i
{–ER}, {–IST}, AND {-AN}
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
KARLINA DENISTIA Student Number: 054214009
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTEMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
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Nama : KARLINA DENISTIA
Nomor Mahasiswa : 054214009
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul :
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE AGENTIVE NOMINALIZER OF THE SUFFIXES {-ER}, {-IST}, AND {-AN}
Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, me-ngalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal : 10 NOVEMBER 2009
Yang menyatakan,
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I do understand that this is not such the most perfect writing, but indeed, this is the best writing I have ever written. Therefore, I would like to say my deepest thanks for Allah SWT because without the blessing, I would not be able to finish my writing.
I also would like to say my gratitude to Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd, M.A. for being my advisor, who has led and guided this writing patiently so that this writing became better than that was made at the first time and for his energy and time to have free discussions with me for the problems and questions I had. My gratitude also goes to Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S. for being my co-advisor, who has read and given me a lot of suggestions and corrections so my writing was well-improved in term of diction and grammar.
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ACCEPTANCE PAGE ………. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………. TABLE OF CONTENTS ……….……… LIST OF TABLES ……… ABSTRACT ………... ABSTRAK ……….
iii v vi ix x xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study ……….. B. Problem Formulation ………... C. Objectives of the Study ……… D. Benefits of the Study ……… E. Definition of Terms ……….
1 3 3 5 5 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Review on Related Studies
1. The Characteristic of the Stem of the Suffix Studies ……….. 2. The Meaning of the Suffix Studies ………. 3. The Allomorph Studies ………... B. Review on Related Theories
1. Word Formation ………... 2. Morpheme ………... 3. Derivational Suffix ………... 4. Noun Categories ……… 5. Verb Categories ……… 6. Adjective Categories ………... 7. Meaning ………... 8. Meaning in Derived Words ………. 9. Allomorphy ………... 10. Morphophonemic Process ………... 11. Phonetic Feature ……… 12. Phonological Rule ………. 13. Borrowed Word ……….. C. Theoretical Framework ……….
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1. Data Collection ……… 2. Data Analysis ………...
40 41 CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Part of Speech of the Stem Attached to the Suffixes……… 1. The Suffix {-er} ……… a. Verb Stem ………. b. Adjective Stem ………...………. c. Noun Stem ………..………. 2. The Suffix {-ist} ………. a. Verb Stem ………..……….. b. Adjective Stem ………... c. Noun Stem ………... 3. The Suffix {-an} ………. a. Adjective Stem ……… b. Noun Stem ………... B. Analysis of the Meaning of the Suffixes ………... 1. The Suffix {-er} ……….. a. Verb Stem ……… b. Adjective Stem ……… c. Noun Stem ………... 2. The Suffix {-ist} ……….. a. Verb Stem ……… b. Adjective Stem ……… c. Noun Stem ………... 3. The Suffix {-an} ……….. a. Adjective Stem ……… b. Noun Stem ………... C. Analysis of the Allomorph of the Suffixes ……….. 1. Allomorph of the Suffix {-er} ………. a. The Suffix –or ………... b. The Suffix –eer and –ier as Pronounced /ɪər/ ………...……… 2. Allomorph of the Suffix {-an} ………... a. The Suffix –ian as Pronounced /ʃn/ ……….. b. The Suffix –ian and –ean as Pronounced /ɪən/ ……….
viii APPENDICES
1) Data Collection of the Suffix {-er}
a) Noun as the Stems ……….
b) Verb as the Stems ………..
c) Adjective as the Stems ………..
2) Data Collection of the Suffix {-ist}
a) Noun as the Stems ……….
b) Verb as the Stems ………..
c) Adjective as the Stems ………..
3) Data Collection of the Suffix {-an}
a) Noun as the Stems ……….
b) Adjective as the Stems ………..
4) Data Collection of the Entailment between –graphy and the Suffix {-er} 5) Data Collection of the Entailment between –ology and the Suffix {-ist} 6) Data Collection of the Entailment between –ism and the Suffix {-ist} 7) Data Collection of Words Ready-Made Borrowed to English
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Table 1. Words Consisting Morpheme(s) ……… Table 2. Example of Finite and Nonfinite Verbs ……….. Table 3. Suffixes and its Function ………... Table 4. Phonetic Feature for Vowels ……… Table 5. Phonetic Feature for Consonants ……… Table 6. Data Analysis ………. Table 7. Data Collection of All Suffixes ……… Table 8. Stem of the Suffix {-er} ………... Table 9. Stems of the Suffix {-ist} ………. Table 10. Stem of the Suffix {-an} ………... Table 11. General Meaning of a Verb +{-er} ………... Table 12. Other Meanings of a Verb +{-er} ………. Table 13. General Meaning of an Adjective +{-er} ………. Table 14. Other Meanings of an Adjective +{-er} ………. Table 15. Meaning of a Noun +{-er} ………... Table 16. General Meaning of a Verb + {-ist} ………. Table 17. Other Meaning of a Verb +{-ist} ……….. Table 18. General Meaning of an Adjective + {-ist} ……….. Table 19. Other Meaning of an Adjective +{-ist} ………... Table 20. General Meanings of a Noun +{-ist} ………. Table 21. Other Meanings of a Noun +{-ist} ……… Table 22. General Meaning of an Adjective +{-an} ……… Table 23. Other Meanings of an Adjective +{-an} ……….. Table 24. General Meaning of a Noun +{-an} ………. Table 25. Other Meanings of a Noun +{-an} ………
x of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Language is a living thing thus it always changes. One of the examples of language development is borrowing and the other are compounding, new word coinage, acronym, blending, functional shift, morphological misanalysis, back formation, clipping, and affixation. The most common process used by human being is affixation from which most of the new words are created. There are three kinds of affixes: prefixes, suffixes, and infixes.
This study focuses on the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an} because these suffixes are the most commonly used suffixes in daily life and thus really productive. In order to get a deeper analysis and to limit the scope of the study, the present researcher formulates three problems for this topic as followed: (1) What are the characteristics of stems receiving suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an}? (2) What meanings are introduced by suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {–an}? (3) What are the distributions of the allomorphs of suffixes {–er} and {-an}? In the third problem, the suffix {-ist} is not included because of the absence of the data for its allomorph.
The data of this study are morphemes and affixes. Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (year of 2000) is used. The present researcher chose a stratified random sampling to be conducted in this study by taking eighty words for each suffixes with certain stem based on their occurrence in the dictionary. Therefore, only the first eighty words were taken for the data for certain stem attached to the suffixes. At the end of the collection, there were approximately seven hundred and twenty words are collected. After the data had been collected, the present researcher had six classifications of the data based on its stem, meaning, and phonemic transcription to answer the problem formulated. At the end of the data collection process, the present researcher has three hundred and fifty three words for the data to analyze.
xi Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Bahasa adalah suatu hal yang selalu berubah seiring berkembangnya waktu. Salah satu contoh dari perkembangan bahasa adalah adanya kata serapan. Faktor lain yang mempengaruhi perkembangan bahasa antara lain compounding, new word coinage, akronim, blending, functional shift, morphological misanalysis, back formation, clipping, dan imbuhan. Proses pembentukan kata yang paling sering digunakan adalah proses imbuhan yang terdiri dari awalan, akhiran, dan sisipan.
Akhiran {–er}, {–ist}, dan {-an} merupakan objek utama dari penelitian ini karena akhiran ini tergolong produktif dalam penggunaannya di kehidupan sehari-hari. Ada tiga pokok permasalahan yang telah dibuat agar penelitian ini menjadi lebih focus dalam analisisnya: (1) Apa saja karakteristik kata dasar dari akhiran {–er}, {–ist}, dan {-an}? (2) Apa saja arti dari akhiran {–er}, {–ist}, dan {-an}? (3) Apa saja alomorf dari akhiran {–er} dan {-an}? Dalam rumusan masalah yang ketiga, akhiran {-ist} tidak disertakan karena ketiadaan data mengenai alomorf dari akhiran tersebut.
Data dari penelitian ini berupa morfem dan akhiran yang diambil dari Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (year of 2000) yang disusun oleh Hornby. Metodologi dari penelitian ini adalah stratified random sampling. Secara sistematis, objek penelitian ini berasal dari delapan puluh kata pertama berakhiran {–er}, {–ist}, dan {-an} yang muncul di Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (year of 2000). Pada akhir pengumpulan data, akan ada kurang lebih tujuh ratus dua puluh kata. Setelah semua data terkumpul, mereka akan dikelompokkan berdasarkan kata dasarnya, artinya, dan cara pengucapannya untuk menjawab pokok permasalahan yang telah dibuat sebelumnya. Akhirnya terkumpul tiga ratus lima puluh tiga kata untuk menjadi objek penelitian ini.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the present researcher gives some explanation to introduce the topic chosen. There are five main parts of this chapter: background of the study, problem formulation, objectives of the study, benefits of the study, and definition of terms which will be discussed further on the subtitle below.
A. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Language is a living thing thus always changes. Especially in English language, the present researcher finds that its development is growing rapidly.
One example of language development is borrowing, which means that English borrows some words derived from other countries such as Latin, Greek, and France. Other factors causing language development that was mentioned by the past researcher were compounding, new word coinage, acronym, blending, functional shift, morphological misanalysis, back formation, clipping, and affixation. In addition, the most common process used by human being is affixation because most of the new words are created by using affixation. This is what also Bauer said in his book “affixation in the most frequent process to form words” (Bauer,1988:19). There are three kinds of affixes: prefixes which are affixes put before the base such as en- in en + danger, suffixes which are affixes put after the base such as –ive in educate + ive, and
speed + o + meter. In this case, the present researcher is interested in discussing suffixes more that prefixes or infixes because of its most common occurrence than the other forms of affixes.
The present researcher believes that without the existence of suffixes, words will be stagnant because people will only have one free morpheme, with no variation. For example, people have art as the noun then it becomes artist as a person studying art, artistic to indicate that something has the characteristic of art, and artistically to
describe the way person doing something that is characterized by the characteristic of art. Suffixes also play an important role in linguistic competence enrichment so people are able to create a new understandable word using certain pattern to communicate what they want to say. For example, when people have the idea that –ly is attached to certain adjectives to create adverb, so with their lexicon ability, they will say artistically instead of *artly.
1980:436). Therefore, the present researcher is interested to discuss this topic because people are familiar with these suffixes.
According to the function, the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an} are categorized into derivational suffixes to create an agentive nominalization. Besides, the present researcher hopes that by having this topic, people can minimize their misuse such as by not saying *drumist for the person who plays a drum when people try to make analogies of that word into keyboardist, guitarist, and bassist. One way to anticipate that case is by analyzing the distribution of these suffixes.
B. PROBLEM FORMULATION
In order to get a deeper analysis and to limit the scope of the study, the present researcher formulates the problem for this topic as followed:
1. What are the characteristics of stems receiving the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an}?
2. What meanings are introduced by the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {–an}? 3. What are the distributions of the allomorphs of the suffixes {–er} and {-an}?
C. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Based on three problems formulated, the present researcher expects that there will be three objectives to be achieved at the end of this study:
However, the present researcher finds that somehow people are too over generalizing and taking for granted that all verbs can be nominalized by adding the suffix {–er} at the end of the words, and just add either the suffixes {–ist} or {–an} to all noun if they want to make a word formation for ‘a person who X-s’. By doing this study, the present researcher analyzes the specific characteristics of the stem for each suffix so people will be able to distinguish which verbs can be attached to the suffix {–er}, and which noun can be attached to the suffixes {–ist} and {–an}.
2. Knowing the characteristic of each stem for each suffix is not enough to be the base of people’s lexicon to rely on. Hence, the present researcher tries to analyze the meaning of the suffixes {–er}, {-ist}, and {–an} so people will be able to make a considerable decision to choose the suffix whether the form they apply is meaningful or not. The present researcher finds that although they belong to the same agentive nominalization, there have different meanings. In addition, the present researcher realizes that there is a relation between form and meaning which cannot be separated.
D. BENEFITS OF THE STUDY
Theoretically, it is expected that this research can be a starting point for those who want to study more about affixation. And for the long term benefit is that hopefully, this finding will contribute more to the study of word formation so this could be an input for those who will study more about word formation.
Practically, the benefit of this study is not to create a certain formula of the distribution in the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an}. Hopefully, by doing the analysis on this topic, people will be able to enrich their linguistic competence to determine under what condition the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an} are used. Therefore, at least there will be two items to be examined when people want to produce certain agentive nominalization using the suffixes {–er}, {–ist}, and {-an}. First is by remembering the characteristics of the stem if it is acceptable, and second is by relating the new word into the meaning if it makes sense.
E. DEFINITION OF TERMS
In order to create the same perception about the concept and the terminologies used frequently in this study, the present researcher defines these following terms:
1. Definition of Morpheme
2. Definition of Derivational Suffix
A derivational suffix is a suffix that “when they are added to a root morpheme or stem, a new word with new meaning is derived” (Fromkin, 2003:83). Therefore, a derivational suffix is a suffix that changes the word class and or the meaning of the root or stem.
3. Definition of Agentive Nominalization
An agentive nominalization is nominalizations which are “traditionally referred to as Names of Agents formed in English very productively” (Szymanek, 1989:174). From the quotation, an agent means the actor or the person.
4. Definition of Stem
A stem is “the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word” (Fromkin, 2003: 595). In other word, a stem is a word that can be combined with other bound morpheme to create another word. It can be either consists of only a free morpheme or a free morpheme that has been attached to a bound morpheme.
5. Definition of Allomorph
6. Definition of Morphophonemic Process
A morphophonemic process is “the describable morphological and phonological changes of the stem and root under certain condition” (O’Grady et al., 2005:116). It can be concluded that a morphophonemic process is a process to describe the changes of the phonemic transcription of the stem and root.
7. Definition of Homophonous Suffix
“Homophony occurs when two morphemes (or other units, such as words, phrases, or sentences) are identical in sound but not in sense” (Napoli, 1996: 180). This quotation means that the characteristic of homophonous suffixes is that they have the same orthography but their meanings are absolutely different.
8. Definition of Gemmination
Fromkin et al. defined the term gemmination as “a sequence of two identical sounds: a long vowel or long consonant denotated either by writing the phonetic symbol twice or by using of colon” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 582). This quotation explains that consonant germination occurs when there is a double consonant in a word and the condition where it occurs is predictable.
9. Definition of Double Coining
Peters proposed a term “coining” in his book, The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. He stated, “-ist attaches itself to both nouns and adjectives, and this sometimes results in double coining” (Peters, 2004: 295). It means that in some cases, the suffix {-ist} is possible to have two forms for its agent. It is like two sides of a coin when the
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
In this chapter, the present researcher reviews on related studies and theories in order to get a deeper understanding. There are three main parts of this chapter: review on related studies, review on related theories, and a theoretical framework. In the review on related studies, the present researcher reviews on other studies previously done by other researcher on the slightly similar topic. In the review on related studies, the present researcher reviews on certain studies that have been conducted by several students and experts. In the review on related theories, the present researcher reviews on certain theories which are relevant to the topic and applied those reviews in this study. The review is divided into three parts, based on the formulated problems. In the theoretical framework, the present researcher explains the contribution of the compiled theories in study: why the theories are needed and how they are applied in this study.
A. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES
1. REVIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUFFIX STUDIES
verb to Xerox native speaker of English will automatically know that this verb can be converted into an agentive noun, Xeroxer” (Akmajian et al., 1979: 117). According to the quotation, it can be concluded that the suffix {-er} is generally attached directly to verb to form its agent.
For the stems characteristics for the suffix {-ist}, “the longer (adjective-based) forms are preferred in all varieties of English for constitutionalist and conversationalist” (Peters, 2004: 295). This quotation explains that the suffix {-ist}
usually takes a longer adjective-based form. Proper nouns also can be the base of this suffix. This is also what Peters said, “proper nouns as well as common names can provide the base” (Peters, 2004: 295). This quotation explains that not only concrete and abstract nouns that can be the stems of this suffix, but also proper names can be the stems of this suffix.
For the stems characteristics of the stem for the suffix {-an}, proper names can be the stem of this suffix, especially for geographical proper names. “This common suffix generates adjectives from proper names, both personal and geographical” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation explains that mostly, proper names related to geographical names can be the stems of this suffix.
2. REVIEW OF THE MEANING OF THE SUFFIX STUDIES
of the suffix, which is the same as the present researcher’s problem to analyze. Another similarity is that both the previous and the present researcher also discuss the denominal suffix.
His finding said, “suffix -ion has two meanings: grammatical and lexical meaning. The lexical meaning can be found in the dictionary, and those meanings are ‘action’ or ‘process’, ‘state’ or ‘condition’, ‘product’ or ‘result’, and ‘something producing result’” (Parangin-Angin, 2000: 69). This finding proves that not only a free morpheme, but also a bound morpheme has their own meaning. Therefore, it is not impossible for the present researcher to find the meaning of the suffixes {–er}, {-ist}, and {–an}.
For the meaning of the suffix {-er}, according to Quirk et al. in A University Grammar of English, there are two meanings of the suffix {-er} when it is attached to
certain nouns. They mentioned that the meanings are “a person engaged in an occupation or activity of X” and “inhabitant of X” (Quirk et al., 1980: 437). There is one meaning of the suffix {-er} when it is attached to certain verbs, the meaning is “agentive” (Quirk et al., 1980: 438). From this quotation, it can be concluded that the suffix {-er} has at least three meanings: ‘a person whose activity or job is X’, ‘a person who lives in X’, and ‘a person who is an agent’.
general meanings of the suffix {-ist} are ‘someone who specializes in X’ and ‘someone who has a/an X attitudes of mind’. To explain the attitudes of mind, Peters said in his book that the function of the suffix –ism “in modern English is to form nouns which embody a particular philosophy or set of principles, or an individual preoccupation or way of life” (Peters, 2004: 294). From the quotation, it can be concluded that the suffix –ism is a kind of mindset owned by someone. According to Quirk et al. in A University
Grammar of English, there is only one meaning of the suffix {-ist} when it is attached
to certain adjectives. They mentioned that the meaning is “member of a party” (Quirk et al., 1980: 438). Based on the quotation, there is at least one meaning of the suffix {-ist} when it is attached to certain adjectives. The meaning is ‘a person who is the member of X’. In addition, according to Quirk et al. in A University Grammar of English, there is only one meaning of the suffix {-ist} when it is attached to certain nouns. They mentioned that the meaning is “occupation” (Quirk et al., 1980: 438). Based on the quotation, there is at least one meaning of the suffix {-ist} when it is attached to certain nouns. The meaning is ‘a person whose job is X’.
For the meaning of the suffix {-an}, according to Quirk et al. in A University Grammar of English, there is only one meaning of the suffix {-an} when it is attached
to certain nouns. They mentioned that the meaning is “pertaining to X” (Quirk et al., 1980: 437). Based on the quotation, there is at least one meaning of the suffix {-an} when it is attached to certain nouns. The meaning is ‘a person who takes part in X’.
or might be, produced by a native speaker in some appropriate context and is, or would be, accepted by other native speakers as belonging to the language in question” (Lyons, 1968: 137). This quotation strengthens the idea that the acceptability principal also can be applied in the word formation. The suffix {-er} can be attached to verbs whenever it creates an acceptable meaning because this formation is the most productive one and can be used both temporarily and permanently. The most important thing is that the utterances made are acceptable by others. The acceptability of meaning itself can be seen whenever the listener can understand the words produced by the speaker.
3. REVIEW OF THE ALLOMORPHY STUDIES
From the research of related study about the allomorph of the suffix {-er}, Peters explained that one of the allomorph is the suffix –eer. The appearance of the suffix –eer can be generated from the meaning which is formed after the process of affixation.
-eer suffix serves to identify a person by whatever item they engage within their work. A number of such words have been used in connection with military personnel, and this seems to have paved the way for its use in civilian forms of contention. This in turn may have helped to attach a derogatory flavor to words with –eer (Peters, 2004: 174).
Another allomorph of the suffix {-er} is the suffix –ier. Peters said, “this suffix –ier appears on two kinds of English words: a few agent words borrowed from French and for a person associated with a particular commodity” (Peters, 2004: 266). This quotation explains that the suffix –ier is attached to English words which are borrowed from French. In addition, this suffix also related to a person who is associated with a particular commodity when it is attached to noun stems.
For the allomorph of the suffix {-an}, Peters explained that “the –ian suffix also appears in many nouns referring to roles and professions” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation means that generally, words which are related with profession have the suffix –ian instead of the suffix {-an}. Peters also stated, “because the resulting ending is quite
often –ian, the –an suffix has given birth to –ian as a suffix. It is common with proper names” (Peters, 2004: 36). This quotation means that somehow, the occurrences of the suffix –ian has a higher frequency compared with the suffix {-an} when the suffix is attached to a proper name. One factor that causes this phenomenon is because people tend to make an analogy that it is more acceptable for proper names to be attached to the suffix –ian rather than the suffix {-an}.
It had long been recognized that the development of language had frequently been influenced by the tendency to create new forms ‘by analogy with’ the more common or more regular patterns of formation in the language – by the same tendency that underlies (Lyons, 1968: 30).
One other variant of the suffix {-an} is –ean. Peters said that this suffix “belonged originally to a number of classical words” (Peters, 2004: 36). From the quotation, the present researcher finds that the suffix –ean is also the allomorph of the suffix {-an}, but the number is limited (only for classical words).
For the morphophonemic process review on related study, Maria Setyorini concluded that there are five morphophonemic processes occur in –al allomorphs.
The morphophonemic processes that occur are stress shift, consonant change, vowel change, insertion, and deletion. Stress shift occurs in the stem with more than two syllables. For stem which contains noun suffix –ment (as I see). The primary stress of the derived words is on the penultimate syllable. Stress shift does not occur if the stem consists of either one or two syllables, or if the stem contains noun suffix –ion. In addition, there are two types of consonant changes and the process of insertion (Setyorini, 2005: 56-60).
B. REVIEW OF RELATED THEORIES 1. THEORY OF WORD FORMATION
The process of creating a new word is called a word formation. There are some processes considered as the type of word formations such as clipping, blending, acronym, affixation, and so on. All of them have the same purpose, which is to create a new word for the lexical enrichment in English.
2. THEORIES OF MORPHEMES
A morpheme is the minimal linguistic unit thus it cannot be further analyzed. Some characteristics of a morpheme are discussed in Fromkin et al.’s An Introduction to Language that a morpheme is not always a word so it is not true that words are the basic
elements in a language because some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning.
A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes:
WORD MORPHEMES
One morpheme Boy
Desire
Two morphemes boy + ish
desire + able
Three morphemes boy + ish + ness
desire + able + ity
Four morphemes gentle + man + ly + ness
(Fromkin et al., 2003: 76) Table 1. Words Consisting Morpheme(s)
There are basically two kinds of morphemes, which are free morphemes and bound morphemes. A free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand by itself and has its own meaning. Fromkin et al. mentioned, “Some morphemes like boy, desire, gentle, and man may constitute the words by themselves. These are free morphemes” (Fromkin et
3. THEORY OF DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX
O’ Grady et al. in Contemporary Linguistics an Introduction (2005) explains that there are at least three common characteristics for derivational affixes. First is that derivational affixes characteristically change the category and or the meaning of the form to which they apply and are therefore said to create a new word. Second characteristic is that derivational suffixes are more productive than inflectional suffixes because it has relative freedom with which they can combine with stems of the appropriate category. The third characteristic is that derivational affixes characteristically apply to restricted classes of stem (O’Grady et al., 2005: 119-122). Accordingly, the present researcher sees that it is possible for a verb to be a noun such as in drive driver, an adjective to be a noun such as in lonely loneliness, or even a verb to be an adjective such as in lock lockable by adding the derivational affixes. Even if the derivational affixes do not change the word category, it will change the meaning of the word such as in touchable untouchable. These characteristics make the derivational affixes different from inflectional suffixes.
4. THEORIES OF NOUN CATEGORIES
nouns, and uncountable nouns, “proper nouns are names of specific people, places, days, months, countries, holidays, magazines, and so forth” (Quirk et al., 1980: 76). Therefore, the name of people, places, days, months, countries, holidays, magazines, and other names which belong to nouns that refer to a specific people or time or places are proper nouns. The examples are Karlina, Indonesia, Lebaran, Sunday, and December.
the natural phenomena are weather, dew, fog, hail, and humidity. These are only some sample given by Azar so it means that there are still many uncountable nouns outside the examples mentioned.
5. THEORIES OF VERB CATEGORIES
Quirk et al. defined verbs into two categories based on the existence of the object which are “intensive verbs and extensive verbs” (Quirk et al., 1980: 14). In their later explanation, an intensive verb is a verb that does not need an object or it is usually called as an intransitive verb. Otherwise, a verb that needs an object is called an extensive verb or a transitive verb. The transitive verb can be divided into two: a monotransitive verb which needs only one object and a ditransitive verb in which the verb can have two objects. In the sentence I walked, the verb walk is called an intransitive verb since it does not require any object. It will be incorrect when people say *I walked the cat. However, in the sentence Jhonny has some flowers, the verb has is called a transitive verb since it needs an object, which is some flowers. Thus, the sentence *Jhonny has is grammatically incorrect. The object of the transitive verb can be both animate and inanimate object. When there are two objects, those objects are usually called as a direct and an indirect object. In the sentence he buy me some drinks, the verb buy belongs to ditransitive verb because it can has two objects, which are me and some drinks.
nonfinite verb is a verb which does not show the tense, mood, aspect, and voice” (Quirk et al., 1980: 17). It means that the differences between those verbs are based on tense,
mood, aspect, and voice. The finite verbs are influenced by the tenses such as in -s verbs, -ing verbs, past verbs, and perfect verbs. It is because the finite verbs have a
concord agreement between each element of the sentence. This tense is actually also related with the aspect concern in which the verbal action is experienced. Accordingly, we have the verbs which are dependent upon the concept of time. Mood relates the verbal action to such conditions such as certainty, obligation, necessity, and possibility. Auxiliary verbs such as will, may, and shall belong to finite verbs. Otherwise, nonfinite verbs are not influenced by tenses, mood, aspect, and voice. Infinitive, -ing participle, -ed participle are nonfinite verbs. In term of voice, it is related to either active or passive
voice. Quirk gave examples to differentiate these kinds of verb: Finite Verb Phrases Nonfinite Verb Phrase He smokes heavily To smoke like that must be dangerous
He is working I found him working
Table 2. Examples of Finite and Nonfinite Verbs (Quirk et al., 1980: 39)
6. THEORIES OF ADJECTIVE CATEGORIES
childish. Other categories is that the adjectives can be divided into derived and
non-derived adjective or monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjectives.
We cannot tell whether a word is an adjective by looking at it in isolation: the form does not necessarily indicate its syntactic function. Some suffixes are indeed found only with adjective, eg: -ous, but many common adjectives have no identifying shape, eg: good, hot, little, young, fat. Nor we can identify a word as an adjective merely by considering what inflection or affixes it will allow. It is true that many adjectives inflect for the comparative and the superlative, eg: great, greater, greatest. But many do not allow inflected forms, eg: disastrous, *disastrouser, *disastroursest (Quirk et al., 1980: 114).
From the quotation, the present researcher concludes that there is no fix type of adjectives like what happen to nouns which have common noun, proper noun, abstract noun, concrete noun, countable noun, and uncountable noun as its category. An adjective only has indicators which indicate that certain morphemes can be classified as the adjective from the existence of the suffix.
7. THEORIES OF MEANING
The meanings of words are not only those found in dictionaries because dictionaries are only the record of language use while the language itself is very dynamic and developed time by time. Poedjosoedarmo in his article Meaning and Distinctive Semantic Features categorized them into no less than four types namely lexical, grammatical, discourse, and pragmatic meaning. Lexical meanings are the
sometimes the discourse is elaborated, but sometimes it is restricted. Finally, pragmatic meanings are the meanings that are associated with the use of language varieties in the discourse (Poedjosoedarmo, 2000: 16-17). In other word, it can be concluded that lexical meanings are those that are written in dictionaries. Grammatical meanings are meanings that occur when it is involved in certain arrangement, for instance the preposition of which will has its meaning when it is in context of phrase or sentence. Discourse meanings are meanings that can be found by analyzing the discourse. Finally, pragmatic meanings are meanings that can be found in a certain language use, for example, there is no meaning of hmm..., but if it is in context of hmm… what a delicious cake it is! Then it can be concluded that the meaning of hmm… is a word for delighted
expression.
is a thematic role for the entity from which something moves (Radford, 1988: 373). Related to the topic, it can be concluded that Radford proposed the idea that an agent is ‘the doer of an action’. However, it needs to be clarified that what is meant by the agent in this topic is ‘a person’. This clarification is made in order to minimize misunderstanding of the agent definition because in some cases, there are some words which do not fulfill the criteria of an agent based on thematic role theory which means ‘the doer’, but they can be categorized as an agent which means ‘the person’ such as in Londoner which means ‘a person who comes from London’ and stranger which means
‘a person who is strange’.
8. THEORY OF MEANING DERIVED FROM WORDS
Most grammarians treat suffixes not as meaningful words. This makes it reasonable for the suffixes not to be put separately in the dictionary and have no special place to write them down. However, as mentioned before that theoretically, derivational suffixes has a function which is to change the word class of the stem and or the meaning of the stem, the present researcher believes that each suffixes have their own role in bringing their own meaning. This is also what Matthews said in Morphology, “all morphology would be lexical” (Matthews, 1991: 43). It means that basically, all morphemes (both free and bound morphemes) have their meaning and contribution toward the lexical formation. O’ Grady et al. made a table to make it clear that although it is unwritten in dictionary, suffixes have their influences toward their stem. They bring a specific information for the stem.
Suffixes Change Semantic Effect Examples
-able V Adj Able to be X-ed Fixable
-ion V N The result or act of X-ing Protection -ive V Adj Having the property of doing X Assertive
-less N Adj Without X Penniless
Table 3. Suffixes and its Function
The first entry states that the suffix –able applies to a verb base and converts it into an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be X-ed’. Thus, if we add the suffix –able to the
verb fix, we get an adjective with the meaning ‘able to be fixed’ (O’ Grady et al., 2005: 99-101). For the second column, it can be interpreted that the
result or act of X-ing’. Thus, if we add the suffix –ion to a verb protect, we get a noun which is protection with the meaning ‘the act of protecting’.
9. THEORY OF ALLOMORPHY
A variant of a morpheme is called an allomorph. They can be orthographically different and or phonemically different. Katamba stated, “if different morphs represent the same morpheme, they are grouped together and they are called allomorph of that morpheme” (Katamba, 1993: 26). Katamba exemplifies the English past tense morphemes /id/, /d/, and /t/ are together grouped as allomorphs because based on the concept of distribution, they are in a complementary distribution. Allomorphs are said to be in a complementary distribution if they represent the same meaning or serve the same grammatical function, and they are never found in an identical context. From that explanation, the present researcher concludes that a particular allomorph will not occur in the same environment because in some cases, a different environment requires a different morpheme.
those of sounds found in a neighboring of some other morphemes. For examples, English has impossible, intolerable, and incomplete as the allomorph of the prefix in-. Grammatically conditioned means that it may be dependent on the presence of a particular grammar element. A special allomorph may be needed in a given grammatical context although there might not be any good phonological reason for its selection. The past tense form of weep, sweep, shake which are wept, swept, shook are the example of grammatically conditioned. Lexically conditioned is the use of a particular allomorph in which it is obligatory in a certain word if it is present. The choice of allomorph –en in oxen is lexically conditioned. Other type of the allomorph is a suppletion. It is when the allomorph of a morpheme is phonetically unrelated, such as good-better-best and sing-sang-sung (Katamba, 1993: 28)
10. THEORY OF MORPHOPHONEMIC PROCESSES
From the theory of the allomorphy, it can be noticed that there is a general pattern for the phonemic alternation of the allomorph; they may appear in a different form, but not in the same phonemic representation. Fromkin et al. said that a morphophonemic rule is “a rule that determines the phonetic form of morpheme. Its application is determined by both the morphology and the phonology” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 301). It means that both morphology and phonology can be the condition in which the allomorph occurs and results in the existence of a morphophonemic process.
and movement rules (metathesis). Assimilations “are caused by articulatory or physiological process” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 301). It means that assimilations occur when some phonemes are more nearly like its environment so one phoneme becomes similar with other. Impossible, incorrect, and illogical are the examples of this process. A dissimilation is a rule in which “a segment becomes less similar to another segment rather than more similar” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 306). In some case, this process is often viewed from the hearer rather than the speaker. For example, /f/ is [+continuant] and /p/ is [-continuant]. However, both of them are voiceless and labial. When /f/ and /p/ are pronounced, usually they have a dissimilation process. A feature addition is to add some features such as [+aspirated] for /p/, /t/, and /k/ in initial position. A segment deletion is to delete the phonemic segment, usually because of the fast speech or casual speech. For example, I will from [ay wil] to be [ayl]. A segment insertion, usually called an epenthesis, is to add some features in medial position, for example /p/ and /b/ in ample and amble. A movement rule or a metathesis is “reorder sequences of phonemes” (Fromkin et al., 2003:311). For example, there is a metathesis rule occur in the children’s speech when they try to approach the adult grammar. They say aminal for animal, and pusketti for spaghetti.
differ radically from that of the base word when it occurs without a suffix, such as in atom and atom′ic. The second characteristic is that they can bear the main stress of the
word. It means that the stressed suffixes always constitute heavy syllable, such as –ese in Japanese, Cantonese, Chinese. On the contrary, stress-neutral suffixes never make any difference to the stress pattern of their base, such as inflectional suffix –s for the third person singular verb in tally, the final syllable becomes heavy (tallies); nevertheless, the stress remain on the initial syllable. The second characteristic of stress-neutral suffixes is that such suffixes are always unstressed –even where they constitute heavy syllables, and even where several such suffixes are stacked together, as in pennilessness (Giegerich, 1992: 191).
11. THEORIES OF PHONETIC FEATURES
A phoneme is “a distinctive sound” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 240). From the definition given by Fromkin et al., it can be concluded that a phoneme is the smallest unit of language that distinct the meaning of words. For example, the words pit and put have different meaning because they have one different phoneme. The word pit consists of three phonemes which are /p/, /ɪ/, and /t/, while the word put consists of three phonemes which are /p/, /ʊ/, and /t/. Here, it can be seen that a phoneme may create a different word with a different meaning.
/ɡ/, and /ŋ/. A fricative is when the passage in the mouth through which the air must pass is very narrow so it causes a friction or turbulence such as /s/, /z/, /f/, /v/, /ɵ/, /ð/, /ʃ/, and /ʒ/. An affricate is when the sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a slow release of the closure characteristic of a fricative. In brief, it is a sequence of a stop plus a fricative such as /tʃ/ and /dʒ/. A lateral is when the front of the tongue makes contact with the alveolar ridge, but the sides of the tongue are down, permitting the air to escape laterally over the sides of the tongue such as /l/. A glide is sometimes called a semivowel because the blade of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate in a position almost identical to that in pronouncing the vowel sounds. The examples of glide are /j/, /w/, /r/, and /h/ (Fromkin et al., 2003: 244 – 250).
Because there is no specific difference between one phoneme to another based on the place and manner of articulation, Fromkin et al. has proposed a phonetic feature. This phonetic feature is useful in giving the natural class (how a phoneme has similar characteristics) and the distinctive feature (how a phoneme is different each other) of each phoneme. The phonetic feature for vowels is the same as the vowel classifications. However, the phonetic feature for consonants is a bit different from its classification. It is only ± nasal, ± lateral, and ± voice which can be the phonetic feature for consonants. Fromkin et al. has proposed nine other phonetic features for consonants: consonantals, sonorants, continuants, anteriors, coronals, stridents, sibilants, and approximants.
Consonantal sounds are produced with a radical obstruction in the vocal tract. A sonorant is a sound whose phonetic content is predominantly made up by voicing.
The opposite of a sonorant is an obstruent, when the airstream may be either fully or partially obstructed. A continuant is a sound during whose production there is no oral airstream blockade. An anterior is any sound articulated in front of the alveo-palatal region. A coronal is a sound produced with the tongue tip or blade raised (dental to alveo-palatal), labiodentals and palatal are coronal. A strident is a sound which is
relatively noisier than the others. A sibilant is a very noisy (hissing) sound. An approximant is a sound produced with oral cavity narrowing but without any friction
The phonetic feature for vowels is described in the table below:
/i:/ /ɪ/ /æ/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/ /ɑ/ /ɒ/ /ɔ:/ /ʊ/ /u:/ /e/ /ʒ:/ /ə/
High + + - - - + + - - -
Mid - - - + - - + + - - + + -
Low - - + - + + - - - -
Back - - - - + + + + + + - - -
Central - - - + - - - +
Rounded - - - + + + + - - -
Tense + - - - + - - + - + - + -
Table 4. Phonetic Feature for Vowels
(Fromkin et al., 2003: 299 table 7.4) It can be seen that both vowels /i:/ and /ɪ/ are high vowels which are produced by raising the body of the tongue above its neutral position. Both are similar if they are seen from the position of the tongue. From the table, it can be seen also that the different among them is that /i:/ is a tense vowel which is produced by with considerable tongue muscular effort.
The phonetic feature for consonants is described in the table below. Cons stands for consonantal, son stands for sonorant, cont stands for continuant, ante stands for anterior, cor stands for coronal, strid stands for strident, sib stands for sibilant, and appr stands for approximant:
Cons son cont ante cor strid sib lateral Appr voice nasal
/p/ + - - + - - - -
/t/ + - - + + - - - -
/k/ + - - - -
/b/ + - - + - - - + -
/d/ + - - + + - - - - + -
/ɡ/ + - - - + -
/m/ + + - + - - - + +
/n/ + + - + + - - - - + +
/f/ + - - + - + - - - - -
/ɵ/ + - - + + - - - -
/s/ + - + - + + + - - - -
/ʃ/ + - + + + + - - - - -
/h/ + - + - - - -
/v/ + - + + - + - - - + -
/ð/ + - + + + - + - - + -
/z/ + - + + + + + - - + -
/ʒ/ + - + - + + + - - + -
/tʃ/ + - - - + + + - - - -
/dʒ/ + - - - + + + - - + -
/l/ + + + + + - - + + + -
/r/ + + + + + - - - + + -
/j/ - + + - - - + + -
/w/ - + + - - - + + -
Table 5. Phonetic Feature for Consonants
(Fromkin et al., 2003: 300 table 7.5) From the classification based on the place and manner of articulation, both consonants /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ are palatal affricate sounds. The only way to see how they are different each other is by seeing the plus and minus sign on the table. From the table, it can be seen that the difference among them is that /tʃ/ is minus voice, which means that it is a voiceless sound, and /dʒ/ is plus voice, which means that it is a voiced sound.
12. THEORY OF PHONOLOGICAL RULE
The same as mathematics which has a symbol to describe a certain formula like 2 + 2 = 4 which means that “two is added by two equals four”, linguistics also has a certain notation for the phonological rule especially for assimilations, feature additions, and insertions as followed:
The arrow abbreviates “becomes”. The segment on the left of the arrow becomes, or takes on, any feature on the right of the arrow in the specified environment. The “X” is the symbol for the input in form of a phoneme, the “Y” is the output in form of a phone, and the “Z” is the environment indicated by a dash. The affected sound is in either before or after the dash. The dash abbreviates “under condition”. An underscore is to denote the position of the segment to be changed relative to the conditioning environment. The phonological rule must be able to be read in words. For example of the assimilation rule, it is written in notation by Fromkin et al.(2003):
V [+ nasal] / ___ (C) $. [+ nasal]
In words, it is read as ‘vowels are nasalized when they occur before nasal consonant (within the same syllable)’. The dollar ($) indicates a syllable boundary symbol to show that the rule only applies in the same syllable.
In notation, the assimilation rule is written as followed: [+ voice] [- voice] / [-voice] ___
In words, it is read as followed: a voiced segment becomes voiceless when the preceding segment is voiceless.
For example of the feature addition rule, it is written in notation by Fromkin et al.(2003):
– continuant [+ aspirated] / $ ____ (C)
- voice - consonantal
In words, it is read as followed: voiceless stops become aspirated when they occur syllable initially before stress vowel.
In notation, the insertion rule for plural nouns is written as followed: Ø ə / [+ sibilant] ___ [+ sibilant]
In words, it is read as followed: /ə/ is inserted in the environment of between two sibilants.
In notation, the insertion rule for past tense is written as followed: Ø ə / [+ alveolar] ___ [+ stop]
In words, it is read as followed: /ə/ is inserted in the environment of between alveolar and stop (Fromkin et al., 2003: 301 - 311).
13. THEORY OF BORROWED WORDS
Most of English words are borrowed from Greek and Latin because they are considered as a high language, a language used for religion activities. Some words are also borrowed from French since English was ever led by France people. This means that French also had significant influences for English language. As what Carstairs and Charty said in their book
It is stated that the borrowing process is consciously done by English people in order to have vocabulary enrichment. Latin and Greek are the two most common origin of this process because they are considered as the most fashionable styles of language. It is also stated that the problem occurring is that people are not familiar with these words.
C. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
There are thirteen theories used by the present researcher as the foundation of this research. Those theories are theories of word formation, morphemes, derivational suffix, categories of noun, categories of verb, categories of adjective, meaning, meaning in derived words, allomorphy, morphophonemic process, phonetic feature, phonological rules, and borrowed language. Each of those has their own contribution toward this research.
stem, the present researcher uses theories of categories of noun, categories of verb, and categories of adjective to answer the first problem, which is what the characteristics of the stems for each suffix are.
Starting from the idea that every morpheme has their own meaning, the present researcher tries to find out some theories to support the hypothesis. Theories of derivational suffix, theories of meaning, and theories of meaning in derived words are used to answer the second problem. From the theories, the present researcher realizes that there are at least four meanings introduced by the expert. Those meanings are lexical, grammatical, discourse, and pragmatic meaning. Therefore, the present researcher is able to make the analysis broader by knowing that there are many types of meanings owned by a certain morpheme. Semantically, morphemes have at least eight theta-roles which are commonly assumed: theme (or patient), agent (or actor), experiencer, benefactive, instrument, locative, goal, and source. By having these theories, the present researcher knows what kind of theory is used to analyze the suffix meanings in the analysis chapter. For the theory of meaning from derived word, it is inferred that theoretically, this study is feasible to do with its second problem, which is to find the meaning of the suffixes.
In some cases, the distribution of the allomorphs is predictable and has a certain pattern. Theory of phoneme and phonological rule are used by the present researcher to reveal the pattern of the distribution. Thus, phonological rules are important to provide the phonetic information which is necessary for the pronunciation of the utterances.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the present researcher presents the description on the methodology used in conducting this study in order to have a guidance to do the research systematically. There are three main parts of this chapter: the data of the study, the approach, and the method of the study. In the data of the study, the present researcher describes what the data of the study are and where they are coming from. In the approach, the present researcher explains about the approaches used in analyzing the data and the reasons why the approaches are used. In the method of the study, the present researcher describes the method of the data collection. In this part also, the present researcher clarifies the steps of analysis that is conducted to find the answer of the problems.
A. DATA OF THE STUDY
B. APPROACH OF THE STUDY
Both morphological and phonological approaches were used in this study. Morphology is the study of minimal unit of language, while morpheme is the minimal unit of language. Therefore, morphological approach is the most suitable one because it studies how to form a word from morphemes and how each morpheme is related each other. Phonology is the study of sound pattern. This approach will be used in answering problem number three because an allomorph is a variation of morpheme. This variation is related to sounds structure, thus phonological approach is the most suitable one to be applied.
C. METHOD OF THE STUDY
In order to make a clear distinction between how the data are collected and how the data are used in answering the problems, the present researcher divides this part into smaller sections:
1. DATA COLLECTION
having words begin with ‘Z’ in their initial position as the data. At the end of the collection, there were approximately seven hundred and twenty words collected (two hundred and forty for noun, adjective, and verb attached to the suffix {-er}, two hundred and forty for noun, adjective, and verb attached to the suffix {-ist}, two hundred and forty for noun, adjective, verb attached to the suffix {-an}).
This purposive sampling was chosen based on three considerations. Firstly, seven hundred and twenty words is a sufficient number to make a generalization for the stem characteristics because from those seven hundred and twenty words, there are various characteristics to be observed. Secondly, the meanings of the suffixes have no relationship with their occurrences in the dictionary because the classification is based on the orthography and not based on the meaning. Thirdly, two hundred and forty words is a sufficient number of data to study the allomorph of each suffixes and make a generalization on its morphophonemic processes because two hundred and forty words mean thousands phonemes will be found. These occurrences then were analyzed further.
The data collection was not only collecting the words and their meaning but also its phonemic transcription, including the stem’s phonemic transcription.
2. DATA ANALYSIS
WORD STEM NOTES word Phonem
-ic Tran-scription
Meaning Stem Phonem-ic Trans-cription
Meaning Allomorph Source Language
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Table 6. Data Analysis
The columns number one was for the complex words consisting of base and suffixes. And the columns number four was for the stem. Therefore, it was clear that the column number one and four will be filled with the orthography of the words, the column number two and five were for the phonemic transcription, and column number three and six were for the literal meaning written in the dictionary. The last two columns were useful if there were some exceptions in the finding, and to find out the reasons for the exceptions.
The columns number three and six were used in answering the second problem. The present researcher used the data to find the similarities of the meaning. These columns were very useful to help the present researcher to see the differences before and after the suffixes were attached to a certain stem. There were some steps done to do the analysis. The first was to classify the meaning of the words based on their natural classes introduced by the meaning of the agent, and the second step was to make a generalization of the semantic effect by using O’Grady’s written form, which uses “X” as the symbol of the stem.
were recognized by analyzing the stem and the derived words, especially for both phonological and morphological changes.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At the end of the collection, the present researcher was supposed to have approximately seven hundred and twenty words from Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (year of 2000) since the present researcher took eighty words for each suffixes with certain stems based on the stratified random sampling. However, at the end of the data collection process, the present researcher only has three hundred and fifty three words for the data to analyze, as shown in the table below:
No. Suffix Stem Occurrences Percentage
1. -er Verb 95 27 %
Adjective 7 2 %
Noun 55 15,5 %
2. -ist Verb 5 1,5 %
Adjective 24 6,8 %
Noun 93 26,3 %
3. -an Verb 0 0 %
Adjective 5 1,4 %
Noun 69 19,5 %
TOTAL 353 100 %
In collecting the data, it is possible for a certain word to have more than one word class such as for the word bather, its stem which is bathe has two word classes. They are bathe as a noun and bathe as a verb. Bathe as a noun means ‘an act of swimming in the sea, river, etc.’, while bathe as a verb means ‘to go swimming in the sea, a river, etc’. To determine which one to choose, there are two considerations which are applied. The first consideration is which stem more commonly occurs for the suffix. For example, the {-er} suffix is more common to be attached to verbs. Therefore, bathe as a verb is the most suitable one. The second consideration is by fitting the meaning of the stem into the complex word when it has been attached to the agentive nominalizer suffixes. For example, the word bather means ‘a person who is swimming in the sea, a river, etc’. Regarding the focus of this study is the agent, which means ‘a person who X-s’, it will be strange if the present researcher takes bathe as noun to be the stem of bather because the meaning will be *a person who an act of swimming in the sea, river,
etc. which is grammatically incorrect. Therefore, bathe as the verb is chosen as the stem when the word has more than one word class.
the present researcher had to see the process from the original language. Other examples which are out of the data are jurist, pedestrian, linguist, and veteran
From the whole Hornby’s Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000,) there is no word with a verb stem which is attached to the suffix {-an} as its combination. However, there are other suffixes which are the suffix -ant and –ent that are only attached to verb stems. These suffixes are actually not productive and have not been naturalized in English language because there are only eleven words which are found by the present researcher. Accordingly, the present researcher considered that these suffixes are not the allomorph of the suffix {-an} because both -ent and -ant are totally different orthographically and phonetically, while an allomorph is required to have a similar characteristic with the stem suffix in a complimentary distribution. There will be no further discussion about this suffix because the present researcher believes that this suffix is out of the topic.Based on that consideration, the present researcher did not take any data from the suffix –ant, and this affects on the absence of data taken from verb attached to the suffix {-an}.
The present researcher also realizes that there is –er which means an instrument nominalizer as in calculator, detector, and computer. There is also another function of the suffix -er which is as the inflectional suffix to be a comparative suffix. The present researcher did not analyze further about those functions because the present researcher sees that they belong to homophonous suffixes. “Homophony occurs when two morphemes (or other units, such as words, phrases, or sentences) are identical in sound but not in sense” (Napoli, 1996: 180). This quotation means that the characteristic of homophonous suffixes is that they have the same orthography but their meanings are absolutely different. Accordingly, those homophonous suffixes are out of the topic of this study. It would need an extensive research if the homophones of the suffix {-er} as the agentive nominalizer were discussed further in this study.
A. PART OF SPEECH OF THE STEM ATTACHED TO THE SUFFIXES
1. STEM ATTACHED TO THE SUFFIX {–er}
One hundred and fifty seven words consisting of a stem + {-er} are collected as the data of this study based on their appearance in the dictionary as shown in the below table:
Stem Occurrences Percentage
Verb 95 60,5 %
Adjective 7 4,5 %
Noun 55 35 %
TOTAL 157 100 %
Table 8. Stem of the Suffix {-er}
a. VERB STEM
Most verbs to be the stems of the suffix {-er} are derived from French word. There are thirty words occurrences from the data about this French borrowing:
abuse abuser advertise advertiser attack attacker bomb bomber browse browser challenge challenger comfort comforter command commander counterfeit counterfeiter Since the suffix {-er} is the most productive one, many verbs coming from Old English also can be the verb stems for this suffix. Sixteen data are found in this study such as:
The present researcher finds that in some cases, when there is a verb from native Old English attached to the suffix {-er}, a consonant gemmination occurs. Fromkin et al. defined the term gemmination as “a sequence of two identical sounds: a long vowel or long consonant denotated either by writing the phonetic symbol twice or by use of colon” (Fromkin et al., 2003: 582). This quotation explains that consonant gemmination occurs when there is a double consonant in a word and also, the condition where it occurs is predictable. It is noticeable that in the suffix {-er}, the consonant gemmination always occurs whenever there is a lax vowel occuring before the final consonant. Lax vowel is a vowel with [- tense]. Here are the examples: begin beginner, bid bidder, dig digger, beg beggar. The words begin, bid, and dig have /ɪ/ vowel which is [- tense] before their final consonant. The word beg also has /e/ lax vowel. It causes the consonant /n/ gemmination in the word beginner, /d/ gemmination in the word bidder, and /g/ gemmination in the word digger and beggar. This consonant gemmination can be applied in some nouns from Old English such as hat hatter. This phenomenon also applied with the verb from Latinate words ended with a liquid phoneme /l/ such as in control controller and travel traveller although the vowel /əʊ/ occurring before the final consonant /l/ is [+tense].
Verbs derived from Latinate words can be attached to the suffix {-er} such as in the word commute commuter, consume consumer, contend contender, and design designer. What can be concluded from the data is that most words derived from
conqueror, convey conveyor, and collect collector. This phenomenon will be
discussed further in the third part of analysis about the suffix {-er} allomorph.
The present researcher finds that one of the characteristic of the verb stems is
