i
SPEECH ACT TYPES AND THEIR ATTRIBUTION
TO SOCIAL STYLES OF
JIMMY HOPKINS’
UTTERANCES
IN BULLY: SCHOLARSHIP EDITION VIDEO GAME
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Giovani Agnes Utami 121214040
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
vi ABSTRACT
Utami, Giovani Agnes. (2017). Speech Act Types and Their Attribution to Social Styles of Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances in Bully: Scholarship Edition Video Game. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Communicating intentions in appropriate contexts and situations is necessary to avoid misunderstandings and other communication problems. Hence, understanding speech acts can be useful to reduce the problems. Speech acts can be found in many media and literature especially in electronic media and literature, such as video games. Bully: scholarship Edition (BSE) is one of video games which contains various types of speech acts based on diverse contexts of dialogue and different characters. Knowing someone’s behavioral preference through the use of speech act types can help us recognize someone’s behavioral pattern or social style. Understanding someone’s social styles helps us to deal with others effectively so that problems in spoken communication can be prevented.
This research analyzed utterances to find speech act types and social styles of Jimmy Hopkins, a character in BSE. Hence, this research is addressed to answer two research questions, namely, 1) what types of speech acts are observed in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances, the main character in the video game titled Bully: Scholarship Edition, and 2) what social styles are attributed to speech act types found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances.
To answer the research questions, discourse analysis was employed to analyze the meaning of spoken discourse which is in a form of utterances. Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances were chosen as a research subject. The utterances were transcribed from a video which has six chapters. However, only Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in Chapter V cutscenes were selected as research data because the utterances contain the climax and resolution of BSE plot. To analyze the data into speech act types, the utterances were categorized into mood types first. Then, Searle’s speech act types were applied for classifying the data. After that, speech act types in Jimmy Hopkins’utterances were attributed to Merill and Reid’s social style.
Based on the research findings, the researcher concluded that there are four types of speech acts found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances: representatives, directives, commissives, and expressives. Representatives and directives use declarative, interrogative, and imperative mood. Commissives and expressives are in forms of declarative and interrogative mood. From attributing speech act types to social styles, the researcher found that four social styles, amiable, analytical, driving, and expressive, are expressed in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. However, only expressive style dominates Jimmy Hopkins behavioral preference.
vii
ABSTRAK
Utami, Giovani Agnes. (2017). Speech Act Types and Their Attribution to Social Styles of Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances in Bully: Scholarship Edition Video Game. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.
Menyampaikan keinginan berdasarkan konteks dan situasi yang tepat sangat penting untuk menghindari kesalahpahaman dan masalah dalam komunikasi. Dalam hal ini tindak tutur dapat berguna untuk mengurangi permasalahan dalam komunikasi. Tindak tutur dapat ditemukan di banyak media dan literatur terutama di media dan literatur elektronik seperti video games. Bully: scholarship Edition (BSE) adalah salah satu video games yang memuat tindak tutur dalam konteks dialog dan karakter-karakter yang bermacam-macam. Mengetahui kecenderungan perilaku seseorang melalui penggunaan tipe-tipe tindak tutur dapat membantu kita mengenal pola perilaku seseorang atau gaya interaksi sosialnya. Memahami gaya interaksi sosial kita dan orang lain membantu kita berurusan dengan orang lain secara efektif sehingga permasalahan yang ada dalam komunikasi dapat dicegah.
Penelitian ini menganalisis ujaran-ujaran untuk menemukan tipe-tipe tindak tutur dan gaya interaksi sosial dari Jimmy Hopkins, karakter dalam BSE. Dari sini, penelitian ini ditujukan untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian, yaitu 1) tipe-tipe tindak tutur apa saja yang tampak dalam ujaran-ujaran Jimmy Hopkins, tokoh utama di video game berjudul Bully: Scholarship Edition, dan 2) gaya interaksi sosial apa saja yang terkait dengan tipe-tipe tindak tutur yang ditemukan dalam ujaran-ujaran Jimmy Hopkins.
Untuk menjawab kedua pertanyaan penelitian, analisis wacana diterapkan untuk menganalisis makna dari wacana lisan dalam bentuk ujaran. Ujaran-ujaran Jimmy Hopkins dipilih sebagai obyek penelitian. Ujaran-ujaran tersebut ditranskripsikan dari sebuah video yang mempunyai enam bagian. Bagaimanapun, hanya ujaran-ujaran dalam Chapter V atau bab kelima yang dipilih dan dikumpulkan sebagai data penelitian karena ujaran tersebut memuat klimaks dan resolusi dari alur cerita di BSE. Mengkategorikan data penelitian berdaasarkan mood types adalah sebuah langkah untuk membedakan data kedalam tipe-tipe tindak tutur. Kemudian, tipe-tipe tindak tutur dihubungkan ke teori gaya interaksi sosial.
Berdasarkan temuan penelitian, peneliti menyimpulkan ada empat tipe tindak tutur yang ditemukan dalam ujaran Jimmy Hopkins: representatif, direktif, komisif, dan eksrepsif. Tipe representatif dan direktif menggunakan modus deklaratif, interogatif, dan imperatif. Tipe komisif dan ekspresif berbentuk modus deklaratif dan interogatif. Melalui penghubungan tipe tindak tutur ke gaya interaksi sosial, peneliti menemukan bahwa keempat tipe sosial, amiable, analytical, driving, dan expressive, diekspresikan dalam ujaran Jimmy Hopkins. Bagaimanapun, hanya expressive yang mendominasi behavioral preference Jimmy Hopkins.
viii
“There is a time
for everything . . .
a time to weep and a time to laugh,
a time to mourn and a time to dance”
Ecclesiastes 3:1, 4
I dedicate this thesis to my family and to fellow gamers who
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Jesus Christ for always revealing countless ways to finish my study especially this research. I also would like to express my greatest gratitude to my parents, Andreas Nurwarsito and Florince Silaban, A.Md.Keb., my younger sister, Asri Damara, and my younger
brother, Galih Dewanto. Their love, encouragement, trust, and support became my motivation to finish this research and my study in ELESP.
The completion of this research could not be possible without my thesis advisor, Dr. Emanuel Sunarto, M.hum. His deep knowledge about linguistics, his patient guidance, and his kindness help me survive to continue and to finish my research. I am indebted to my academic advisor, Veronica Triprihatmini, M.Hum., M.A., for her academic advice and life lessons that she taught from my
first semester until my last semester. I thank all lecturers in ELESP for inspiring me to finish my study especially this thesis. I also thank ELESP secretariat, academic administration, and library staff of Sanata Dharma University for helping me in the process of registering and publishing my thesis.
I am very grateful for having best friends as my biggest supporters to finish my research and my study in Sanata Dharma University. I thank Roosefine Shierly S., Chezia Eufresia Isworo, S.Pd., Dogma Uli, S.Pd., Anselmus Apri H., S.Pd.,
x
inspiring me to think from different perspectives. I am grateful to them for sparing their time to talk randomly about my problems especially on my research.
I thank Nicholas Simarmata, S. Psi., M. A., Leni and bang Aji for giving me advice and insight for my research from psychology perspective. I should like to thank Dogma Uli, S.Pd., Maria Sandra Deta Rosiani, S.Pd., Ria Resty Winarni, S.Pd., Anchieta Ave Avillanova, S.Pd., and Hari Krismawan, S.Pd. for their kindness to proofread my thesis. I am grateful to Maria Vita Otavia, S.Pd., Maria Regina Fika Meilida, S.E. Dita Rusdia Amalia, S.Pd., Odilia
Enggar Ranum, S.I.P., Kristina Tri Lestari, S.E., Erni Widiastuti, S.Pi., Hesti
Ratnaningrum, S.Pd., mas Heru, Azis, and Rafael Claudio A. P. for always supporting and inspiring me with their own and unique ways. I also thank Muhammad Arifin for sharing his knowledge about technology which is very useful in my life. For Kekkaishi Fans friends (Hari, mbak Hani, mbak Lia, mas Dika, mbak Ester, mas Kaza, mas Eko, and mbak Popo), I thank them for their encouragement and support they gave especially for their silly and entertaining chats that amused me when I worked on my research. For Junior Mwiinga, I thank him for letting me use his video as the main resource for this research.
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ……….. i
APPROVAL PAGE ……….. ii
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ………... iv
PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……… v
ABSTRACT ……… vi
ABSTRAK ……… vii
DEDICATION PAGE ………. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……… ix
C. Research Objectives ……… 5
D. Research Significance ………. 6
E. Problem Limitation ………. 7
F. Definition of Terms ………. 7
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Review of Previous Studies ………. 10
C. Theoretical Framework ………... 23
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ………... 26
B. Research Setting ………... 27
C. Research Subject ..………... 28
D. Research Instrument and Data Gathering Technique ……….. 30
E. Data Analysis Technique ………. 32
F. Research Procedure ………... 34
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Speech Act Types and Social Styles Found in Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances ……….. 36
xii
1. Representatives ………. 41
a. Declarative ……… 42
b. Interrogative ………. 43
c. Imperative ………. 44
d. Attribution to Social Styles ………... 45
2. Directives ……….. 47
a. Declarative ……… 48
b. Interrogative ……….. 49
c. Imperative ………. 50
d. Attribution to Social Styles ………... 51
3. Commissives ………. 53
a. Declarative ………. 53
b. Interrogative ……….. 54
c. Attribution to Social Styles ………... 56
4. Expressives ……….... 58
a. Declarative ………. 58
b. Interrogative ………... 59
c. Attribution to Social Styles ………... . 60
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions ………. 64
B. Implications ………... 65
C. Recommendations ……… 66
REFERENCES ……… 68
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ack : acknowledging adm : admitting agr : agreeing app : approving ask : asking asr : asserting beg : begging boa : boasting cha : challenging com : commissives comm : commanding comp : complaining conc : concluding conf : confirming cor : correcting cpli : complimenting dar : daring
dec : declarative mood decs : declarations den : denying des : describing dir : directives dis : disagreeing
xiv exps : expressives
far : expressing farewell gre : greeting
gue : guessing
imp : imperative mood ins : insulting
int : interrogative mood inv : inviting
iro : expressing irony JU : Jimmy’s Utterance ord : ordering
pre : predicting pro : promising ref : refusing reg : regretting rep : representatives repo : reporting req : requesting
sat : expressing satisfaction sho : expressing shock sta : stating
xv
LIST OF TABLES
Page Table 3.1 Observation Table for Classifying Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances ... 30 Table 3.2 Cross Tabulation of Speech Act Type Analysis Result ………… 33 Table 3.3 Cross Tabulation of Social Style Analysis Result …………... 33
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 The Mood System ……….. 17
Figure 2.6 The Theoretical Framework Diagram ……… 25 Figure 4.1 The Total Utterances of Speech Act Types Found in
Jimmy Hopkins' Utterances ………. 36 Figure 4.2 The Total Utterances of Speech Act Types Attributed to
xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page Appendix 1. Index of Clues of Speech Act Types ……… 70 Appendix 2. Index of Clues of Social Styles ……… 72 Appendix 3. Speech Act Types Found in Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances ….... 74 Appendix 4. Social Styles Found in Jimmy Hopkins’ Speech Act Types … 76 Appendix 5. Jimmy Hopkins’ Speech Act Types and Social Styles
1 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is divided into six sections. First is research background. Second is research questions. Third is research objectives. Fourth is problem limitation. Fifth is research significance and the last one is definition of terms.
A. Research Background
People convey their intentions using different ways. The ways can be varied depending on places, culture, or age difference. Basically, the ways that people use to communicate their intentions to each other are differentiated into two types of communication. Steinberg (2007) categorizes communication as verbal and nonverbal communication (p. 41). In verbal communication, talking is an activity to express people’s intentions. Intentions which are delivered through utterances in
talking or discourse sometimes can create problems such as arguments, manipulation, and even bigger effects such as riots and wars. Those problems can happen because of misunderstandings, inaccurate information, or lack of tolerance. Moreover, people should be aware of contexts and situations when they try to express their intentions. From this point, understanding speech acts can be useful to help both speakers and hearers to deal with problems especially in verbal communication.
function of an utterance accommodates an intention of a speaker. As an example, when a person intends to warn someone, he or she utters an utterance which has warning function such as watch out! and don’t step on the grass. However, an utterance can have different functions and they depend on contexts. Since there are many functions of utterances in verbal communication, Searle (1976) categories those functions into five types of speech acts. The types are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.
Speech acts can be found in several media and literature such as books, videos, audio records, plays, short stories, and poems. In this digital era, kinds of media and literature are expanded into electronic media and literature. Examples of electronic media are television, radio, and internet and examples of electronic literature are e-book, flash fiction or short stories in web blogs, and digital poetry. One of electronic media and literature is a video game. According to Wolf and Iwatani (2015), video games along with other electronic devices such as computers and phones are included as media (p. 5). Furthermore, Ciccoricco (2014) mentions that video games are part of literature specifically electronic literature as they contain “literary qualities” and “project narratives” in form of textual material and
transcription of character dialogue (as cited in Ryan, Emerson & Robertson, 2014, p. 223).
As an electronic medium and literature, some video games contain situations and dialogues which are based on or similar to real life. One of them is Bully: Scholarship Edition (BSE). BSE is an action-adventure game which is about high
Academy and has to deal with bullies in his new school. In BSE, dialogues are uttered by many characters such as teachers and students in cutscenes in particular contexts. Through dialogues, characters use them to express their intentions. Hence, BSE provides many illustrations of language use especially English in contexts.
BSE contains utterances from narration or monologue and dialogue in
cutscenes. However, this study focuses only on analyzing utterances in a character’s dialogue. In BSE cutscenes, dialogue is performed in spoken discourse. Hence, speech act theory is used to examine spoken discourse specifically utterances to seek intentions and speech functions which are directly or indirectly uttered. In this study, speech act theory by Searle (1976) is employed to analyze Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances are chosen because in BSE, he is the main character and his utterances have major influence in BSE plot.
Despite massive number of gamers and positive acceptance of researchers and language teachers and learners towards video games, not all people have the same perspective to consider video games as useful media and literature. As the matter of fact, such cynical treatment is reasonable, since many video games contain violence, swear words, impolite behavior, and any kinds of actions which are claimed to give negative impacts towards someone’s behavior. Anderson and Bushman (2001) find out that “exposure to violent video games was significantly associated with increases in aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, and physiological arousal” (as cited in Anderson, Gentile, and Buckley,
As a matter of fact, BSE also contains violence scenes, swear words and impolite behavior. However, BSE is chosen because there are various contexts of English use in BSE dialogues. Hence, BSE can be used to study speech acts and their contexts. The game mainly uses school-life issues as themes. The themes in BSE are friendship, violence among students, teachers’ problems and violation of
school rules. Furthermore, there are many moral values which can be acquired from BSE such as friendship among students, courage to speak out, and having a strong
willingness to act for the right things. These themes and moral values are really important to be understood and reflected especially by teachers or teacher candidates and lecturers. Such themes are common things in any schools and teachers mostly have to deal with those problems.
Every person or character can utter utterances which contain speech act from different speech act types. However, the way each person communicates their intentions through speech acts and his or her tendency in using speech act types in his or her utterances can be different. For example, some people are used to speak which utterances’ function or speech function are asserting. A half group of people
might often express their asserting utterances in assertive manners but another half might dislike showing assertion in their utterances or in assertive manners. Knowing people who we are talking to is important in communication especially spoken communication. Understanding someone’s behavioral pattern in
(Merill & Reid, 1981, p. 2). In BSE, Jimmy Hopkins gets many problems from different situations. The problems make him express various intentions and those intentions reflect on his utterances and actions. His utterances and actions become his behaviors and a pattern of his behavioral preference is his social style. Hence, speech acts, specifically speech act types, bridge Jimmy Hopkins’ intentions in his utterances to reveal his social styles. To analyze Jimmy Hopkins’ social styles, social style model by Merill and Reid (1981) is employed. There are four styles in social style model. They are amiable, analytical, driving, and expressive.
B. Research Questions
In this research, there are two questions that are formulated based on the research background.
1. What types of speech acts are observed in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances, the main character in the video game titled Bully: Scholarship Edition?
2. What social styles are attributed to speech act types found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances?
C. Research Objectives
D. Research Significance
This research can be important to some people, especially to English teachers and lecturers, students who take English major, and future researchers. 1. English teachers and lecturers
English teachers and lecturers who teach English using video games as teaching media can use this research as a reference to emphasize the importance of learning language through appropriate contexts and contents found in utterances. They also can employ social style to understand students better and how to cooperate with them in class activities.
2. Students who take English major
Students who study English Education major or English Letters major might find this research useful to give them a better understanding about linguistics specifically speech acts. The students can learn to find the meaning of any utterances or sentences not only semantically but also the meaning based on intentions, contexts, and situations. The students can also make the most of video games as sources of teaching and learning English. In addition, understanding social styles can help students to recognize someone’s social style based on his or her speech act types and adapt to people who have different styles.
3. Future Researchers
future researchers who want to conduct speech act and any other linguistics research using the same theories, data source, and other aspects from this research.
E. Problem Limitation
The main focus of this research is speech act study which uses speech act theory by Searle (1976). In Searle’s speech act theory, speech acts are divided into
five types and direct or indirect speech acts. However, this study does not categorize research data into direct and indirect speech acts. Instead, speech act types are used to analyze spoken discourse which is in a form of utterances. The utterances are Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances and they are selected as research data.
In BSE, the plot of the story are divided into six parts or chapters. To simplify data analysis, only one chapter was selected and the title of the chapter is Chapter V: The Fall and Rise of Jimmy Hopkins, Aged 15. In this research, the chapter is
referred as Chapter V. Furthermore, this study also attributes speech act types to social styles by Merill and Reid (1981) to conclude Jimmy Hopkins’ social styles.
F. Definition of Terms
Several terms are used in this study and these terms are defined in this part. The terms are speech acts, utterances, cutscene, and social style. The terms’ definitions and descriptions are mentioned in the following parts.
1. Speech acts
According to Yule (2005), speech acts are “the action performed by a
classify utterances of the main character Jimmy Hopkins into types of speech acts. Searle (1969) classifies speech acts into five categories; representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.
2. Utterances
Utterances are commonly identified as sentences. However, they are two different terms. Zellig Harris defines utterances as "any stretch of talk, by one person, before and after which there is silence on the part of that person” (as cited
in Lyons, 1968, p. 172). Lyons (1968) also adds that the silence is not necessary a long pause in a conversation but rather switching turns between a speaker and a hearer (p. 172).
3. Cutscene
Cutscene is “a nonplayable animated or live-action sequence in a video game, usually employed as a storytelling device, and typically following established conventions of cinema” (Klevjer, 2013, p. 106). Cutscenes are shown
in a video game before and after a gameplay or in the middle of a gameplay. Usually cutscenes take a form of video clips which can be related or unrelated to the storyline of a game.
4. Social Style
Social style is “patterns of behaviors that others can observe” (Merill &
10 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter comprises three parts. They are review of previous studies, theoretical description, and theoretical framework. In the first part, some previous studies of speech acts are reviewed to distinguish the differences of this study with the previous studies. In the second part, four topics of related theories which are used in this research are described: speech acts, mood types, ellipsis, and social style. Then, these topics are summarized in the third part of this chapter, namely theoretical framework.
A. Review of Previous Studies
Meidaratika (2008) conducted a research which concentrates on one of speech act categories namely expressive. Meidaratika took An Ideal Husband play script as the object of the study. The research focuses on a character utterances namely Lady Chiltern. Reactions towards the expressive speech act and messages which are tried to be conveyed by Lady Chiltren are other research problems in the research. The result of the research shows that the expressive speech acts found in Lady Chiltern utterances are quite dominant in her utterances.
A research about speech act was also conducted by Ciptaningrum (2011). The research also concentrates on a specific topic of speech acts namely politeness strategies in directive speech acts. Characters’ utterances in an episode of TV series entitled The IT Crowd: Moss and the German are the object of the research. Besides analyzing types of directive speech acts, the researcher attributed speech act study with psychology theory. Interpersonal relationship and power of relationship theories are used to analyze characters’ interpersonal relationship and the power of
characters’ interpersonal relationships. The results of Ciptaningrum’s research are
that politeness strategies which are applied by characters in their utterances show high relation with characters’ interpersonal relationship.
Qadir and Riloff (2011) observed speech acts in message board posts from the Veterinary Information Network (VIN) web site. The web site is a forum for veterinarians to share and to discuss issues and questions related to their work as veterinarians. The research is focused on studying speech acts in sentences rather than in written conversation in the forum. Searle’s theory of speech acts is used to
their research is classifying sentences, the researchers use lexical, syntactic and domain-specific semantic class features along with speech acts word lists from other resources beside Searle’s speech act classification of verbs. Those features and word lists of speech acts are criteria to classify sentences that have a speech act or none at all.
Kristiawan (2015) conducted a research which analyzes indirect speech acts found in conversation in TV game show titled Whose Line is It Anyway. The researcher chose 7 videos from the TV game show. The game that is Question Only game. The conversation in the Question Only game is in form questions or preferably named ill-sequence conversation. The research is focused on two research problems. The first research problem is to find kinds of speech acts which are used in the Question Only game. The second research problem is to observe how the conversation in the Question Only game goes with varied kinds of indirect speech acts while people in the video apply ill-sequence conversation. There are two results based on the research problems. The first result is that there are not only questioning act applied in the ill-sequence conversation but also varied kinds of indirect speech acts even though the conversation is in the form of questions. The second result is that the conversation goes well and ill-sequence conversation does not alter kinds of indirect speech acts that are applied in the conversation.
On the other side, Puri (2015) analyzed directive speech acts found in a character’s utterances in The Devil Wears Prada movie. The researcher limited the
Priestly’s utterances, the selected character in the research, the researcher related them with Miranda Priestly’s leadership style.
B. Theoretical Description
There are four topics of theories which are described in this part. The topics are speech acts, mood types, ellipsis, and social style model. In this research, speech acts, mood types, and social style model are used to analyze research data. Meanwhile, ellipsis is functioned as supplementary theory to differentiate mood types.
1. Speech Acts
Initially, J.L. Austin used a term performative utterances or performative acts which refers to speech acts. He states that performative utterance “indicates
that the issuing of the utterance is the performing of an action” (Austin, 1962, p. 6). Three levels of speech acts according to Austin (1962) are locutionary acts, illocutionary acts, and perlocutionary acts. This research only used illocutionary act types to analyze speech acts in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Illocutionary act according to Austin (1962, p. 99) is “performance of an act in saying something”. Searle (1976) classifies illocutionary acts into five types. They are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations. Generally, the types are preferably called speech act types. Brief descriptions of Searle’s speech act types are elaborated in the following parts.
a. Representatives
case, to the truth of the expressed proposition” (Searle, 1976). Searle explains that to examine utterances which contain representatives, the utterances should be able to be “literally” classified into “true or false” (Searle, 1976). Representative
direction is to fit words to the world. Verbs which are categorized into representatives are: hypothesize, insist, boast, complain, conclude, deduce, and some of “Austin’s expositives and many of his verdictives” (Searle, 1976). Yule
(1996) adds statements of fact, assertions, and descriptions into representative acts (p. 53). In addition, Cutting (2002) includes claiming and predicting in this type. Cutting (2002) provides two examples of representative type: ‘The fact that girls
have been outstripping boys academically has been acknowledged for the past 12 years or so.’ and ‘I came; I saw; I conquered’ (p. 17).
b. Directives
This type of speech act is “to get the hearer to do something” (Searle, 1976).
Searle mentions several verbs which are included in directive acts. They are ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, advise, dare, defy, challenge and some of “Austin’s exercitives” (Searle, 1976). The point of directives
is the speaker tries to fit the world into words through the hearer. Two examples of directive which are taken from Cutting (2002) are ‘Better remain silent and be thought a fool, than open your mouth and remove all possible doubt.’ and ‘Do not
unto others as you would they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the same.’ (p. 17).
c. Commissives
“commit the speaker to some future course action”. Several verbs which are in
commissives class are listed by Cutting. The verbs are promise, offer, threaten, refuse, vow, and volunteer (Cutting, 2002). Yule (1996) adds pledge into commissive class (p. 54). This type is the type of speech act in which the speaker tries to fit the world into the words through the speaker himself or herself. An example of commissive class was taken from Cutting (2002): ‘I’ll make him an offer he can’t refuse.’ (p. 17)
d. Expressives
This type of speech act is rather different from the other types. Searle (1976) states that this class of speech act is “to express the psychological state specified in
the sincerity condition about a state of affairs specified in the propositional content”. Verbs that include in this expressive class are thank, congratulate,
apologize, condole, deplore, and welcome (Searle, 1976). Cutting (2002) adds praise and regret into the verb list of expressive class. An example of expressive act which was taken from Cutting (2002) is ‘If I’d known I was gonna live this long,
I’d have taken better care of myself.’ (p. 17)
e. Declarations
2. Mood Types
Mood types or main clause types in English consist of four moods: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative (Collins & Hollo, 2009, p. 110). Halliday (2004) differentiates mood types into two: indicative (declarative and interrogative) and imperative mood (p. 134). Since there are many differences in categorizing mood types from different theories, this research only used three mood types: declarative, interrogative, imperative. Nevertheless, the focus of mood types is the same: to distinguish specific “interpersonal functions within the clause”
(Fontaine, 2013, p. 134).
Thompson (2004) differentiates declarative as two types of clauses: exclamative and non-exclamative clauses (as cited in Fontaine, 2013, p. 135). An exclamative clause is a regular declarative such as ‘she is a pretty girl’. The
non-exclamative clause is a clause where a complement precedes a subject and a finite of a clause (Fontaine, 2013, p. 135). Compared to exclamative clause, the example of non-exclamative clause become ‘what a pretty girl she is’. Usually, a non-exclamative clause is ellipsed so the example becomes ‘what a pretty girl’.
According to Nuyts and Auwera (2016), declarative mood is “often taken to represent assertive speech act” (p. 69). This is because an utterance which contains
declarative mood indicates “the speaker’s commitment to the truth, as well as with
evidentials, which indicate how speakers have obtain information needed for making assertion” (Nuyts and Auwera, 2016, p. 69). However, declarative mood is
never again forget your birthday; (b) directive: you know what you have to do; (c) expressive: I am sorry; (d) declaration: You are guilty.
To formulate interrogative mood, the subject and the finite in declarative mood are inverted. However, inverting a subject and a finite is not the only condition to determine a clause or an utterance belongs to interrogative mood. Wh-question and yes/no Wh-question (see figure 2.1) are the other conditions to categorize a clause or an utterance into interrogative mood. Similar with declarative mood, interrogative mood does not only represent an act of asking question. This mood can be included into other speech act types.
Imperative mood is rather different from the other two moods above. Basically, a clause which contains imperative mood is also formed from a subject and a finite. However, most of the time, the subject is omitted. Fontaine (2013) suggests to “check the effects of adding an overt subject and finite element and
comparing this with the resultant structures in both positive and negative polarity”
(p. 136).
clause and mood types, a mood system by Thompson (2004) is provided in Figure 2.1. (as cited in Fontaine, 2013, p. 135).
Wh- subject Wh- question
Interrogative Wh- non-subject
yes/no question Indicative
Exclamative Exclamative
Independent Declarative
Clause Non-exclamative
Suggestive
Imperative Marked
Regular imperative (jussive)
Unmarked
Figure 2.1 The Mood System
In relation to speech acts, Fontaine (2013) states “speech functions such as
question and order are expressed by the mood system” (p. 134). Speech functions
can be determined by classifying independent clauses or utterances into the three mood types. In this research, speech functions are referred as ‘functions’ (see
Appendix 1). As stated on the figure 2.1, mood types are acquired from an independent clause which consists of a subject and a finite. Fontaine (2013) mentions that the combination of “subject and finite is to define the mood structure
of the clause” (p. 134).
3. Ellipsis
in the structure” (p. 89). There are many kinds of ellipsis and two amongst them are
anaphoric and exophoric ellipsis. Anaphoric ellipsis is the kind of ellipsis which a clause or an utterance is based on a previous clause or a previous utterance (Halliday, 2004). Halliday (2004) mentions four examples: ‘Yes, No, All right, and
Of course’. Exophoric ellipsis is the type of ellipsis which “simply taking advantage
of the rhetorical structure of the situation, specifically the roles of the speaker and listener” (Halliday, 2004). Halliday (2004) mentions some examples such as
‘Thirsty? (are you thirsty?)’, ‘No idea (I’ve no idea)’, ‘A song! (let’s have a song!)’,
and ‘feeling better? (are you feeling better?)’.Even though there are still many types of ellipsis which are not mentioned in this section, the researcher considered all the types as one category: ellipsis. In addition, this theory was only used to help the researcher categorize utterances which are structurally incomplete.
4. Social Style
Social style is derived from behavioral psychology field (Merill & Reid 1981, p. 40). Behavioral psychology method tends to “watch people and describe
what they do, without making any attempt to analyze why a person behaves in a certain way” (Merill & Reid, 1981, p. 40). Meanwhile, analyzing reasons behind
someone’s behavior is the method of psychoanalytical theories which is contrary with behavioral theories.
& Reid, 1981, p. 44). Responsiveness is a human behavior dimension that “indicates whether a person tends to emote or to control feelings and the extent to which others see us as an individual who displays feelings or emotions openly in social situation” (Merill & Reid, 1981, p. 44). Versatility is a human behavior
dimension that shows “the extent to which others see us as adaptable, resourceful, and competent” (Merill & Reid, 1981, p. 44). Even though social style has three
dimensions, Merill and Reid’s social style typology only combines assertiveness
and responsiveness dimensions. This is because versatility is a dimension which measures our behavior on adapting and dealing with people with the same and different social styles.
The combination of assertiveness and responsiveness dimensions creates four styles of social style. The four styles are amiable, analytical, driving, and expressive. Brief descriptions of the four social styles are summarized based on social theory of Merill and Reid (1981). Each description provides adjectives which represent each style. Moreover, there are other adjectives and descriptions from three aspects of social styles which differentiate a style from another. The aspects are actions used to others, use of time, and approach to decision making.
a. Amiable
relate to others, amiable style is a style which usually places a high priority on friendships, close relationships, and cooperative behavior. Acceptance of others has a great value for amiable people. In the use of time aspect, amiable people tend to move slowly and undisciplined. They focus on ‘now’ moment. In approach to
decision making, amiable people express slow or reluctant to change their opinions. They like to be in comfort zone and avoid risky activities. They use personal opinions to make decisions.
b. Analytical
c. Driving
This behavior type also has high tendency to control emotions like analytical behavior type. However, this type has high assertiveness and responsiveness level which makes someone who has this type tend to tell people rather than ask them. Hence, driving behavior has high assertiveness and responsiveness dimensions. If someone has driving type, usually he or she tends to be pushy, severe, tough, dominating, harsh, strong willed, independent, practical, decisive, and efficient (Merill & Reid, 1981, p. 60). In the aspect of actions used to relate to others, driving people know what they want, where they are going, and how to get there quickly. They are result-oriented people, uncommunicative, and competitive. They are typical people who initiate actions but they rarely share their feelings and thoughts. In the use of time, driving people focus on present and they have swift, efficient, and to the point responses. They have tendency to be impatient. In the approach to decision making, they do not like being told what to do or not to do and they like to be in charge when they face problems. They make decisions based on facts and data like analytical style but they are willing to take risks.
d. Expressive
actions used to relate to others, People who have expressive style are communicative, warm, approachable, and competitive. They involve other people with their feelings and thoughts. They want others as friends who have roles as followers and personal supporters of their dreams rather than as competitors. In the use of time, expressive people act quickly but undisciplined. They are also impatient. In decision making aspect, expressive people are willing to take risks but their decisions are based on personal opinions, hunches, and intuitions which are from their own or other people. They appear more imaginative and creative.
C. Theoretical Framework
The main focuses of this research are to describe types of speech acts in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in BSE and to analyze Jimmy Hopkins’ social styles based on his types of speech acts in his utterances using Merill and Reid’s social
types. After recognizing the mood types, the utterances are classified into speech act types and then given abbreviated labels for their speech functions.
This research applies speech act types of Searle’s speech act theory (1976) for categorizing Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. The types of speech acts are from one of the three levels of speech acts in Searle’s speech act theory namely illocutionary
acts. The types of illocutionary acts are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives, and declarations.
After obtaining speech act types in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances, social style theory are employed to analyze Jimmy Hopkins’ social styles. Among many typologies on social style theories, social style which was developed by Merill and Reid (1981) are used to analyze Jimmy Hopkins’ social styles. Social style is chosen because it determines someone’s social style based on his or her behavioral
preference (what someone does and says). Hence, Jimmy Hopkins’speech act types are attributed to social styles by comparing characteristics or clues of speech act types and social styles.
In social style theory, there are three dimensions of human behavior. They are assertiveness, responsiveness, and versatility. Social style typology is based on a combination of two dimensions: assertiveness and responsiveness. From those two dimensions, four social styles are derived to classify someone’s behavioral
pattern based on someone’s behavioral preference. The styles are amiable,
Figure 2.2 The Theoretical Framework
Research Data
Jimmy Hopkins
’
utterances
•
Representatives
•
Directives
•
Commissives
•
Expressives
•
Declarations
Mood Types
Social Style
•
declarative
•
interrogative
•
imperative
•
Ellipsis
Supplementary Theory
Speech Act Types
•
Amiable
•
Analytical
•
Driving
•
Expressive
26 CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter is divided into six parts. They are research method, research setting, research subject, instruments and data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedure. Research method describes details of a method and an approach used in this research. Research setting and research subject are parts which explain when research data were gathered and what the object of the research is. Data gathering technique, data analysis technique, and research procedures are about details of how research data were processed.
A. Research Method
Patton (1985) states that qualitative research is “an effort to understand
situations in their uniqueness as part of a particular context and the interactions there . . . The analysis strives for depth of understanding” (as cited in Merriam, 2009, p. 14). From the definition of qualitative research, this research implemented qualitative research because it aims to understand the use of language in terms of analyzing its meaning in contexts. Qualitative research has many genres and each genre differs from one expert to another. Gall et. al. (1996) differentiate qualitative research into three genres:
“(a) individual lived experience exemplified by phenomenological approaches, some feminist inquiry, and life history and testimonio; (b) society and culture as seen in ethnography and action research; and (c) language and communication –
whether spoken or expressed in text – like that in sociolinguistic approaches,
Hence, this research is included in the third genre, language and communication, specifically discourse analysis.
Potter (1997) defines discourse analysis as a method which focuses on “studying discourse as texts and talk in social practices” (as cited in Wood &
Kroger, 2000, p. 3). This research employed discourse analysis by analyzing spoken discourse which is in form of utterances. To analyze the utterances, speech act theory was used since it is the part of discourse analysis (Litosseliti, 2010, p. 119). The focus of speech act theory is to analyze the meaning of someone’s verbal expressions based on contexts in someone’s social life. In this research, speech act theory is used to describe speech act types of fictional character’s utterances. Moreover, in social life, humans do not acts randomly but they tend to have behavioral preferences which can be concluded into patterns. A term for behavioral patterns is called social style. From speech act types in utterances, social styles can be observed based on clues or characteristics which are usually expressed by each social style.
B. Research Setting
This research used cutscenes from a video game titled Bully: Scholarship Edition (BSE). The cutscenes are specifically from Chapter V in BSE. To gather
C. Research Subject
This research used utterances of Jimmy Hopkins, the main character in BSE video game, as the subject of the study. However, not all of Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in the cutscenes were chosen as the research subject. The researcher limited the research subject by choosing only Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in Chapter V of BSE. BSE is a game created by Rockstar Vancouver and it was released in 2006. The game can be played in many consoles such as PS2, Wii™, XBOX360®, and PC (Rockstar Games, n.d.).
The story of BSE is mainly about Jimmy Hopkins, a student which is expelled from his previous school because he is naughty. His mother registers him into Bullworth Academy and makes him stay in the Bullworth dorm. His mother does not want Jimmy to be her burden since she has just married an old guy that Jimmy hates. In his new school, he meets an old strict principle, a drunk teacher and other bad examples of teachers. Moreover, ha has to deal with gangs of students who like to bully him and weak students. Then, he meets two students who become his best friends, Gary and Pete. However, Gary gradually becomes his enemy because he spreads bad rumors about Jimmy which makes Jimmy expelled. In the end of the story, Jimmy can beat down all gangs in his school and town. He proves his innocence by telling tied-up principal, Dr. Crabblesnitch, that Gary was behind all riots that happen in Bullworth Academy.
in BSE can be a source to learn speech acts in characters’ utterances especially characters’ speech act types.
The second reason is related to education. BSE video game is set in school and town. Even though the story of the video game is fiction, there are many conditions and issues in the video game which are similar to education issues in the world particularly in Indonesia. As the matter of fact, problems in schools are not only about bullying. As presented in the video game, the problems or themes which are used in BSE are violence, violation, harassment, bad school system and management, and other serious problems in education. BSE also has moral values which can be used as reflection on education problems by students, teachers or teacher candidates, and lecturers. For students, the moral values which can be derived from BSE are friendship among students and courage to speak out and act for the right things. For teachers and teacher candidates, BSE depicts bad relationships such as bullying and discrimination among students and teachers which sometimes can happen in any schools.
The third reason is because BSE contains various characters with different social styles. These characters show their social styles through speech acts from their utterances. Language learners can learn to identify characters’ social styles from their speech acts and learn how to deal with people if they meet some people who indicate the same social styles as the characters in BSE.
appearance dominates the cutscenes and he takes major role to roll the story plot in BSE. The second reason is because Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances are quite simple compared to other characters. Other characters in the video game have longer utterances which make the utterances difficult to analyze.
D. Research Instrument and Data Gathering Technique
The instrument in this research is observation table. The table was created in accordance with synthesized theories in this research. The theories which were featured in observation table are mood types, speech act types, and social styles. Categories from the theories were abbreviated to make labels for the table. In addition, the table is featured with the transcription of Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances.
To categorize data into labels, sets of criteria were used as instruments to help the process of consideration. The sets of criteria can be seen in Appendix 1 and 2. The criteria are taken from descriptions and clues of theories in Chapter 2 (mood types, speech act types, and social styles). Table 3.1 is the observation table which is to classify Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances.
Table 3.1 Observation Table for Classifying Jimmy Hopkins’Utterances
Abbreviations: dec: declarative int: interrogative imp: imperative rep: representatives
dir: directives com: commissives exps: expressives decs: declaratives
ami: amiable ana: analytical dri: driving exp: expressive
S
ce
n
e Code Utter- ances
Mood Types Speech Act Types Social Styles
For observation technique, audiovisual observation was done since research data were gathered by combining two observation techniques: watching a video of BSE cutscenes and listening to Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. The video was downloaded from YouTube, particularly from a YouTube channel named UPlayNetwork. The cutscenes were downloaded in order to simplify data gathering.
For data gathering technique, this research employed purposive sampling. According to Adler and Clark (2007), purposive sampling is a technique in which “the researcher selects sampling units based on his or her judgment of what units will facilitate an investigation” (p. 21). Purposive sampling was applied by choosing Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in the fifth chapter, namely, Chapter V. Basically, the story line of BSE is divided into 6 chapters and Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances are found in all chapters. The utterances in the fifth chapter were chosen as the research subject because the climax and the resolution of BSE story plot are focused on Chapter V. In climax and resolution parts of BSE story, various speech act types are assumed to be found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances in Chapter V. From various speech act types, many characteristics of different social styles are expected to be attributed to speech act types of Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Furthermore, there were several data which were used for discussing findings in Chapter 4 in this research. Each data was purposively chosen in accordance with topics and subtopics in Chapter 4.
is fade-in. In the video, a fade-in is considered as a sign that a scene has started. The second criterion is fade-out. A fade-out in the video is considered as a sign that a scene has ended. The fade-in and fade-out are moments when a scene gradually appears and disappears from or to a blank state without any specific sound cue. The third criterion is places which contain at least one utterance. A place is considered a scene if there is a conversation or an utterance from a character. As an example, Scene 1 is set in school yard. It is marked in the transcription table with fade-in in the beginning of a scene and fade-out in the end of a scene (See Appendix 5).
E. Data Analysis Technique
In this research, data were analyzed by applying five steps. First, theories which were used to analyze data were synthesized to get their types and clues of the types. Descriptions and clues of mood types, speech act types, and social styles can be seen in Chapter 2 or in Appendix 1 and 2. Second, data were categorized into codes or labels in observation table as seen in Table 3.1. Saldana (2015) mentions that coding is part of analysis whether it is done “during and after collection as an analytical tactic”.
many speech act functions, the functions were put in speech act type columns and then abbreviated. Furthermore, each utterance of Jimmy Hopkins was coded with two letters (JU) and followed by numbers of the utterances. For example, JU01 is the first utterance which is uttered by Jimmy Hopkins. The two capitals (JU) stand from Jimmy Utterance. Third, data were quantified to each label in cross tabulations. The purpose of quantifying data which had been analyzed is to illustrate findings of this research in forms of figures and cross tabulations. Quantifying research data is also aimed to help in describing speech act types and social styles of Jimmy Hopkins, although it is not the major focus on analyzing data in this research. Table 3.2 shows an example of the total number of mood types and speech act types. A full table of Table 3.2 are shown in Appendix 3.
Table 3.2 Cross Tabulation of Speech Act Type Analysis Result
Abbreviations: dec: declarative int: interrogative imp: imperative
Besides counting the total of mood types and speech act types, each style of social styles were also summed up. Table 3.3 in the following page is a sample table of Appendix 4. In the table, the total numbers of utterances which speech act types had been analyzed are presented based on the attribution to social styles.
No.
Mood Types Speech Acts
Total
Utterances Percentage dec int imp Types Functions
Table 3.3 Cross Tabulation of Social Style Analysis Result
No
.
Speech Acts Social Styles
Types Functions amiable analytical driving expressive
1. Representatives Acknowledging 0 0 0 3
After analyzing data and quantifying Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances using cross tabulations, the fourth step was discussing research findings by comparing and describing the findings with theories (mood types, speech act types, and social styles). The fifth step of data analysis was conclusion drawing. After analyzing all findings from research data, the results were derived and concluded in Chapter 5 in this research.
F. Research Procedures
In conducting this research, seven steps were done as procedures of the research. The steps are formulating research problems, selecting data, gathering data, analyzing data, discussing research findings, concluding research results, and writing, consulting, and proofreading research report. Each step had expected result which led this research to the answers of research questions. The procedures of this research are summarized in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Research Procedures
No. Steps Results
1. Formulating research
problems Research questions
Table 3.4 (continued)
No. Steps Results
3. Gathering data (transcribing, observing, recording data)
Transcription of Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances
4. Analyzing research data (coding and categorizing data)
Findings of speech act types and social styles in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances 5. Discussing research findings Discussions of selected findings
6. Concluding research results Answers to research questions based on results of the research
7. Writing, consulting and
36 CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter, research findings are presented to discuss types of speech acts found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances and social styles based on speech act types in the utterances. This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part shows general discussion of major findings. The second part discusses samples of speech act types found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances and their attribution to social styles.
A. Speech Act Types and Social Styles Found in Jimmy Hopkins’ Utterances
In this part, some findings are discussed to show major findings from data analysis. The findings are illustrated in Figure 4.1 page 35 and in Figure 4.2 page 37. Detailed numbers of findings can be found in cross tabulation tables in Appendix 1 and 2.
3
Figure 4.1 The Total Utterances of Speech Act Types Found in Jimmy Hopkins' Utterances
From 268 utterances, representatives are identified in 141 utterances with 17 functions. Asserting has the highest number of all functions in representatives and other types. It makes representatives become the highest number compared to other types (see red bars in Figure 4.1).
Utterances which contain directives are identified in 62 utterances. This finding makes directives as the third type that dominates Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Furthermore, there are 10 functions in directive type. Asking and commanding are speech functions which dominate utterances of directive type (see green bars in Figure 4.1).
Utterances which were indicated commissive acts are found only in 9 utterances. Four functions are identified from the 9 utterances. Among other speech act types, commissive is a type that has the lowest number of utterances and functions. Blue bars in Figure 4.1 illustrate the number of utterances which are identified as commissives.
For expressive type, there are 56 utterances found in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Seventeen speech functions are identified from those utterances. The total utterances which contain expressive type make this type becomes the second highest type that dominates Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Yellow bars represent expressive type in Figure 4.1.
3 8
Figure 4.2 The Total Utterances of Speech Act types Attributed to Social Styles
Amiable Analytical Driving Expressive
more than others, we all display a wide range of behaviors at various times” (p. 55). This means that a person cannot be rigidly categorized only into one social style. Instead, a person can show or behave as in all clues or criteria of four social styles. However, there has to be a style that dominates other social styles within the person. Therefore, it explains four social styles identified in Jimmy Hopkins. To determine Jimmy Hopkins’ dominant social style, counting his utterances which are related to
social styles was done and depicted in Figure 4.2. Below, Figure 4.2 is presented to illustrate the total utterances of speech act types attributed to social styles.
found in 113 utterances, driving in 19 utterances, analytical in 6 utterances, and amiable in 3 utterances.
Similar with representatives, clues of four social styles are recognized in directives. There are 31 utterances which are identified having clues from expressive style. This makes expressive style dominate utterances of directive type. The second highest number of directive-type utterances is driving style with 22 utterances. Then, there are 8 utterances which have clues of amiable style and only 1 utterance is categorized into analytical style.
In commissives, only driving and expressive styles are identified in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances. Utterances which contain clues of driving style are found in 6
utterances and 3 utterances are found in expressive style. For expressives, there are three social styles which are identified from utterances of expressive style. Amiable and driving styles are found in one utterance for each style. The number of the utterances makes them the lowest styles in expressive type. Meanwhile, analytical style is found in 2 utterances and expressive style is identified as the utterances that dominate expressive type in 52 utterances.
B. Discussions of Findings’ Samples of Speech Act Types and Their Attribution to Social Styles
In this part, several samples of findings of data are discussed in correspond with clues from synthesized theories. The analysis of selected data is presented and categorized according to speech act types. Each discussion of speech act type consists of two points. The first point discusses speech act types which correspond with mood types that are found in each type. The second point discusses speech act types attribution to social styles.
1. Representatives
a. Declarative
All functions of representative type in Jimmy Hopkins’ utterances have declarative mood (see Appendix 1). The highest number among the functions which is in form of declarative mood is asserting function. It is found in 41 utterances. For declarative mood discussion in representative type, acknowledging function was chosen as an example. The example is a Jimmy Hopkins’ utterance which is taken from Scene 5 and presented in the following page.
[Excerpt 1] Scene 5
Context: Jimmy is walking to a library in the school when he encounters nerd gang is gathering around in front of the library yelling and complaining. The nerd gang accuses Jimmy for releasing rats in the library. He denies the accusation and enters the library to get rid of the rats. In the library he meets Ms. Carvin, the school librarian. Ms. Carvin shows Jimmy the source where the rats came from. After that, Ms. Carvin thanks him for cleaning the library from the rats.
Ms. Carvin : Thank you, Jimmy. If you have any late fees I think we can just forget about them.
Jimmy : I did that a long time ago. (JU55) I mean, thank you, Ms.
b. Interrogative
In representatives, Interrogative mood only occurs in asserting and guessing (see Appendix 1). Scene 1 is taken as an example. In the Scene 1, there is only one asserting act in an utterance which belongs to interrogative mood.
[Excerpt 2] Scene 1
Context: Jimmy is walking in the schoolyard and he is followed by some students. Some of them are the gang leaders who has been beaten by Jimmy. Since then, Jimmy considers himself as the boss of all gangs. After saying goodbyes and being separate with the leaders, Jimmy encounters Pete, his best friend, who is worried about him.
Jimmy : I took over this dump.
These morons - are my morons now. Pete : That’s great. Just don’t turn into a jerk. Jimmy : How could I? (JU14)
JU14 was categorized as interrogative mood because the clause form of the utterance is in wh-question clause. As mentioned in Chapter 2, interrogative mood is the inversion pattern of declarative mood. However, JU14 is reduced or ellipsed. If JU14 is written into a full independent clause in interrogative type, it becomes How could I turn into a jerk? From the full clause, the subject and the finite can be
identified: I as the subject and turn as the finite.
c. Imperative
From 268 utterances, only one utterance of representative type is expressed by imperative mood (see Appendix 1). The function of the utterance is complaining. The utterance is found in Scene 32 and coded as JU238. The excerpt of the scene and the analysis can be seen in Excerpt 3.
[Excerpt 3] Scene 32
Context: Bullworth School is in riot. All gangs spread and school building along with its facilities are vandalized. Jimmy enters the school hall after defeating all gangs and stopping the riot in the school. He encounters two prefects and one of them tackles him and takes his slingshot. Seeing that, Russell, a student of big build, runs towards the prefects to beat them.
A prefect : You! What is that in your hand? Weapons are for prefects only. (Tackles Jimmy and takes his slingshot)
Russell : Nooo! Get off my little buddy! (The prefects run away) Slow down so Russell can smash you! (Runs to catch the prefects)
Jimmy : (Gets up) Aw, come on. (JU238)
As seen in the excerpt, JU238 is in a form of imperative mood. It stands from a hidden subject (you) and a finite (come). Although indicating imperative mood, the meaning of JU238 is not to command a hearer to approach the speaker as in directive type. Instead, JU238 has complaining function which belongs to representative type. In representative type, the speaker utters utterances that he or she believes to be true or false. The utterance of JU238 is an expression that Jimmy utters because he believes that he does not deserve to be tackled down by the prefect. He also refuses to let the prefect take his slingshot away. By uttering Aw, come on, the speaker complains to the hearer about the violent action which the
