d 17.4 p er cen t a r e fem a le. T h u s m a le st u d en t s a n d t ea ch er s con st it u t e t h e m a jor it y of t h e sch ool p op u la t ion . T h is is r efl ect ed a t t h e n a t ion a l, d ist r ict , sch ool a n d even cla ss-r oom levels. Giss-r ls con st it u t e 45 p ess-r cen t of t h e st u d en t b ody in p r im a r y sch ools, 30 p er cen t in t h e low er secon d a r y, t h a t is Or d in a r y Level, a n d 20 p er cen t in t h e u p p er secon d a r y, t h a t is, Adva n ced Level[19]. T h e h eav ier bu r -d en of h ou seh ol-d r esp on sib ilit ies for gir ls is con sid er ed t o b e t h e r ea son for t h eir p oor er p er for m a n ce a n d a t t en d a n ce. T h e r a t io of fem a le t o m a le t ea ch er s p a r a llels t h e en r ol-m en t r a t es of gir ls t o b oy s in a lin ea r w ay, r ein for cin g t h e v iew t h a t fem a le t ea ch er s h ave a p osit ive effect on fem a le en r olm en t s. It is a lso n ot ewor t h y t h a t fem a le t ea ch er s a r e n ot u su a lly p r om ot ed t o h igh er m a n a ger ia l levels, esp ecia lly if t h ey a r e u n m a r r ied [20].
Women’s education in Uganda
Gir ls d o n ot a ct u a lly n eed sp ecia l sch ools[21] bu t it h elp s w h en t h ey con st it u t e a r ela t ively la r ge p r op or t ion of t h e sch ool p op u la t ion in a co-ed u ca t ion a l in st it u t ion . T h er e is a lso n eed t o cr ea t e aw a r en ess in t h e com m u n it y a b ou t t h e p ot en t ia l a n d a b ilit ies of gir ls. P a r en t s esp ecia lly n eed t o b e m a d e aw a r e of t h e n eed for gir ls t o sp en d a s m u ch t im e on h om ewor k a s b oy s d o (in st ea d of exp ect in g t h em t o en ga ge in h ou seh old ch or es w h ile t h e b oy s d o t h eir h om ewor k ).
A p olicy r ev iew r e p or t by t h e Uga n d a n Min ist r y of E d u ca t ion [18] in clu d ed a sect ion on ed u ca t ion for wom en . In t h e r e p or t t h e Com m ission id en t ifi ed fa ct or s w h ich t h ey saw a s h av in g a n a dver se effect on gir ls’ ed u -ca t ion in gen er a l a n d con t r ibu t in g t o t h e h igh r a t e of d r op -ou t a m on g gir ls a t a ll levels of for m a l ed u ca t ion . T h e fa ct or s w er e a s follow s:
(i) Beca u se of t h e p a t r ilin ea l societ y a n d ot h er socia l a n d cu lt u r a l fa ct or s, m a n y p a r en t s in Uga n d a t en d t o p r efer ed u ca t -in g b oy s t o gir ls;
Marie Bro wn and Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’ advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
(iii) T h e t r a d it ion a l d iv ision of la b ou r in t h e h om e is m or e d em a n d in g on gir ls t h a n b oy s;
(iv ) Gir ls u su a lly get in volved in ea r ly m a r -r ia ges. Am on g t h ose w h o go t o sch ool, som e su ffer fr om ea r ly p r e gn a n cies for w h ich t h ey a r e t h r ow n ou t of t h e sch ool sy st em ; a n d
(v ) Gir ls oft en fa ll p r ey t o socia l p r oblem s, p a r t icu la r ly in t h e u r b a n a r ea s w h er e m ost of t h e la r ge secon d a r y sch ools a n d t er t ia r y in st it u t ion s a r e loca t ed . T h is is som et im es a ggr ava t ed by t h e la ck of d ecen t a n d secu r e a ccom m od a t ion for gir ls[18, p. 109].
If p a r en t s la ck su fficien t m on ey t o p ay for t h eir ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion , w h ich m ost d o, t h ey a r e m or e lik ely t o sen d t h e b oy s r a t h er t h a n t h e gir ls t o sch ool. Ma n y r u r a l sch ools a n d low er fee b a n d sch ools a r e of a low st a n -d a r -d a n -d -d o n ot p r ov i-d e a goo-d exp er ien ce, esp ecia lly for gir ls. T h e p h y sica l en v ir on -m en t , in clu d in g t oilet a n d d or -m it or y fa cili-t ies, a r e ofcili-t en p a r cili-t icu la r ly h a r sh for cili-t h e fem a le st u d en t s. T h er e a r e few r ole-m od els p r ov id ed by wom en st a ff, esp ecia lly in sci-en ce t ea ch in g a n d a t m a n a ger ia l levels. P oor ly ed u ca t ed p a r en t s a r e m or e lik ely t o h old t h e t r a d it ion a l st er eot y p e of t h e gir ls’ p la ce b ein g r est r ict ed t o t h a t of w ife, ch ild -b ea r er a n d h om e m a n a ger. T h ey ca n n ot see a n y n eed for t h eir gir ls t o b e ed u ca t ed in m a t t er s n ot d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o t h e h om e, t h e fa m -ily a n d t h e fa r m . T h e a ca d em ic or ien t a t ion of t h e cu r r icu lu m m ay a ffect som e p a r en t s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h e r eleva n ce of ed u ca t ion for gir ls. Ma n y ch ild r en a n d p a r en t s con sid er t h e p r im a r y leav in g exa m in a t ion su b ject s ir r ele-va n t t o a gir l’s fu t u r e ca r eer in a r u r a l a r ea . Gen d er st er eot y p in g, t oo, is em b od ied in cu r r icu lu m m a t er ia ls. A r e p or t of t h e Con ven t ion on t h e E lim in a t ion of Discr im -in a t ion Aga -in st Wom en , com m ission ed by t h e Min ist r y of Wom en in Develop m en t [22], n ot ed t h a t in socia l st u d ies cou r ses in sch ools a ll t h e t r a d it ion a l h er oes cit ed w er e m en .
It is a ga in st t h is b a ck gr ou n d of d iscr im in a -t ion , b o-t h over -t a n d cover -t , -t h a -t w e n eed -t o con sid er t h e p osit ion of wom en in Uga n d a , a s t h ey seek t o en t er t h e h igh er ech elon s of t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession . Ma n y m en , ed u ca t ed a n d u n ed u ca t ed , w ill h ave a vest ed in t er est in h old in g on t o p ow er a n d a u t h or it y r a t h er t h a n sh a r in g it w it h wom en . Beca u se of t h e w ay wom en h ave b een socia lized t h ey fr e-q u en t ly h ave low self-est eem , a n d m a n y w ill b e u n d er con fi d en t in t h eir a b ilit ies ou t sid e t h e d om est ic r ole.
St r u ct u r a l a d ju st m en t p r ogr a m m es, t oo, a r e t en d in g t o h ave a n e ga t ive effect on wom en . For exa m p le, in t h e cu r r en t r ed u ct ion in n u m b er s of t h e civ il ser v ice,
m a n y low er -r a n k in g em p loyees a r e b ein g r et r en ch ed (m a d e r ed u n d a n t ), w h ich m ea n s t h a t m ost of t h e wom en em p loyed in t h e civ il ser v ice a r e loosin g t h eir job s. On ly a sm a ll p r op or t ion of t h e h igh er r a n k s, w h ich a r e t h e m ost secu r e p osit ion s, h ave b een given t o wom en .
Strategies for improving women’s
access to educational management
in Uganda
Wh a t ca n t h er efor e b e d on e t o en a ble wom en ed u ca t or s t o b r ea k t h r ou gh t h e “gla ss ceilin g” in Uga n d a ? In for m a l d iscu ssion s w it h Uga n d a n wom en st u d en t s a t Ma n ch est er Un iver sit y id en t ifi ed st r a t e gies w h ich w er e h elp in g wom en t o over com e t h e b a r r ier s t o p r ogr ess in t h e fi eld of ed u ca t ion . T h ese w er e la r gely b eca u se of t h e a ct ion s of t h e gover n -m en t of Uga n d a it self, w h ich h a s d on e -m u ch t o a dva n ce a n d p r om ot e t h e p osit ion of wom en . Wom en fou gh t a lon gsid e Yow er i Mu seven i, n ow P r esid en t Mu seven i, d u r in g t h e lib er a t ion w a r a n d , a t t h a t t im e a n d sin ce, h ave p r oved t h eir a b ilit ies a n d wor t h t o t h e gover n m en t . T h e cou n t r y is a d m in ist er ed t h r ou gh a sy st em of Resist a n ce Com m it t ees (RCs) a t sever a l levels. E a ch RC a t ea ch level h a s a Secr et a r y for Wom en , w h o is a lw ay s a wom a n . Wom en a r e a lso en t it led t o com p et e for t h e ot h er p osit ion s on t h e RC. Wh en t h e p osit ion of Secr et a r y for Wom en w a s fi r st est a blish ed , t h e m ove w a s gr eet ed w it h m u ch cy n icism , esp ecia lly fr om m en , bu t over t im e it h a s p r oved t o b e ver y effect ive a n d is n ow gen er a lly w ell r esp ect ed . All sect or a l p olicies a r e r eq u ir ed t o b e gen d er -r esp on sive. Desp it e t h e m a n y cu lt u r a l b a r r ier s w h ich h ave m a d e it d ifficu lt for wom en t o w in sea t s in p a r lia m en t , t h er e a r e n ow 38 wom en t h er e. T h e Con st it u t ion of Uga n d a is cu r r en t ly b ein g r ew r it t en . Wom en a r e r e p r esen t ed a m on g t h e com m ission er s a n d it is a n t ici-p a t ed t h a t r esu lt in g le gisla t ion , in su ch a r ea s a s cit izen sh ip, w ill b e m or e in favou r of wom en t h a n h a s b een t h e ca se in t h e p a st . T h is p olit ica l sit u a t ion illu st r a t es a w ill t o in volve a n d ca p it a lize on t h e st r en gt h s a n d exp er ien ce of wom en .
Marie Bro wn and Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’ advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
p ot en t ia l st u d en t s, t h u s t a k in g a ffir m a t ive a ct ion t o r a ise t h e n u m b er of fem a les.
T h e Uga n d a Tea ch in g Ser v ice Com m ission (UTSC), est a blish ed by St a t u t e of P a r lia m en t , is a b ody r esp on sible for t h e select ion , in t er -v iew in g a n d a p p oin t m en t of officer s d eem ed su it a ble t o h ea d ed u ca t ion a l in st it u t ion s. Su ccessfu l ca n d id a t es a r e p ost ed t h r ou gh t h e Com m ission er of E d u ca t ion t o va r iou s sch ools a n d h ea d sh ip s. It is gover n m en t p olicy t o p ost a h ea d t ea ch er t o a n y p a r t of t h e cou n t r y. H ow ever, t h e Min ist r y of E d u ca t ion is n ow giv in g d u e con sid er a t ion t o gen d er issu es w h en p ost in g a h ea d of sch ool. Wh er e a m a le is p ost ed , a fem a le d e p u t y is lik ely t o b e a t t a ch ed a n d v ice ver sa . T h e Min ist r y is a lso t r y in g t o en cou r a ge fem a le en r olm en t in co-ed u ca t ion a l p ost p r im a r y in st it u t ion s by t r y in g t o p r ov id e a d eq u a t e cu r r icu lu m a r r a n gem en t s for gir ls, for exa m p le, by p r ov id in g cou r ses in h om e m a n a gem en t , food n u t r it ion , t ext iles a n d clot h in g et c. E n su r in g t h a t t h er e is a fem a le lea d er a n d lea d er sh ip in coed u ca t ion a l sch ools, ca n a lso b e con sid er ed a st e p for w a r d . In so d oin g, t h e Min ist r y h op es t o b a la n ce t h e en r olm en t of b oy s a n d gir ls a n d t o r ed u ce gen d er in eq u a lit y.
In a fu r t h er effor t t o p r om ot e q u a lit y in sch ools, t h e Min ist r y of E d u ca t ion a n d Sp or t s a n d ot h er r eleva n t b od ies lik e t h e Uga n d a Ma n a gem en t In st it u t e n ow or ga n ize wor k -sh op s, sem in a r s a n d cou r ses for sch ool lea d er s, esp ecia lly h ea d t ea ch er s a n d t h eir d e p u t ies, p r in cip a ls a n d d e p u t y p r in cip a ls a n d p ot en t ia l h old er s of t h ese p ost s. On e of t h e st r a t e gies a dvoca t ed in t h ese wor k sh op s is t h a t of colla b or a t ive lea d er sh ip. Lea d er s a r e en cou r a ged t o sh a r e p ow er, d ecision m a k in g a n d exp er t ise bu t a t t h e sa m e t im e t h ey a r e t r a in ed in t h e in t er p er son a l sk ills of co-op er a t ion a n d com m u n ica t ion w h ich a r e n ow con sid er ed t o b e essen t ia l m a n a gem en t sk ills. H a r gr eaves[23], look s a t colla b or a t ion a s a k ey t o lea d er sh ip q u a lit y in ed u ca t ion .
In t er n a t ion a l m oves t ow a r d s eq u a lit y of op p or t u n it y a r e h av in g a n effect in Uga n d a . At m in ist er ia l level, m a n y p olit icia n s a t t en d in t er n a t ion a l m eet in gs a n d a r e aw a r e of t h e em p h a sis b ein g p u t on wom en ’s con cer n s a n d of t h e r oles wom en t a k e in t er n a t ion a lly. We b elieve t h a t a t a ll levels of societ y wom en a n d m en a r e ch a n gin g in t h eir v iew s a n d t h a t t r a d it ion a l st er eot y p ed r oles a n d b eh av iou r p a t t er n s a r e b ein g er od ed . T h is d iffer en ce is sh ow n in m a n y w ay s; for exa m p le, it is n ow less com m on t o see wom en k n eelin g t o gr eet m en in t h e st r eet , a n d m or e com m on t o h ea r of m en t a k in g a n a ct ive r ole in t h e r ea r in g of ch ild r en .
N on -gover n m en t or ga n iza t ion s t oo a r e t en d in g t o focu s on t h e p r im a r y r oles of wom en r ela t ed t o fa m ily h ea lt h ca r e a n d t h e
ca r e of t h e en v ir on m en t . T h eir a p p r oa ch is t wo-p r on ged , m eet in g t h e p r a ct ica l d a ily n eed s of wom en a n d a lso t h eir st r a t e gic on es. T h e p r a ct ica l n eed s in clu d e a ccess t o w a t er a n d fu el; t h e st r a t e gic n eed s a r e m or e lon g t er m , su ch a s h igh er st a t u s a n d p osit ion , a n d m ay b e m et t h r ou gh im p r oved a ccess t o h igh er ed u ca t ion .
Wom en s’ lea d er sh ip is cu r r en t ly a su b ject of gr ea t d eb a t e a n d con cer n in Uga n d a , a s t h e n a t ion is com in g t o r ea lize t h a t t o a ch ieve q u ick a n d su st a in a ble d evelop m en t , t h e gen d er fa ct or ca n n o lon ger con t in u e t o b e ign or ed . T h e r e p or t of t h e Uga n d a n E d u ca t ion P olicy Rev iew Com m ission [18] m a d e sever a l r ecom m en d a t ion s w h ich , if p u t in t o effect , sh ou ld gr ea t ly en h a n ce t h e sit u a -t ion of gir ls a n d wom en . Recom m en d a -t ion 162 st a t ed t h a t :
T h e Gover n m en t sh ou ld p r ov id e m or e sec-on d a r y sch ools exclu sively for gir ls t o en su r e secu r it y w h ile r eceiv in g ed u ca t ion [18, p. 162].
T h e Com m ission a lso r ecogn ized t h a t m a n y m or e b oy s t h a n gir ls w er e b ein g ed u ca t ed in b ot h p r im a r y a n d secon d a r y sch ools a n d t h a t t h is h a d a k n ock -on effect on en r olm en t in t er t ia r y in st it u t ion s a n d u n iver sit ies. It r ec-om m en d ed t h a t :
In Co-ed u ca t ion a l sch ools, eit h er t h e H ea d or t h e De p u t y H ea d sh ou ld b e a wom a n in or d er t o look a ft er t h e sp ecia l n eed s of gir ls p r op er ly [18, p. 163].
Ad eq u a t e fa cilit ies sh ou ld b e p r ov id ed for gir ls in coed u ca t ion a l p ost p r im a r y in st it u -t ion s in or d er -t o a llow for a b a la n ced en r ol-m en t b et w een b oy s a n d gir ls[18, p. 164].
T h e r e p or t st a t ed t h a t t h e n u m b er of wom en a t t a in in g u n iver sit y p la ces w a s t oo low, bu t t h a t t h e a t t a in m en t of t h ose wom en w h o w er e in u n iver sit y w a s in t h e m a in ver y good . It w a s exp ect ed t h a t t h e n u m b er of wom en st u -d en t s wou l-d r ise w it h im p r ove-d p r ov ision for gir ls a t t h e secon d a r y st a ge.
Conclusions
Marie Bro wn and Sue Ralph
Barrie rs to wo me n manage rs’ advanc e me nt in e duc atio n in Uganda
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 8 –2 3
ed u ca t ion , in clu d in g b a sic lit er a cy, t h e exp er ien ces t h a t fem a les h ave in ed u ca t ion w h ich a r e d iffer en t t o t h e exp er ien ces of m a les, a n d t h e a d d it ion a l socia l r esp on -sib ilit ies t h a t t h e m a jor it y of gir ls a n d wom en h old .
Ma n y d iffer en t st r a t e gies a r e b ein g u sed t o over com e t h ese b a r r ier s. It h a s b een su g-gest ed h er e t h a t t h e w ay in w h ich on e v iew s t h e b a r r ier s w ill in fl u en ce t h e ch a n ge st r a t e-gies w h ich w ill b e fou n d t o b e m ost u sefu l. We h ave su ggest ed t h a t a r a n ge of st r a t e gies is n eed ed , in clu d in g: im p r ov in g t h e a b ilit ies a n d con fi d en ce of wom en a n d ch a n gin g t h e or ga n iza t ion s in w h ich t h ey wor k . In Uga n d a , st r a t e gies a r e b ein g em p loyed a t d iffer en t levels – in d iv id u a l, societ a l, or ga n iza t ion a l, n a t ion a l a n d in t er n a t ion a l. im p lem en t a t ion of t h ese ca n ca u se ch a n ges w h ich h ave a n effect a t sever a l levels.
T h e b a r r ier s, a n d t h e m ost a p p r op r ia t e st r a t e gies, m u st b e v iew ed in t h e w h ole con -t ex-t of -t h e life of a n in d iv id u a l, -t h e s-t r u c-t u r e of a n or ga n iza t ion , a n d t h e n eed s, n or m s a n d va lu es of a societ y a n d cu lt u r e. It a p p ea r s t h a t over t h e la st t wo or t h r ee yea r s t h e a dva n ce-m en t of gir ls a n d woce-m en in ed u ca t ion a n d in ed u ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t in d evelop ed cou n -t r ies h a s slow ed d ow n con sid er a b ly, a n d p r e-v iou s ch a n ge m ay b e in t h e p r ocess of con soli-d a t ion . How ever, in Uga n soli-d a , it a p p ea r s t h a t t h e p r osp ect s for gir ls a n d wom en a r e cu r -r en t ly im p -r ov in g -r a p id ly a n d m ay con t in u e t o d o so for som e t im e t o com e.
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