ABSTRACT
Gunawan Budiman, JB. 2015. A Self-Actualization English Language Learning Model for the Design Product of the Research-and-Development Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Post-modern ideas and goals have influenced education in general and English language education in particular. Language, language learning, and educational viewpoints and principles, which underlie any design of English instruction, need re-definition in relation to the post-modern influence. The ultimate goal of post-modern education is the learner’s self-actualization. This post-modern goal becomes the major orientation of this thesis.
There are a lot of unnecessary repetitions found in the learning (instructional) design products of the undergraduate theses written by English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) students of Sanata Dharma University (SDU). The clichés range from the mechanistic methodology to the repetitive design products of undergraduate theses. A study is needed to make the quality of design products written by ELESP students become better and better. In order to make the intended improvement keep up with what is happening in education, the (post-modern) self-actualization orientation is used in developing a model of language learning. The objectives of the study are to develop a theoretical model of self-actualization English language learning and produce its actual model. The questions of this study are formulated in the following. 1. “What does the theoretical model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?” and 2. “What does the actual model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?” It is expected that the actual model will be used by ELESP students as a guide in developing their design products. The model is based on post-modern educational viewpoints and current language learning principles.
The methodology of the study is basically Research and Development (R&D). The study includes a content analysis at the first stage and a survey study at the second stage of the R&D process. The content analysis analyzed ELESP students’ design products qualitatively. The survey study used a questionnaire to obtain respondents’ suggestions and comments on the set of guidelines on developing self-actualization learning design. The results of both the content analysis and survey study were used to give input and feedback to the development of the set of guidelines, which is the actual (empirical) model of self-actualization English language learning.
selected. To answer the second question, the writer produces an actual model that takes the form of a set of guidelines, which is expected to give inspiring ideas to ELESP students who are planning to develop a learning design for certain target learners. It is expected that the target learner’s self-actualization – partly realized in his/her communicative competence – will become the goal of learning design products developed by ELESP students.
ABSTRAK
Gunawan Budiman, JB. 2015. A Self-Actualization English Language Learning Model for the Design Product of the Research-and-Development Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Gagasan dan arah tujuan pasca-moderen telah mempengaruhi pendidikan pada umumnya dan pendidikan bahasa Inggris khususnya. Sudut-sudut pandang dan prinsip-prinsip bahasa, pembelajaran bahasa, dan pendidikan yang mendasari desain pengajaran bahasa Inggris perlu diungkapkan batas-batasnya kembali sehubungan dengan pengaruh pasca-moderenisme. Tujuan utama dari pendidikan pasca-moderen ialah aktualisasi diri pembelajar. Tujuan ini menjadi arah utama tesis ini.
Ada banyak pengulangan yang tidak diperlukan dalam produk desain pembelajaran (pengajaran) dari skripsi S.1 yang ditulis oleh mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (PSPBI) Universitas Sanata Dharma (USD). Pengulangan-pengulangan mulai dari metodologi yang mekanistis sampai ke produk skripsi desain yang terkesan mengulang-ulang. Suatu studi perlu dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kwalitas produk desain yang ditulis mahasiswa PSPBI. Untuk membuat perbaikan yang sesuai dengan apa yang sekarang sedang terjadi di dunia pendidikan, orientasi ke pembelajaran bahasa yang bersifat aktualisasi diri (pasca-moderen) digunakan untuk mengembangkan model teoritis pembelajaran. Tujuan studi ini ialah untuk mengembangkan model teoritis pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang bersifat aktualisasi diri dan menghasilkan model empiris pembelaran tersebut. Pertanyaan untuk studi ini diungkapkan sebagai berikut. 1. Seperti apa model teoritis pembelajaran aktualisai\si diri bagi produk desain dari tesis S.1 mahasiswa PSPBI? Dan 2. Seperti apa model empiris pembelajaran aktualisai\si diri bagi produk desain dari tesis S.1 mahasiswa PSPBI? Diharapkan model empiris ini akan digunakan mahasiswa PSPBI sebagai panduan untuk pengembangan produk desain mereka. Model ini berdasarkan sudutpandang pasca-moderen dan prinsip-prinsip pembelaran bahasa yang kini..
Metodologi studi ini pada dasarnya Penelitian dan Pengembangan (R&D), Studi ini memasukkan analisa teks pada tahap pertama dan penelitian survei pada tahap kedua dari proses R&D. Analisa teks meneliti isi produk desain mahasiswa PSPBI secara kwalitatif. Penelitian survei menggunakan kwesioner untuk memperoleh saran dan komentar atas perangkat panduan bagi pengembangan desain pembelajaran aktualisasi diri. Hasil dari analisa teks dan penelitian survei digunakan sebagai masukan dan umpanbalik terhadap pengembangan panduan tersebut, yakni model empiris pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang berorientasi ke aktualisasi diri.
berfungsi untuk mendapatkan model empiris. Tujuan aktualisasi diri dan tujuan komunikatif ditulis, tujuan-tujuan yang lebih rinci dirumuskan, dan prinsip-prinsip pembelajaran bahasa dipilih. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis membuat model empiris yang berupa seperangkat panduan, yang diharapkan memberi gagasan yang inspiratif bagi mahasiswa PSPBI yang sedang merencanakan pengembangan desain pembelajaran untuk pembelajar bahasa Inggris. Diharapkan aktualisasi diri si pembelajar – yang sebagian tercapai dalam bentuk kompetensi komunikatifnya – akan menjadi tujuan produk desain pembelajaran yang dikembangkan oleh mahasiswa PSPBI.
A SELF-ACTUALIZATION ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING MODEL
FOR THE DESIGN PRODUCT OF THE R&D UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Magister
Humaniora (M.Hum.) in
English Language Studies
by
JB. Gunawan Budiman Student Number: 106332036
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
A SELF-ACTUALIZATION ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING MODEL
FOR THE DESIGN PRODUCT OF THE R&D UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
A Thesis Presented to
The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.)
in
English Language Studies
by
JB. Gunawan Budiman Student Number: 106332036
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I would like to thank the Rector and Vice Rector for the Academic Affairs of Sanata Dharma University for giving me the chance and support for the completion of my studies at the Graduate Program of English Language Studies.
I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr. J. Bismoko, for his enthusiasm to share his knowledge and expertise with me during thesis consultations and during discussion sessions in his classes, and for his willingness to encourage me to finish this thesis. I would also like to express my gratitude to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D. for his willingness to admit me as a “transfer student” of the Graduate Program of English Language Studies, and to Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. and A. Budi Susanto, SJ, Ph.D. for guiding me and giving me a lot of inspiration in their classes that I took.
I would like to thank the 2010 batch of students of the English Language Studies of Sanata Dharma University for accepting me as one of their friends and treating me as one of their fellow students. With this positive psychological atmosphere I was able to adapt myself to their study and life rhythms, and, as a result, I did not feel isolated during the two semesters I was with them. I would also like to thank all my colleagues at the English Language Education Study Program for supporting me psychologically in my effort to finish my thesis. In addition, I am grateful to A. Hardi Prasetyo, M.A., C. Kristiyani, M. Pd, and C. Tutyandari, M. Pd. for willingly evaluating my design product. I am indebted to C. Tutyandari, M. Pd and P. Kuswandono, Ph. D, who, as heads of the ELESP, were very helpful (and very patient) during the long process of my thesis writing.
became my inspiration to always work hard. Without their love and support, it was almost impossible for me to work and finish it.
The completion of my studies was all under God’s guidance, without which I would never have had the courage, patience, seriousness, and determination to experience this long process.
This thesis is dedicated to my beloved family: M.G. Mercy Yanuasti, my wife
F.A. Sandy Mariatna, my son B. Rosalind Mariaprianti, my daughter
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ... i
PAGES OF APPROVAL ... ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... iv
STATEMENT OF PUBLICATION AGREEMENT ………. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vi
DEDICATION PAGE ... viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ... xii
ABSTRACT ... xiii
ABSTRAK ... xv
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………. 1
A. Background of the Study ... 1
B. Problem Identification ... 5
C. Problem Limitation ... 7
D. Problem Formulation ... 8
E. Research Objectives ... 8
F. Benefits of the Study ... 9
G. Definitions of Terms ... 9
CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ……… 11
A. Clarification of Concepts …... 11
1. Post-modern Language Education ... 11
a. Post-modernism ... 12
c. Self-Actualization as the Goal of Education in Indonesia .……… 18
d. Influence of Post-modernism on Language Education ... 22
e. Significance of Post-methods Era Principles in Language Teaching 25
f. Significance of Learner-Centeredness in Post-modern Language Learning ……… 28
2. Language Learning Design Models ... 31
a. Learning Design Models ……… 32
1) Borg and Gall’s Model ……… 32
2) Dick, Carey and Carey’s Model ……… 33
b. Major Viewpoints in Yalden’s and Dubin and Olshtain’s Models 35
1) Language Viewpoint ……… 35
2) Language Learning Viewpoint ……… 36
3) Educational-Cultural Viewpoint ……… 37
c. Realizations of Viewpoints in Brown’s Second Language Learning Principles ……… 37
3. English Language Education ... ……… 40
a. English in the Expanding Circle ... 40
b. Communicative Competence as a Goal of English Language Education 42
c. Making English Language Education System Work ……… 45
4. Review of Related Research ……… 46
B. Theoretical Framework ... 50
CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 58
A. Method ... 58
1. Research Goal and Selected Method ……… 58
B. Research Design ... 60
1. Context ………. ... 60
2. Specified Goals ……….… 60
3. Process ……… 61
a. Defining ……… 61
b. Designing ……… 61
c. Developing ……… 62
d. Disseminating ……… 62
C. Operation ... 63
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS ... 68
A. Results of the Development of Designing Process ……… 68
1. Defining ……… 68
2. Designing ………. 74
3. Developing ……… 79
4. Disseminating ……… 85
B. Presentation of the Design Product ……… 85
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ... 90
A. Conclusion ... 90
B. Recommendation ... 92
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 95
APPENDICES ……… 99
Appendix 1 : Content Analysis ……….. .. 99
Appendix 2 : Expert Validation Questionnaire ……….. ..101
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
ABSTRACT
Gunawan Budiman, JB. 2015. A Self-Actualization English Language Learning Model for the Design Product of the Research-and-Development Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Post-modern ideas and goals have influenced education in general and English language education in particular. Language, language learning, and educational viewpoints and principles, which underlie any design of English instruction, need re-definition in relation to the post-modern influence. The ultimate goal of post-modern education is the learner’s self-actualization. This post-modern goal becomes the major orientation of this thesis.
There are a lot of unnecessary repetitions found in the learning (instructional) design products of the undergraduate theses written by English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) students of Sanata Dharma University (SDU). The clichés range from the mechanistic methodology to the repetitive design products of undergraduate theses. A study is needed to make the quality of design products written by ELESP students become better and better. In order to make the intended improvement keep up with what is happening in education, the (post-modern) self-actualization orientation is used in developing a model of language learning. The objectives of the study are to develop a theoretical model of self-actualization English language learning and produce its actual model. The questions of this study are formulated in the following. 1. “What does the theoretical model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?” and 2. “What does the actual model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?” It is expected that the actual model will be used by ELESP students as a guide in developing their design products. The model is based on post-modern educational viewpoints and current language learning principles.
The methodology of the study is basically Research and Development (R&D). The study includes a content analysis at the first stage and a survey study at the second stage of the R&D process. The content analysis analyzed ELESP students’ design products qualitatively. The survey study used a questionnaire to obtain respondents’ suggestions and comments on the set of guidelines on developing self-actualization learning design. The results of both the content analysis and survey study were used to give input and feedback to the development of the set of guidelines, which is the actual (empirical) model of self-actualization English language learning.
selected. To answer the second question, the writer produces an actual model that takes the form of a set of guidelines, which is expected to give inspiring ideas to ELESP students who are planning to develop a learning design for certain target learners. It is expected that the target learner’s self-actualization – partly realized in his/her communicative competence – will become the goal of learning design products developed by ELESP students.
ABSTRAK
Gunawan Budiman, JB. 2015. A Self-Actualization English Language Learning Model for the Design Product of the Research-and-Development Undergraduate Thesis. Yogyakarta: Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
Gagasan dan arah tujuan pasca-moderen telah mempengaruhi pendidikan pada umumnya dan pendidikan bahasa Inggris khususnya. Sudut-sudut pandang dan prinsip-prinsip bahasa, pembelajaran bahasa, dan pendidikan yang mendasari desain pengajaran bahasa Inggris perlu diungkapkan batas-batasnya kembali sehubungan dengan pengaruh pasca-moderenisme. Tujuan utama dari pendidikan pasca-moderen ialah aktualisasi diri pembelajar. Tujuan ini menjadi arah utama tesis ini.
Ada banyak pengulangan yang tidak diperlukan dalam produk desain pembelajaran (pengajaran) dari skripsi S.1 yang ditulis oleh mahasiswa Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (PSPBI) Universitas Sanata Dharma (USD). Pengulangan-pengulangan mulai dari metodologi yang mekanistis sampai ke produk skripsi desain yang terkesan mengulang-ulang. Suatu studi perlu dilakukan untuk meningkatkan kwalitas produk desain yang ditulis mahasiswa PSPBI. Untuk membuat perbaikan yang sesuai dengan apa yang sekarang sedang terjadi di dunia pendidikan, orientasi ke pembelajaran bahasa yang bersifat aktualisasi diri (pasca-moderen) digunakan untuk mengembangkan model teoritis pembelajaran. Tujuan studi ini ialah untuk mengembangkan model teoritis pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang bersifat aktualisasi diri dan menghasilkan model empiris pembelaran tersebut. Pertanyaan untuk studi ini diungkapkan sebagai berikut. 1. Seperti apa model teoritis pembelajaran aktualisai\si diri bagi produk desain dari tesis S.1 mahasiswa PSPBI? Dan 2. Seperti apa model empiris pembelajaran aktualisai\si diri bagi produk desain dari tesis S.1 mahasiswa PSPBI? Diharapkan model empiris ini akan digunakan mahasiswa PSPBI sebagai panduan untuk pengembangan produk desain mereka. Model ini berdasarkan sudutpandang pasca-moderen dan prinsip-prinsip pembelaran bahasa yang kini..
Metodologi studi ini pada dasarnya Penelitian dan Pengembangan (R&D), Studi ini memasukkan analisa teks pada tahap pertama dan penelitian survei pada tahap kedua dari proses R&D. Analisa teks meneliti isi produk desain mahasiswa PSPBI secara kwalitatif. Penelitian survei menggunakan kwesioner untuk memperoleh saran dan komentar atas perangkat panduan bagi pengembangan desain pembelajaran aktualisasi diri. Hasil dari analisa teks dan penelitian survei digunakan sebagai masukan dan umpanbalik terhadap pengembangan panduan tersebut, yakni model empiris pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang berorientasi ke aktualisasi diri.
berfungsi untuk mendapatkan model empiris. Tujuan aktualisasi diri dan tujuan komunikatif ditulis, tujuan-tujuan yang lebih rinci dirumuskan, dan prinsip-prinsip pembelajaran bahasa dipilih. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis membuat model empiris yang berupa seperangkat panduan, yang diharapkan memberi gagasan yang inspiratif bagi mahasiswa PSPBI yang sedang merencanakan pengembangan desain pembelajaran untuk pembelajar bahasa Inggris. Diharapkan aktualisasi diri si pembelajar – yang sebagian tercapai dalam bentuk kompetensi komunikatifnya – akan menjadi tujuan produk desain pembelajaran yang dikembangkan oleh mahasiswa PSPBI.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter introduces and presents research questions. The purpose of this chapter is to ensure the validity of the research project in order that the reader finds the study meaningful and relevant. After Background of the Study is presented, the feasibility of the study is explained in Problem Identification, Problem Limitation, Problem Formulation (in which the research questions are presented), and Objectives of the Study (in which the research questions are reformulated in statements of objectives). The relevance of the study is also found under Benefits of the Study, and, in addition, Definition of Terms is given at the end of this chapter.
A. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Language teaching in general and English language teaching in particular are expected to have a goal that enables the learner to communicate in the target language – that is, to acquire the four language skills (speak, listen, write, and read the target
people from other countries for various purposes, including for everyday socio-cultural encounters, for the continuation of his/her study, or for finding a job, all of which require a good command of English. In other words, the ability of the learner to develop his/her potential should become the aim, although perhaps implied, of language teaching.
This general goal cannot be separated from the development of an orientation towards current scientific, political, socio-cultural, and educational ideas. Education, including language teaching, is also expected to adapt and accomodate itself to new ideas. Post-modernism – one of the most influencing new philosophical trends – offers ideas that are related to education, which are compatible with the goals of education suggested by educational bodies and leading figures in education. The goal of education that is post-modern (post-modern education) is related to the fulfillment of the aspiration that the learner should develop wholly as a self-actualizing person – a person who develops himself/herself individually and socially (Bismoko, 2011, p. 8). While self-actualization is considered as a process – that is, a process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential (Cherry, 2012) – many current educational ideas, not necessarily influenced by post-modernism, nor by Maslow’s theory on hierarchy of needs, claim that a person’s self-actualization, being the highest level of human needs, should be the goal of education.
communication, May 2011). In short, post-modernism and education may go hand in hand to formulate and elaborate the major educational goals and the ways to achieve them.
The teaching of English around the world has also been influenced by this new orientation. One of the issues often cited by English teaching specialists (Brown, in Richards and Renandya, 2002, p. 9; Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 245) is the reduced role of the language teaching methods. This is considered as the influence of post-modernism on language teaching (Fahim and Pishghadam in IJALS, 1(2), 2009, p. 37). Language instruction contains such unpredictable elements and processes that it cannot be handled by one single most effective method. We are now entering the post-methods era in which the emphasis on a local curriculum and on language learning principles is given priority. An English teacher is expected to be a material designer who develops his/her own goals, material, and activities locally and contextually and pay attention to the language and language learning principles that underlie curriculum and material development. A material designer is expected not to subscribe to a certain teaching method such as the Audio-lingual Method, Suggestopaedia, or Community Language Learning. More importantly, learner-centeredness and constructivism (post-modern consequences in education) are expected to be in a material designer’s mind so that he/she produces flexible, localized, constructivist, student-based material. Here post-modernism is considered as a major influencing factor in education and English language education.
including at Sanata Dharma University, have produced many learning design materials as the products of educational research and development (R&D) undergraduate theses for formal education and commercial English courses. At Sanata Dharma University (SDU) for the past fifteen years students have produced a lot of learning materials which may be applied in the places where the studies were done. The most common product of a thesis on learning design is learning material units. The design process usually follows a standard set of procedures which are adapted from the steps of educational materials development written by several educational design writers, such as Banathy, Kemp (1977), Yalden (1987), and others. The adaptation of the steps produces the students’ learning design models – their theoretical models. In the methodology a student’s model is usually matched with the steps of the arch-model of Borg and Gall’s (1983) educational research and design (R&D). His/her model should
be in line with that of Borg and Gall, which becomes the umbrella of most students’ theoretical models, hence, the so-called R&D methodology.
applies to the material units. The present writer, however, has long observed that the ELESP students of SDU who have written a thesis on learning design are not consistent in applying a teaching instruction or method to their design. Many mention one but do not apply it consistently in their lesson units. In general, they claim that their instructional materials are communicative or are based on communicative language teaching principles, and yet the products still tend to be quasi-communicative or even traditional.
Any language learning material development is, in general, expected to subscribe to an educational philosophy that underlies the design development. The material development is usually based on a curriculum, in which a general description of goals is found. The goals, according to Dubin and Olshtain (1986), should contain a certain philosophical orientation. They state that general goals in a curriculum indicate three major viewpoints: an educational-cultural viewpoint or philosophy (e.g., humanistic views of education), a viewpoint on the nature of language (e.g., found in the communicative approach theory) and a viewpoint on the nature of language learning (p. 34). A teaching material designer, therefore, is expected to consider the general goals of a curriculum on which his/her design is based, and consequently subscribe to a certain educational-cultural viewpoint and the viewpoints of language and language learning to underpin his/her design development.
B. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
centeredness (J. Bismoko, personal communication, May 2011), which can be considered as the means for a learner to actualize himself/herself. Self-actualization becomes the main goal of post-modern education. Self-actualization here is reflected in the learner’s ability to express himself/herself in different modes of communication
with whatever he/she has acquired; in other words, to achieve communicative competence (which includes grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence) (Canale and Swain, as cited in Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 160). Using the framework suggested by Dubin and Olshtain (1986), the writer subscribes to post-modern education as the current educational-cultural viewpoint with the learner’s self-actualization being the main goal. This educational-cultural viewpoint, the concepts of communicative competence as the language viewpoint, and the post-methods era theories as the language learning viewpoint all are chosen to make up a major construct developed in this study.
self-actualization language learning for the R&D undergraduate thesis writing. The theoretical model will be used by the writer to construct a validated design model of self-actualization language learning by using a methodology called educational research and development (R&D).
C. PROBLEM LIMITATION
In developing a model of post-modern/self-actualization language learning, the writer considers major viewpoints of the nature of language and language learning (communicative competence and post-methods era’s ideas) – all of which are in fact accompanied (and underpinned) by a currently educational-cultural viewpoint called post-modern education, whose goal is the learner’s self-actualization and in which the concept of learner-centeredness is central. The study is limited to the development of a model which subscribes to these basic self-actualization (post-modern) viewpoints. Self-actualization here is intended to be the one that is expected to be experienced by the target learners (school or university learners of English) of the ELESP design products.
The study is also limited to the development of a model of language learning in the context of the English Language Education Study Program (ELESP) of Sanata Dharma University (SDU). The preliminary study done is limited to a content analysis of the design products that have been written by some students of the ELESP of SDU with the GPA (grade point average) each being >3.00. The result of the analysis is used as input in developing the writer’s model of self-actualization language learning. The
This is a study related to educational research and development – not industrial reserach and development. Therefore, the writer limits the study to relevant steps of R&D which are manageable due to the time and scope limitation found in an educational design development.
D. PROBLEM FORMULATION
It is now necessary to make the problem of this study focused and clear. A model of self-actualization language learning to be used as a guide by ELESP students to develop a design product of their R&D undergraduate thesis is needed. The model incorporates self-actualization post-modern viewpoints of education and culture, language, and language learning. This is formulated in the following questions.
1. What does the theoretical model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?
2. What does the actual model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis look like?
E. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Derived from the two questions in the problem formulation above, the study has the following two objectives.
2. To present the actual model of self-actualization language learning for the design product of the R&D undergraduate thesis. (The actual model takes the form of a set of guidelines expected to be used in writing an R&D undergraduate thesis.)
F. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY
First, the design model offered in this study is expected to make educational researchers challenged to use the post-modern educational viewpoints. It is hoped that this challenge can stimulate them to use and further develop learning principles related to the application of post-modern philosophy to improve learning design theories. Second, ELESP lecturers are expected to be aware of the importance of language and language learning viewpoints under a current educational-cultural viewpoint, especially post-modern one, in guiding their students who intend to write R&D undergraduate theses.
G. DEFINITION OF TERMS
This study includes some terms related to the title of the thesis which become key concepts in the study.
1. Model of self-actualization English language learning
The term refers to a theoretical as well as iconic set of guidelines on English language learning design writing of the R&D undergraduate thesis which conforms with self-actualization goals, viewpoints and principles. The thesis here refers to the undergraduate (S.1) thesis written by English Language Education Study Program students as a requirement to obtain a Sarjana (S.1) degree (a Bachelor’s degree).
The term in this study refers to language learning that adheres to the learning and language learning principles of postmodern ideas that culminates in the target learner’s self-actualization after the learner has experienced a long process of education
that is self-actualizing. The learning principles can generally be found in the learner-centered teaching-learning process. Adapted to language learning, the learning principles are in line with the current post-methods era theories and the principles of the development of the target learner’s communicative competence.
3. Self-actualization
The term refers to the goal of post-modern education (as stated in Bismoko, 2011) and is related to the highest stage of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – needs which motivate each human being to live and develop. The hierarchy consists of five stages of needs, the lowest being biological and physiological needs, followed by safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, and the highest: self-actualization needs. In this study we are not dealing with a thorough discussion of Maslow’s theory, but we accept self-actualization as the major goal of post-modern education. It is the realization of both personal and social self-potentials. It is one’s ability when actualized improves one’s own progress and that of society’s excellence. In this study self-actualization is
the goal that the target learner is expected to reach.
4. Design Product of the Research-and-Development Undergraduate Thesis
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter discusses the concepts and their relations which are relevant to the study. These will be used to answer the research questions theoretically. The first part deals with clarification of theoretical concepts, which help the writer to develop a theoretical model in the second part. The second part presents the theoretical framework, which contains the writer’s theoretical arguments and ends with a theoretical model that will be validated and used as a guide to the development of the actual model of self-actualization (post-modern) language learning.
A. CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS
The following reviews deal with clarification of several concepts which directly or indirectly influence the development of a model of post-modern learning design. The reviews which will be discussed include post-modern language education, learning design models, and English Language Education.
1. Post-modern language education
a. Post-modernism
Post-modernism is not easy to define. When now defined, it may be contradictory to previous definitions. Finch calls it as having changing definitions (Finch, 2010, pp.1-2) and mentions several different definitions. In all of these post-modernism has the initial purpose of “de-naturalizing some of the dominant features of our way of life” (including capitalism, patriarchy, and liberal humanism, which seem
natural, but which are in fact cultural). There may be terms associated with postmodernism but there is no one definition. It is in fact a reaction against modernism and the term modern itself is used to contrast contemporary (modern) with traditional ways. Modernism refers to both movements in arts, music, and literature and philosophical ideas. The European Enlightenment in the middle of the 18th century is considered as the beginning of modernism (Fahim and Pishghadam, 2009, pp. 29-30). Modernism is founded on “scientific knowledge of the world and rational knowledge of
value.” It emphasizes scientific, objective, rational endeavors and avoids subjective,
irrational ones.
As a reaction against modernism, post-modernism appeared in the middle of the 20th century. This was a reaction against too much emphasis on “rational enquiry into truth” in modernism and as a response to the decline of grand theories, which included
physiologically for modernism (with regard to positivistic science and technology), but culturally against modernism (with regard to colonialism, domination and marginalization) (J. Bismoko, personal communication, May 2011).
Although there are a lot of different usages of the term, some common characteristics of post-modernism are mentioned in Fahim and Pishghadam (2009). Those writers emphasize that a post-modern proponent is basically a “constructivist,” someone who supports creativity and ingenuity. He or she values “relativism,” meaning that since the world is full of uncertainties, it is not wise for us to become zealots . The better stand, consequently, is that we anticipate probabilities rather than complete certainties, judge a certain concept to be better than others rather than judge it to be the best when dealing with knowledge. Besides, a post-modern proponent values “dialog.” One side should not dominate the other. Both sides should be on a par with each other. Transmission of knowledge from only one side to the other is not recommended. Similarly, it is a fact is that the world contains diverse entities, such as a country, which contains different ethnic groups and languages. Therefore, cultural “diversity” of a country should be welcomed. One community with a certain ethnic background should not dominate those with different ethnic backgrounds. In addition, a post-modern proponent should be critical when reading texts that have been traditionally recognized as the classics or the truths. He or she should dig up the hidden and marginalized meanings out of them and show to the world that unfairness and unjust propositions exist in those texts (Fahim & Pishgadham, 2009, pp. 34-36).
education, for example, a teaching method that claims to be true for any context should be given critical evaluation. Second, the improvement of poor human conditions caused by too much exploitation and domination, which modernism has failed to address, should be emphasized. In education, for example, programs that can potentially create injustice and domination of the strong and the wealthy over the less fortunate should be critically evaluated. Third, as a consequence of the previous stand, equitable relations among human beings should be encouraged. In education, for example, educational authorities should not dictate what and how schools and teachers should do with no compromise.
b. Influence of Post-modernism on Education
Our focus in this chapter is on the influence of post-modernism on education, especially language education. Since education is part of a nation’s culture, it is important to discuss how education has so far been affected by post-modern movements and ideas. This will eventually be useful in justifying the application of post-modern educational principles in learning design development.
Education in modern times plays a major role in making students become autonomous, that is, in making them bring out their potential to become self-motivated and self-directing (Cobussen, 2011, section 1). Education makes us become free human beings. However, besides this positive side, education is also “an instrument of power, control, and legitimization.” Those who have knowledge tell others what to do and how
Edwards, as cited in Cobussen, 2011, section 1). Furthermore, education is considered as “a manifestation of violence” because it reduces difference to sameness and various
meanings to a single meaning.
In general, a post-modern perspective is against the reduction of education to the reproduction of the values of the dominant society. Post-modern education supports change instead of reproduction, and the possibility of different perspectives instead of the definitive or the certain. As a consequence, in organizing teaching and learning there will be “no new definitive perspective that generates a set of prescriptions and techniques.” The view taken by those writers is that education is neither considered as
“inherently transformative” nor “inherently oppressive.” It has both potentials. The
important thing here is questioning the major assumptions and structures of the modern education practices, not rejecting them. The current practices, however, are still dominated by “pedagogical pose of mastery,” which is questioned by post-modern
educators. According to Usher and Edwards (as cited in Cobussen, 2011, section 4), education should be “more diverse in terms of goals and process.” Education should become “the vehicle for the celebration of diversity” or plurality. According to
Aronowitz and Giraux (as cited in Cobussen, 2011, section 5) we have to listen to “the voices of others.” This means that the dominant models of Western culture are not the only basis of education.
significance of constructivism as the basic learning theory in post-modern education. Knowledge is not discovered; it is constructed in the learner’s minds based on the
patterns or knowledge (s)he constructed in the past.
According to Breen (2011, pp. 49-52), students are nowadays living under uncertain conditions. They are facing rapid changes and living in a world of “fragmenting structures and identities.” Education through the instrument of assessment
selects students who succeed and ones who fail and gives them different life chances. This usually reflects the dominant values of global capitalism, in which education is considered as an instrument to produce people with high competencies who occupy good positions in companies. Those who do not have high competencies are marginalised.
Grand theories like Capitalism itself and Marxism have been questioned. Alternative theories and voices (including from the powerless) are struggling to be heard. In education, the concept of method has also been questioned. A method that is supposed to be effectively used in any country and condition may now be replaced by local learning material, activities, and techniques.
Because of technological advance, reality may be seen as a relative concept. Multi-media are quickly replacing our direct physical experiences. People do not have to meet face to face; long distance meetings are now possible. Education has been much influenced by these simulations of reality. Competency in dealing with the use of multi-media becomes essential.
essentially the major goal of modern education, which is part of the goals of Capitalism. Breen considers all of the changes above as educatioal challenges to embrace uncertainty because there is a transition from modernism to the post-modern condition, which contains contradictions and paradoxes (p. 50 & p. 52).
The following are some values of post-modernism that education may take (adapted from Finch, 2010, pp. 4-8). First, post-modern education should promote equality. This means that power relationships should be equal (or, better, equitable); students should not become individuals who are inferior while the teacher in the class should not become superior. This relationship is also true among students; nobody in the class should dominate the others. Second, it is a fact that in a class there are students from various backgrounds (ethnic, religious, socio-economic, and academic), and this kind of diversity should be welcomed. It is an educator’s duty to guard the values of each subculture in our society. Third, since constructivism is the basic theory in post-modernism, creativity should be encouraged. This goes hand in hand with the promotion of diversity and learner-centeredness in education. To be able to show creativity, students’ different backgrounds should be recognized and appreciated, and
develop their emotional sides so that their intellectually academic development will benefit from and go hand in hand with their emotional development.
From Cobussen, Breen and Finch above it is clear that there are several goals of post-modern education that the writer would like to emphasize. First, education has the goal of celebrating diversity or plurality – the diversity of educational processes and probably educational goals. Second, another major goal is that post-modern education has to take care of the marginalized people or those who are considered ‘fail’ (failure from the modern perspective) by promoting freedom from marginalization. Third, since power relationships should be equitable and superior teachers and inferior students should not be found, another related major goal of post-modern education is to promote equity or equitable relationships among students and between teachers and students. Fourth, students’ creativity should be encouraged. Creativity, not merely reproduction, is a consequence of constructivism, a philosophical orientation adopted in post-modern education.
c. Self-Actualization as the Goal of Education in Indonesia
From these major goals of post-modern education, in fact, there must be one major goal that becomes “the umbrella” of the other goals. Bismoko (2011, p. 8) in his
paper states that the ultimate goal is for the graduate “to participate in improving self-actualization, personal and social.” He furthers states that “to become self-actualizing is to become excellent, excellent in one’s own right.” Since every person is a social being, personal excellence should be “an integral part of group excellence.”
self-actualization represents “the optimal psychological condition for all humankind” and
the goal of psychotherapy is to “help people to develop their own potential for self-actualization” (Chang, 1991, p. 1). They assumed that we all have “an actualizing tendency that promotes growth, direction, and productivity.” The self-actualized person feels close to nature, he/she is independent, and he/she is involved in “caring and responsible interpersonal relationships” (Chang, 1991, p. 6).
McLeod (2007) summarizes what Rogers wrote in relation to self-actualization theory. Rogers believed that to achieve self-actualization a person must be in a state of congruence (his/her ideal self is congruent with his/her actual behavior). Five characteristics of the fully functioning person (the one who is able to self-actualize) were identified by Rogers. First, the person is “open to experience.” Both positive and negative emotions are accepted. Negative feelings are faced and overcome. Second, he/she avoids prejudging and preconceptions. He/she lives for the moment and appreciate what is being experienced; his/hers is “existential living.” Third, he/she pays attention to and “trusts his/her feelings” and instincts. He/she trusts himself/herself to
make right choices. Fourth, “creativity” plays a major role in a person’s life. The person is able to change (adjust) and find new experiences. Finally, his/her life is a “fulfilled
life.” In spite of problems and threats the self-actualized person is happy. New
challenges and experiences are faced by him/her with confidence (pp. 2-3).
National Education Minister urged all schools to build their students’ character more seriously. School graduates should show self-confidence, adhere to social norms, appreciate diversity in terms of religion, culture, race, and socio-economic group. In the past, character building in schools was introduced to students with little effort to integrate it into the whole curriculum. Now it is expected that character building is integrated into each school subject and into co-curricular and extra-curricular activities. The school management should be involved in the planning, implementation, and control of character building programs. Some aspects of the character that should be developed include independence, self-confidence, tolerance, social sensitivity, democratic spirit, and responsibility as they are contained in Government Regulation No 17/2010 on education management (Kementerian Pendidikan Nasional, 2010).
To respond to this nationwide move the university where the writer teaches (Sanata Dharma University/SDU) has been developing a model of character building. The model is in line with the 2010-2014 Strategic Plan of the National Education Ministry and is based on the Ignatian pedagogy (Kuntoro Adi, et al, 2010, pp. 6-19). Referring to the Ministry’s Strategic Plan, two educational viewpoints related to
character building that SDU tries to develop involve the empowerment of the human being as a whole and learning for life which centers on the learner. The Strategic Plan of the National Education Ministry mentions four aspects of the idealized intelligent Indonesian: spiritually intelligent, emotionally and socially intelligent, intellectually intelligent, and kinesthetically intelligent.
of the spirituality is called Ignatian pedagogy, which can be stated as the following (summarized from Kuntoro Adi, et al, 2010, pp. 28-29).
a. The teacher serves his/her students and helps them individually develop their internal ability.
b. The students should be active in their studies in which discovery and creativity are given priority.
c. The relationship between the teacher and his/her students is personal and continuing. d. The syllabus and teaching-learning activities should be in accordance with the
students’ ability levels, and the material contents are logically sequenced.
e. Previews and reviews are regularly done for better mastery and assimilation, and deeper viewpoints.
This implementation of Ignatian pedagogy surely contains some major attitude components, such as helping students develop their internal ability, being active so that discovery and creativity emerge, personal continuing relationship between the teacher and students, and adapting contents to the students’ ability levels, which implies the teacher’s recognition of learners’ differences.
A conclusion that can be drawn is that education should go back to its right track, that is, being responsible for the students’ character building; and another is that
the goal of postmodern education can be integrated and elaborated into the general goals of education from the primary to tertiary levels. Although formal education in Indonesia does not explicitly claim to make a learner become fully self-actualized, which is really hard to achieve, characteristics that describe a self-actualized person such as being independent, creative, caring, open to experience, and able to adjust are in line with characteristics that are emphasized and developed in character building of formal education. Therefore, seen from postmodern views, self-actualization can sum up the goal of education in Indonesia. The goal of language education should then be derived from it. Postmodern views are in line with and enrich the goals and basic concepts of formal education in Indonesia.
d. Influence of Post-modernism on Language Education
The concept of method was criticized in the 1990’s. The criticism is considered as the influence of post-modernism on language teaching (Fahim and Pishghadam, 2009, pp. 37-39). All methods claimed as the best and prescribed procedures that could be applied to all learners around the world. Post-modernism is against such general, global claims. A method is a prescriptive concept which reflects a particular view of the world. Besides, all methods assume that teachers should follow experts’ teaching formulae. This is against the post-modernists’ belief that diversity, locality, and creativity should be respected. The interest of the dominant class is apparent when methods were “exported” to the third world, whose teachers just received and had to
What is needed in this “post-method” era is an alternative to method, not
another method (Kumaravadivelu, as cited by Fahim & Pishghadam, 2009, p. 41). The tendency now is on the development of classroom tasks and activities in accordance with our knowledge of second language acquisition. The following are some trends in ELT (English Language Teaching) that are influenced by post-modernism (Fahim & Pishghadam, 2009, pp. 42-44): First, language teachers may become researchers themselves, involved in classroom action research. Experts’ roles are not as dominant as
in the past when they became gurus and told what and how teachers had to teach. Second, the diversity of learners is recognized. There is no super-method that can be used to teach all learners effectively. Classroom tasks and activities should be based on the teacher’s or local decisions. They may become pragmatic by using any theory that is
suitable for a certain class. Third, classroom practices empower the teacher and learners. Social inequalities and marginalized classroom participants are not recommended. Fourth, the learning philosophy is constructivism, which encourages the learners to be active and to construct their own knowledge from what they already know based on their own perspectives. The philosophy goes hand in hand with learner-centeredness and tends to develop learner-centered tasks and activities. The teacher should not be somebody who teaches, but somebody who facilitates learning.
given in a product-oriented summative test. This also reduces competition, which is avoided in post-modern education, and encourages collaboration and team work.
In a post-modern class studying English should not be equated with studying great classic English literature. Students in a post-modern English class learn English through the use of comics, the internet, and other “pop-culture” media; “elitist English literature” is not the one and only source of studying English in general. This is
expected to make English learning more contextual for the young. Besides, the term ‘native speaker of English’ is avoided; English as a lingua franca in fact consists of
many regional “Englishes” and different pronunciations. It is not just BBC English or
Standard American English.
learner-centeredness, the teacher is also expected to have the role of a researcher. However, instead of doing quantitative, ‘objective’ research in language education, many teachers are expected to use qualitative, subjective, action research.
The presentation of post-modern ideas and principles in language education above may sound exaggerated, but it is important that teachers and course designers of English become aware of them because the trend towards post-modern education is strong. Teachers should be familiar with terms, concepts, and practice such as local decisions, action research, learner-centeredness, facilitators, collaboration, task-based learning, and classroom-based assessment. The following is a frame which attempts to translate post-modern goals and concepts into essential principles of English language learning/education in a more systematic way.
e. Significance of Post-methods Era in Post-modern Language Learning
A method, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 245), refers to “a specific learning design or system based on a particular theory of language and of language learning.” In a method we find “detailed specifications of content, roles of
teachers and learners, and teaching procedures and techniques.” A method contains
-methods era” (a term found in Richards and Rodgers, 2001, p. 16) broader, general
principles of language and language learning and an educational-cultural view are of greater significance in language teaching/learning and in developing learning materials.
The method era, which can be considered as the influence of post-modernism on language education (Fahim and Pishghadam, 2009, p. 37), indicates that different teaching methods which had to be followed by generations of language teachers up to the 1980’s are now considered old-fashioned. A lot of teachers in the past
in fact did not subscribe to a certain method consistently. What happened was that usually a teacher had to modify his/her teaching to suit the learner types, learner needs, classroom condition and some other aspects that influenced the teaching-learning process. However, language teachers usually kept and remembered the beliefs and basic theories underlying the method they tried to use; hence, the relevance of language learning principles as the more operational theories to teaching. Richards and Rodgers state that in the 1990’s there was a strong belief that “newer and better approaches and methods are not the solution to problems in language teaching.” Now we have newer
ways of understanding what language teaching is. These newer ways characterize the “post-methods era” language teaching (2001, p. 16).
First, teachers tend to use language learning principles, which may be derived from different past methods, such as, make learners the focus of the lesson, develop learners’ confidence, and promote cooperation among learners. These learning
principles may be applied by each teacher differently according to his/her style and learner needs. Second, the wider belief system possessed by a teacher (about human nature, culture, education, society, etc.) plays a major role in his/her teaching. This will give a teacher a wider context in deciding learning materials and in using learning techniques. It is unlikely for a post-methods era teacher, for example, to always use a drilling technique while his/her wider belief system does not recommend drilling as the main technique because of its lack of communication or socialization involvement. Third, a teacher’s “core” beliefs which are the product of his/her own education in schools as a young student is important in his/her teaching. Local wisdom is contextual and contributes much to the success of the learner. When teaching, the teacher tends to imitate what was done by his/her teacher in the past; yet he/she is also able to identify his/her teacher’s past weaknesses and correct past mistakes and improve his/her own
teaching. Fourth, within the teaching profession (including teachers, theoreticians, and researchers) will appear newer programs and pedagogy. For example, more and more teaching-learning programs appear in CD-ROM’s and on the Internet, which gives more variation, flexibility, opportunity, and challenge.
education. For example, one of the teacher’s core beliefs that can become a learning principle is that material and activities that are directly related to the class’ context will
be learned and retained better. The principle is then called “meaningful learning” (Brown, 2001, p. 56): The learner will experience meaningful learning when the material and activities are directly related to his/her existing knowledge, background, interests, and goals. (A short presentation of language learning principles from Brown can be seen in 2.c below.)
f. Significance of Learner-Centeredness in Post-modern Language Learning
It was stated before that constructivism was considered as the underlying theory in post-modern education. Knowledge is human construction, that is, all reality does not exist outside the mind; it is created in the mind. There are no absolute objectivity and authority. Therefore, the teacher’s authority may be challenged and the learner should develop and construct his/her own knowledge. As a big consequence of this view, a teacher-centered classroom is not relevant anymore; a learner-centered environment becomes the consequence of this view.
A learner-centered environment requires a learner-centered curriculum which reflects learner-centeredness. A move towards a learner-centered curriculum appeared in the 1980’s influenced by the strong movement of the communicative approach to
(planning → course delivery → evaluation) is rejected because it disregards process (p.
179).
What should be developed is a curriculum within the general learner-centered philosophy. There is a big consequence of the philosophy. The classroom teacher/practitioner should be able to develop a learner-centered curriculum! This is very demanding for the majority of language teachers, especially in developing countries like Indonesia. Nunan suggests that the teacher should be familiar with small empirical classroom-centered studies before he/she becomes a curriculum developer; hence, an invitation to do more empirical research into language learning and teaching. A learner-centered curriculum model (which the language teacher is expected to develop) should include principles and procedures for planning, implementing, and evaluating curriculum elements. The essential curriculum elements are (Nunan, 1988, p. 179): initial and ongoing needs analysis, content selection and gradation (including goal and objective setting), methodology (including selection and gradation of learning activities and materials), and monitoring, assessment, and evaluation.
Finney (in Richards and Renandya, 2002, p. 70) mentions a mixed-focus curriculum and considers the interaction between different aspects of a curriculum design and its implementation process very important. She proposes curriculum policy before needs analysis as the first step in the curriculum model. Curriculum policy establishes and expresses broad principles and major purposes of the curriculum. It gives guidance to the other decisions and is itself open to modification.
learning theory. Brundage and MacKeracher as quoted by Nunan state that past learning experiences influence adult learners and that immediate goals interest them more than distant life goals. However, it is admitted that adult learners vary in their learning attitudes and styles (Nunan, 1988, p. 23). An important conclusion from Brindley (in Nunan, p. 24) is that adult learners are not passive learners who just receive subject matter from above (from the teacher, the textbook’s writer, etc.). They have their own
experience of life that can be useful for the learning process. All of these suggest directly or indirectly that a learner-centered approach is more suitable than a subject-centered one in adult learning.
As mentioned previously, another driving force for the development of learner-centered teaching was the development of communicative language teaching. Language learners must be able to use language to get things done. Language knowledge is important but mastering grammar and vocabulary does not mean that they have attained communicative competence. There are more variables than just grammar and vocabulary (Nunan, 1988, p. 25): the topic and purpose of conversation, the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, and the situation/context. Class time should be spent on activities in which learners are trying to get things done; hence, the importance of learner-centered teaching and curriculum in order to attain one’s communicative competence.
goal also (Nunan, 1988, p. 3). This second major goal is related to the development of learner autonomy and independent learning skills; hence, the relevance of the learner-centered curriculum and the learner-learner-centered philosophy to post-modern education and language learning.
The conclusion that can be drawn is that learner-centeredness is a big, natural consequence of language teaching that emphasizes the development of the learner’s
(and the teacher’s) potential in getting things done with the new language and the
development of learning skills to attain learner autonomy or independence. Realizing his/her important position, the teacher should step by step try to become a local learning designer himself/herself in order to practice learner centeredness in his/her job.
2. Language Learning Design Models
The term ‘learning design’ here replaces the more popular ‘instructional design’
a. Learning Design Models
In this section two learning design models are briefly discussed. 1) Borg and Gall’s Model
R & D was originally used in industry to design new products and procedures, which were then field-tested, evaluated, and refined to meet certain standards. Based on this model, in the 1960’s educational R & D was developed in the U.S. Through
program evaluation and program development – that is, through educational R & D – the government tried to improve education (Gall, et al, 2007, p. 589) The following are the ten steps developed by Borg and Gall (1983) that often become the umbrella of most learning design developments.
Step 1: Research and Information Collecting Step 2: Planning
Step 3: Developing preliminary form of product Step 4: Preliminary field testing
Step 5: Main product revision Step 6: Main Field testing
Step 7: Operational product revision Step 8: Operational field testing Step 9: Final product revision
Step 10: Dissemination and implementation
In fact, Borg and Gall’s model can be simplified using a framework developed
by Thiagarajan, Semmel, and Semmel (1974) called 4-D Model (quoted in Barus, 2008: pp. 47-48): Defining, Designing, Developing, and Dissemination. The first two steps of Borg and Gall’s Model (Research and information collecting, Planning) correspond to
8, and 9 (Main field testing, Operational product revision, Operational field testing, and Final product revision). Finally, the last step (Dissemination and implementation) is put under Dissemination of the 4-D Model.
2) Dick, Carey, and Carey’s Model
Borg and Gall have revised their book and in their revision they refer to the model of Systems Approach of Educational Research and Development developed by Dick, Carey, and Carey (Gall, Gall, and Borg, 2007: 589-592). This systems approach model is considered as a widely used model of educational R & D. The following are the ten steps used in the model:
Step 1: Identify instructional goal(s)
(which often includes a needs assessment) Step 2: Conduct instructional analysis
(which identifies the specific skills, procedures, and learning tasks to reach goals)
Step 3: Analyze learners and contexts
(which identifies the learners’ entry-level skills and attitudes, the characteristics of the instructional setting, and the characteristics of the settings in which the new knowledge and skills will be used)
Step 4: Write performance objectives
(which also provides the basis for precise planning of assessment instruments, instructional strategies, and instructional materials)
Step 5: Develop assessment instruments
(the instruments being directly related to the knowledge and skills specified in the performance objectives)
Step 6: Develop instructional strategy
(to assist learners with their efforts to achieve each performance objective) Step 7: Develop and select instructional materials
(which may include print materials or other media and lesson plans) Step 8: Design and conduct formative evaluation of instruction
(done to support the process of improving the effectiveness of the program or product)
