Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue6.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1998] 2 4 4 –2 4 9 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

A principal’s interruptions: time lost or time gained?

A. Ross Thomas

Asso c iate pro fe sso r, De partme nt o f Administratio n and Training, Unive rsity o f Ne w England, Armidale , Ne w So uth Wale s, Australia

John Ayres

Princ ipal, Quirindi High Sc ho o l, Ne w So uth Wale s, Australia

The article notes that, some-times explicitly but always implicitly, the “ time manage-ment” literature condemns interruptions. The article reports on two studies of interruptions experienced by principals in primary and secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia. Data were gathered via structured, non-participant observations of principals at work. Analysis reveals the frequency, length, source and type of interrup-tions sustained. Contrary to the literature, principals did not view interruptions as hindering their tasks as school leaders. Time spent on inter-ruptions is regarded essen-tially as time invested rather than time lost.

Introduction

…a h ea d m a st er ’s wor k con sist s m a in ly of in t er r u p t ion s t o it . (Keit h , 1977, p. 111)

Con t em p or a r y lit er a t u r e in t h e fi eld of ed u ca -t ion a l a d m in is -t r a -t ion a n d m a n a gem en -t p r o-v id es a m p le eo-v id en ce t h a t sch ool p r in cip a ls a r e b ein g con fr on t ed by a n u n r elen t in g in cr ea s e in t h e d em a n d s m a d e of t h em . T h e n ew d em a n d s sp a n a w id e s p ect r u m of r es p on s ib ilit ies a n d exp ect a t ion s b ot h w it h in a n d b eyon d t h e sch ool. It s eem s n o com p en s a -t ion is offer ed ; a s n ew d em a n d s a r e a d d ed , few, if a n y r esp on s ib ilit ies a r e s im u lt a n e-ou sly d ed u ct ed .

An in ev it a ble ou t com e of t h e p r eced in g – a lso n ot icea ble in t h e lit er a t u r e a n d r ea d ily sen sed in t h eir sch ools – is p r in cip a ls’ con -cer n for t h eir u se of t im e. Tim e is a n in cr ea s-in gly va lu a ble com m od it y, a fi n it e r es ou r ce t h e d a ily q u ot a of w h ich is b ein g t es t ed by p r in cip a ls a s t h ey exp lor e, for exa m p le, t h e p os s ib ilit ies of t h e “s elf-m a n a gin g sch ool”, sch ool- or s it e-b a sed m a n a gem en t , d ele ga t ion of t a sk s a n d in cr ea sed con t r ibu t ion s fr om ot h er a gen cies. H er ein , t o d a t e, h a s b een fou n d n o p a n a cea for t h e d em a n d s on p r in ci-p a ls ’ t im e.

St im u la t ed by t h eir a la r m a t t h e “la ck of t im e”, con cer n ed p r in cip a ls m ay s eek solu -t ion s on -t wo fr on -t s. Qu a n -t i-t a -t ively, -t h ey m ay t r a d e t im e by su b t r a ct in g fr om t a s k s p er -ceived a s les s im p or t a n t (or p r es s in g) in or d er t o p r ov id e for t h ose t h a t a r e n ew. T h e t er m s of t r a d e m ay n ot , of cou r s e, a lw ay s b e

favou r a ble. T h e t a sk p er ceived a s les s im p or -t a n -t m ay s u ffer d is p r op or -t ion a -t ely a s a r es u l-t of t h e r ed u ced a t t en t ion p a id t o it . P r in cip a ls m ay a lso a p p r oa ch t h eir a lloca t ion of t im e in a q u a lit a t ive sen se by exa m in in g h ow effec-t ively effec-t h eir effec-t im e is u sed . In effec-t h is r e ga r d effec-t h ey w ill fi n d a n a bu n d a n ce of lit er a t u r e, p a r t icu -la r ly fr om t h e fi eld of bu s in ess m a n a gem en t , offer in g a dv ice on t h e effect ive u s e of t im e (s ee, for exa m p le, Blis s, 1977; Br ow n , 1993; Ma ck en zie, 1975a , 1975b ; Rey n old s, 1995; Rey n old s a n d T r a m el, 1989; Rob er t s, 1987; Ru t h er for d , 1981; St a lk , 1990; a n d r eleva n t t o ed u ca t ion s ee, for exa m p le, Geer in g, 1980; H u ffst u t t er a n d Sm it h , 1989; J a ck s on a n d Wa d d ell, 1984; Ma id m en t , 1989; T r on c, 1982).

T h e lit er a t u r e cover s a sp ect r u m of p ossi-b ilit ies fr om t h e h olis t ic (h ow t o or ga n ise on e’s en t ir e d ay ) t o t h e s p ecifi c (h ow t o “a bb r ev ia t e” in com in g a n d ou t goin g p h on e ca lls), bu t m ost of it la ck s a r es ea r ch fou n d a -t ion , is b a sed on a n ecd o-t e, a n d is n or m a -t ively exp r essed . Im p licit in t h e lit er a t u r e on t im e m a n a gem en t is t h e a s su m p t ion t h a t m a n -a ger s c-a n exer t -a gr e-a t er d e gr ee of con t r ol over t h e t em p or a l com p on en t of t h eir wor k . As su ch , t h e lit er a t u r e is gen er ou s in it s su g-gest ion s – su gg-gest ion s id en t ify in g cer t a in p r a ct ices t h a t sh ou ld b e d evelop ed a n d r igor -ou sly p u r s u ed , a n d ot h er s t h a t sh -ou ld eq u a lly a s d et er m in ed ly b e avoid ed . In clu d ed in t h e la t t er ca t e gor y a r e in t er r u p t ion s.

Wit h few exce p t ion s, p u blica t ion s con vey (or a t lea st im p ly ) t h e m ess a ge t h a t in t er r u p -t ion s h in d er -t h e wor k of m a n a ger s a n d m u s-t t h er efor e b e avoid ed or a t lea st gr ea t ly cu r -t a iled . T h u s, in -t h e a b sen ce of r esea r ch on -t h e p h en om en on , n e ga t ive a s su m p t ion s a b ou t in t er r u p t ion s r em a in u n t est ed a n d con t in u e t o in fl u en ce t h e lit er a t u r e a n d t o con cer n m a n a ger s a n d , es p ecia lly, sch ool p r in cip a ls.

Development of the investigation

T h e in vest iga t ion r e p or t ed h er ein d escr ib es a st u dy of t h e in t er r u p t ion s exp er ien ced by t h r ee p r in cip a ls in cou n t r y h igh s ch ools in N ew Sou t h Wa les. (P r in cip a ls a n d sch ools a r e h er ea ft er id en t ifi ed a s A, B a n d C.) T h e st u dy sou gh t t o id en t ify a n d d ocu m en t t h e n a t u r e a n d fr eq u en cy of in t er r u p t ion s exp er ien ced by p r in cip a ls in t h eir d a ily wor k .

T h eor et ica l gu id elin es for t h e st u dy w er e p r ov id ed , in t h e m a in , t h r ou gh t h e a p p lica -t ion of -t h e Ow en s a n d S-t ein h off (1989) m od el of or ga n isa t ion a l cu lt u r e. T h e m od el p r o-v id ed a b a sis w h ich a d eq u a t ely “ca p t u r ed ” t h e p la ce a n d n a t u r e of t h e in t er r u p t ion s w h ich con st it u t ed p a r t of t h e p r in cip a ls’ a d m in ist r a t ive b eh av iou r.

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A. Ro ss Tho mas and Jo hn Ayre s

A princ ipal’ s inte rruptio ns: time lo st o r time gaine d?

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 6 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 4 4 –2 4 9

w h ich r evea l a gr eem en t , im p licit or exp licit , a m on g t ea ch er s, a d m in ist r a t or s, a n d ot h er p a r t icip a n t s on h ow t o a p p r oa ch d ecis ion s a n d p r oblem s: “t h e w ay t h in gs a r e d on e a r ou n d h er e”. As w it h m ost d efi n it ion s of or ga n isa t ion a l cu lt u r e, t h is p ivot s on t h e con ce p t of a lea r n ed p a t t er n of u n con sciou s t h ou gh t , r efl ect ed a n d r ein for ced by b eh av -iou r t h a t s ilen t ly a n d p ow er fu lly sh a p es t h e exp er ien ce of a p eop le (Ow en s a n d St ein h off 1989, p. 11)

E a ch of t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls w a s m a le. A’s exp er ien ce h a d b een ga in ed m ost ly in cou n -t r y s ch ools. H is b a ck gr ou n d w a s in p h y sica l ed u ca t ion a n d h e w a s cu r r en t ly s er v in g h is secon d yea r a s p r in cip a l. B, t h e m os t exp er i-en ced of t h e t h r ee, ca m e fr om a s ocia l s cii-en ce b a ck gr ou n d . H e h a d s p en t m os t of h is ca r eer in cou n t r y a r ea s a n d h a d h eld office for l2 yea r s, 10 of w h ich w er e in h is cu r r en t sch ool. C w a s in h is s econ d yea r a s p r in cip a l. Wit h a b a ck gr ou n d in socia l scien ce h e h a d sp en t six yea r s in b ot h cou n t r y a n d cit y s ch ools.

T h e p r in cip a ls, a ll m a r r ied w it h fa m ilies, w er e clos ely a ffilia t ed w it h t h eir sch ool com -m u n it ies. T h eir sch ools w er e loca t ed w it h in t h e sa m e r e gion a n d w er e r ela t ively clos e geogr a p h ica lly.

T h e cen t r a lised n a t u r e of p u blic ed u ca t ion in N SW en s u r es t h a t t h er e a r e m a n y s im ila r i-t ies of s i-t r u ci-t u r e a n d op er a i-t ion in ii-t s s ch ools. N ever t h eles s, w it h in con for m it y t h er e is d iver s it y, p er h a p s b es t exem p lifi ed in t h e op er a t ion of t h e (st a t e-w id e cen t r a lis ed ) office a d m in is t r a t ion st or in g in for m a t ion s y st em (OASIS). Alt h ou gh ea ch s ch ool sh ou ld follow id en t ica l s y st em s for or d er in g, r eceiv in g a n d p ay in g for good s a n d ser v ices, t h e p r in cip a ls d iffer ed n ot icea bly in t h eir d a ily a d m in ist r a -t ion of fi n a n cia l m a -t -t er s. So -t oo i-t w a s a n -t ici-p a t ed t h a t t h e ici-p r in ciici-p a ls wou ld d iffer in t h eir m od u s op era n d i w it h in t er r u p t ion s.

As d efi n ed by t h e Ox ford E n glish Diction a r y, a n in t er r u p t ion m ay b e s een sim p ly a s “a b r ea k in t h e con t in u it y of a n a ct iv it y ”. Cla r k e (1985, p. 38), in h is ob s er va t ion s of p r in cip a ls a t wor k , d efi n ed in t er r u p t ion a s “a wor k even t n or m a lly in it ia t ed by som eon e ot h er t h a n t h e p r in cip a l w h ich ca u ses a b r ea k in a wor k a ct iv it y ”. Cla r k e’s d efi n it ion t h u s p r e-clu d es t h e p oss ib ilit y of a “self-in fl ict ed ” in t er r u p t ion , for exa m p le, w h en a p r in cip a l, s u d d en ly r em em b er in g a n a p p oin t m en t or com m it m en t els ew h er e, cea s es in volvem en t in a n a ct iv it y b efor e it s com p let ion . For t h e p u r p os es of t h is st u dy, a n d in a ccor d w it h Cla r k e (1985) a n d P h illip p s (1990, p. 16), in t er -r u p t ion s a -r e d e p en d en t on t h e in it ia t ion of ot h er s.

In or d er t o a d d r ess t h e p u r p oses of t h is s t u dy, s ever a l m et h od s of d a t a ga t h er in g w er e con s id er ed . In fl u en ced by con s is t en t

in cid en t a l d a t a fr om ob ser va t ion a l st u d ies of p r in cip a ls w h er ein it h a s b een n ot ed t h a t in t er r u p t ion s m ay b e fr eq u en t , ver y b r ief (a m a t t er of secon d s in d u r a t ion ), a n d t h em -selves in t er r u p t ed , t h e r esea r ch er s r eject ed m or e t r a d it ion a l m et h od s of ga t h er in g in for m a t ion , for exa m p le, q u est ion n a ir e, in t er -v iew, d ia r y. St r u ct u r ed , n on -p a r t icip a n t ob ser va t ion w a s select ed .

T h is m et h od , p ion eer ed by M in t zb er g (1973) in fi ve d iffer en t m a n a ger ia l set t in gs, h a s fou n d r ela t ively p op u la r u se in ed u ca t ion a l set t in gs (p a r t icu la r ly in Au st r a lia )(see, for exa m p le, Ba u d in et t e, 1986; Cla r k e, 1985; Ga n a -p a t h y, 1987; O’Dem -p sey, 1976; P h illi-p -p s, 1990; P h illip p s a n d T h om a s, 1982, 1983; T h om a s et a l., 1981a , 1981b ; T h or n t on , 1996; Wer d er, 1986; Wh a n , 1988; Wh a n a n d T h om a s, 1996; Willis, 1980. In t h e USA see, for exa m p le, Km et z a n d Willow er, 1982; M a r t in a n d Willow er, 1981; a n d in Kor ea see Ch u n g a n d M isk el, 1989.) Da t a a r e ga t h er ed by a n ob s er ver w h o “sh a d -ow s ” t h e p r in cip a l t h r ou gh ou t h is/ h er en t ir e wor k in g d ay (u su a lly for a m in im u m of fi ve d ay s). Wit h st opw a t ch a n d clip b oa r d t h e ob ser ver r ecor d s d et a ils of ea ch a ct iv it y a n d it s d u r a t ion , w h er e a n d w it h w h om t h e a ct iv it y t a k es p la ce. On e fu n d a m en t a l of t h e ob ser -va t ion a l st u dy is t h u s a d es cr ip t ion of h ow t h e p r in cip a l a lloca t es h is/ h er t im e t h r ou gh -ou t t h e d ay. (T h ese “b a sic” d a t a h ave b een su p p lem en t ed in s ever a l s t u d ies w it h ot h er in for m a t ion (“over lay ” d a t a ) su ch a s d ecision -m a k in g b eh av iou r s a n d b eh av iou r u n d er st r ess.) In t er a ct ion s b et w een p r in cip a l a n d ob ser ver a r e m in im ised bu t p r ov ision is m a d e for a d eb r iefi n g s ession a t t h e en d of ea ch d ay. P r ot ocols of con fi d en t ia lit y, n on p a r -t icip a -t ion , a n d le ga l obliga -t ion s m u s-t b e sa t isfi ed in a dva n ce of ea ch ob ser va t ion . Collect ion of d a t a in t h is in vest iga t ion r efl ect ed closely t h e p r oced u r es follow ed in p r ev iou s ob ser va t ion a l st u d ies bu t t wo sign if-ica n t va r ia t ion s w er e effect ed . T h e ob ser ver d id n ot r ecor d a ll a ct iv it ies en ga ged in by t h e p r in cip a l. In st ea d , d et a ils of in t er r u p t ion s on ly w er e n ot ed , ea ch w a s t h u s t r ea t ed a s a d iscr et e a ct iv it y w it h a t t en d a n t d et a ils of d u r a t ion , loca t ion a n d “in t er r u p t er ” r ecor d ed . Beca u se of p er son a l a n d logist ica l con st r a in t s, t h e ob ser ver r est r ict ed t h e d a ily p er iod of d a t a ga t h er in g t o six h ou r s.

Collection of data

Da t a gen er a t ed in t h e cu r r en t s t u dy a r e p r e-sen t ed in Ta ble I. T h es e r evea l s p ecifi ca lly t h e fr eq u en cy a n d t im e of in t er r u p t ion s a n d a lso t h e sou r ces of su ch (t h e “in t er r u p t er s”).

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a r e t h e d ay s of ob s er va t ion , t h e n u m b er of in t er r u p t ion s r ecor d ed a n d t h e aver a ge d a ily fr eq u en cy of s u ch .

Dis p layed in Ta ble II for t h e t h r ee p r in ci-p a ls a r e t h e d ay s of ob s er va t ion , t h e t im e t a k en in a t t en d in g t o t h e ob ser ved in t er r u p -t ion s a n d -t h e aver a ge d a ily -t im e com m i-t -t ed -t o su ch . Tim e is r ecor d ed in m in u t es.

Ma t ch in g r eleva n t d a t a fr om Ta bles I a n d II r evea ls t h a t aver a ge t im e (in m in u t es) sp en t on ea ch in t er r u p t ion is a s follow s :

• A 4.4; • B 4.7; • C 5.8.

T h e p er cen t a ge of t ot a l t im e ob s er ved (d u r in g fou r or fi ve d ay s) sp en t on a d d r es s in g a ll in t er r u p t ion s is a s follow s :

• A 30.6;

• B 33.5;

• C 44.8.

T h er e wer e eigh t sou r ces of in t er r u p t ion com m on t o t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls. T h ese wer e: t ea ch er s, h ea d -t ea ch er s (h ea d s of

d e p a r t m en t s), t h e d ep u t y p r in cip a l a n d / or lea d in g t ea ch er, a n cilla r y st a ff (secr et a r ies, clea n er s, gr ou n d st a ff), st u d en t s, p a r en t s, ot h er m em b er s of t h e com m u n it y a n d st a ff a t t h e r e gion a l office of ed u ca t ion . P r in cip a l C su st a in ed in t er r u p t ion s a lso fr om t h e su p p or t u n it (ch ild r en w it h d isa b ilit ies), t h e Ab or igi-n a l ed u ca t ioigi-n a ssist a igi-n t a igi-n d t h e ca igi-n t eeigi-n st a ff (for wh ich h e h a d fu ll r esp on sib ilit y ).

Ta bles III-V p r es en t su m m a r ies of t h e sou r ces of in t er r u p t ion for ea ch of t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls.

Analysis and conclusions

T h e s t u dy r e p or t ed h er ein fi t s w it h in t h e qu a lita tive pa r a digm of r esea r ch m eth odology.

Accor d in gly, it d isp lay s sever a l ch a r a ct er is-t ics su ch a s a m od esis-t sa m p le size w h ich , w iis-t h t h e d escr ip t ive t r ea t m en t of t h e d a t a , con fi n es a n a ly sis a n d r est r ict s gen er a lisa t ion of t h e fi n d in gs, even w it h in t h e N SW p u blic ed u ca -t ion sy s-t em . N ever -t h eless, -t h e s-t u dy m ay cla im som e va lu e sin ce it is on ly t h e secon d k n ow n a t t em p t t o a d d r ess s p ecifi ca lly t h e t op ic of in t er r u p t ion s. It is t h e h op e of t h e a u t h or s t h a t t h e st u dy w ill a t lea st st im u la t e elsew h er e a n in t er est in t h e t h em e.

Alt h ou gh su b ject t o m en t ion in t h e t im e m a n a gem en t lit er a t u r e a n d t o in cid en t a l id en t ifi ca t ion in t h e ob ser va t ion a l st u d ies of p r in cip a ls, in t er r u p t ion s h ave n ot st im u la t ed a s p ecifi c lit er a t u r e. It is n ot p oss ible, t h er e-for e, t o com p a r e t h e fi n d in gs h er ein w it h a n y sim ila r s t u dy in bu sin es s m a n a gem en t ; it is p ossible t o com p a r e t h e fi n d in gs w it h on ly on e sim ila r s t u dy con d u ct ed in s ch ools, t h a t of P h illip p s ’s (1990) r e p or t of t h e in t er r u p t -ib ilit y of fi ve p r im a r y sch ool p r in cip a ls (a lso in t h e N SW p u blic ed u ca t ion sy s t em ). P h illip p s (1990, p. 6) d efi n ed p r in cip a ls’ in t er -r u p t ib ilit y a s:

t h eir w illin gn es s or u n w illin gn es s t o b e in t er r u p t ed ; t h eir su sce p t ib ilit y t o in t er r u p t ion s; t h e ext en t t o w h ich , a n d t h e cir cu m -st a n ces in w h ich , t h ey wou ld p er m it , or r efu se t o p er m it , in t er r u p t ion s t o im p in ge on t h eir sch ed u led a ct iv it ies a n d in fl u en ce t h eir m od u s op era n d i – a n d , in d ir ect ly, t h eir effect iven es s.

Sa d ly, P h illip p s’s sem in a l wor k r em a in s u n p u blis h ed a n d u n p u blicised .

Wit h in t h e lim it a t ion s a ck n ow led ged a b ove, it m ay b e ob s er ved t h a t t h e t h r ee s u b ject s of t h is st u dy cou ld a n t icip a t e “d evot in g” a t lea st on e t h ir d of t h eir wor k d ay s t o “d ea lin g” w it h in t er r u p t ion s. F u r t h er m or e, t h ey cou ld exp ect in t h e or d er of 25 in t er r u p t ion s p er d ay, a ccou n t in g for b et w een on e a n d t wo a n d Table I

Fre que nc y o f inte rruptio ns

Average daily

Principals M on Tues Wed Thurs Fri Total frequency

A 3 6 2 0 2 7 1 6 9 9 2 5

B 1 8 2 1 3 2 3 2 1 0 3 2 6

C 2 9 3 6 1 5 3 8 2 1 1 3 9 2 8

Table II

Time o n inte rruptio ns (ro unde d to the ne are st minute )

Average

Principals M on Tues Wed Thurs Fri Total daily

A 9 7 8 0 1 5 2 1 1 1 4 4 0 1 1 0

B 6 5 1 3 5 1 4 3 1 4 0 4 8 3 1 2 1

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a h a lf h ou r s of t h eir t im e. T h er e is a sim ila r -it y b et w een t h ese a n d P h illip p s ’s fi n d in gs in w h ich t h e fi ve p r in cip a ls r es p on d ed t o b et w een 19 a n d 25 in t er r u p t ion s d a ily. Tot a l t im e s p en t d ea lin g w it h s u ch r a n ged fr om 48 m in u t es t o on e h ou r a n d 40 m in u t es. For t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls of t h e p r es en t st u dy, aver a ge

t im e p er in t er r u p t ion r a n ged fr om fou r t o over fi ve m in u t es. T h e r a n ge of t im es sp en t on in t er r u p t ion s va r ied fr om a few secon d s t o h a lf a n h ou r.

Sou r ces of in t er r u p t ion w er e m a n y a n d va r ied . Tea ch er s, gen er a lly, w er e t h e m ost fr eq u en t in t er r u p t er s bu t w it h n o d iscer n ible Table III

Summary o f so urc e s o f A’ s inte rruptio ns

Total Average Percentage Percentage of

time duration of total total time on

Source Number (minutes) (minutes) interruptions interruptions

Teachers 2 1 7 6 3 .6 2 1 1 7

Head-teachers 1 6 3 2 2 .0 1 6 7

Deputy/ leading teacher 1 5 4 9 3 .3 1 5 1 1

Ancillary 8 6 8 8 .5 8 1 6

Students 9 3 8 4 .2 9 9

Parents 1 2 9 0 7 .5 1 2 2 0

Region 9 2 3 2 .6 9 5

Community 9 6 4 7 .1 9 1 5

Total 9 9 4 4 0 9 9 9 9

Table IV

Summary o f so urc e s o f B’ s inte rruptio ns

Teachers 4 0 1 5 5 3 .9 3 9 3 2

Head-teachers 1 1 7 7 7 .0 1 1 1 6

Deputy/ leading teacher 1 0 8 5 8 .5 1 0 1 7

Ancillary 1 9 6 9 3 .6 1 8 1 4

Students 8 2 2 2 .8 8 5

Parents 2 3 0 1 5 .0 2 6

Region 6 2 5 4 .2 5 5

Community 7 2 0 2 .9 7 4

Total 1 0 3 4 8 3 1 0 0 9 9

Table V

Summary o f so urc e s o f C’ s inte rruptio ns

Teachers 3 5 1 8 6 5 .3 2 6 2 3

Head-teachers 1 4 6 7 4 .8 1 0 8

Deputy principal 1 0 4 9 4 .9 7 6

Support unit 4 9 3 2 3 .2 3 1 2

Ancillary 1 3 2 8 2 .1 9 3

Aboriginal ed. asst. 7 6 7 9 .6 5 8

Canteen 3 1 5 5 .0 2 2

Students 2 7 1 2 1 4 .5 1 9 1 5

Parents 9 7 6 8 .4 6 9

Region 1 0 3 6 3 .6 7 4

Community 7 6 9 9 .8 5 9

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r a n k in g a m on g ot h er sou r ces. It w a s n ot iced t h a t t h e p u r p ose a n d con t en t of m a n y in t er -r u p t ion s -r efl ect ed p a -r t icu la -r a n d cu -r -r en t con cer n s of ea ch sch ool. For exa m p le, P r in ci-p a l A w a s ob s er ved d u r in g E d u ca t ion Week . Sin ce h is sch ool w a s con d u ct in g a d isp lay a t a loca t ion in t h e t ow n , fr eq u en t com m u n ica -t ion w i-t h , a n d in -t er r u p -t ion s by -t h e p a r en -t s in volved w er e n eces sa r y.

Alt h ou gh d et a ils h ave n ot b een in clu d ed h er ein , s u ffice it t o say t h a t t h er e w a s con sid -er a ble va r ia t ion in t h e t y p e of in t -er r u p t ion ob s er ved . An a ly sis of t h es e su gges t s t h a t P h illip p s ’s (1990) t en -cell m od el is a s u it a ble a n d s u fficien t ly com p r eh en sive sch em e for cla ss ify in g in t er r u p t ion s. T h e m od el, d is -p layed in Ta ble VI, a lso a d d s t o a d efi n it ion of t h e con ce p t .

T h e m a jor it y of in t er r u p t ion s ob ser ved occu r r ed w h ile t h e p r in cip a ls w er e wor k in g in t h eir r es p ect ive offices. T h e loca t ion of ea ch office (a n d , p er h a p s, t h e a r r a n gem en t of fu r n it u r e t h er ein ) m ay h ave a b ea r in g on t h e ext en t of in t er r u p t ion s. T h e office of P r in cip a l C (m os t fr eq u en t ly in t er r u cip t ed ), for exa m -p le, w a s loca t ed in a bu ild in g con st r u ct ed in t h e 1930s. T h e office w a s sit u a t ed n ea r t h e m a in en t r a n ce t o t h e sch ool a n d clos e t o a m a jor a cces s w ay for t ea ch er s. T h e d e p u t y p r in cip a l’s office w a s a con s id er a ble d is t a n ce aw ay, t h u s m in im isin g t h e p ot en t ia l for “fi l-t er in g” p ol-t en l-t ia l in l-t er r u p l-t er s.

T h e t h eor et ica l fr a m ewor k (Ow en s a n d St ein h off, 1989) t h a t gu id ed t h is s t u dy p r o-v id ed in s igh t s in t o t h e in t er r u p t ib ilit y of p r in cip a ls. To t h e ob s er ver it b eca m e clea r t h a t in d iv id u a l lea d er sh ip s t y les a lon e d id n ot d et er m in e in t er r u p t ib ilit y. Sign ifi ca n t elem en t s of t h e sch ools ’ cu lt u r e a n d s y m b ol-is m w er e a t p lay. In t h ol-is r es p ect ,

Ser giova n n i’s (1981, p. 8) com m en t seem s m ost a p p os it e: “Sy m b olica lly, h ow a n a d m in -ist r a t or u ses t im e is a for m of a d m in -ist r a t ive a t t en t ion w h ich com m u n ica t es m ea n in gs t o ot h er s in t h e sch ool.” T h e m a n n er in w h ich t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls d ea lt w it h in t er r u p t ion s com m u n ica t ed t o a ll in volved w h a t t h ey r e ga r d ed a s im p or t a n t or ot h er w ise.

As m en t ion ed p r ev iou sly, a com p a r ison b et w een t h e in t er r u p t ion s exp er ien ced by p r in cip a ls a n d m a n a ger s elsew h er e is n ot cu r r en t ly fea sible. On e m ay, h ow ever, b e t em p t ed t o h y p ot h esis e t h a t sign ifi ca n t d iffer en ces w ill exist sin ce t h e in t en s e in t er p er -son a l n a t u r e of t h e r oles of t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls in t h e cip r esen t st u dy m ay fost er in t er r u cip -t ion s in excess of -t h ose -t h a -t occu r in less p eop le-or ien t ed or ga n isa t ion s. Com m en t s by t h ose in volved in p r ev iou s ob ser va t ion a l st u d ies s u b s t a n t ia t e t h e exp er ien ce of t h e p r es en t r es ea r ch er s. O’Dem p sey (1976, p p. 61-2), for exa m p le, n ot ed t h a t p r in cip a ls a r e “sca n n er s a n d r ea d er s a n d p r efer a ver b a l con t a ct wor ld ”. F u r t h er m or e, t h ey a r e a lw ay s ava ila ble a n d “a p p ea r u n con sciou sly t o look on t h eir sch ools a s la r ge cla s sr oom s a n d , in so d oin g, t h ey gr av it a t e t o t h e a ct ive or p r ob -lem a r ea s, p r oceed in g in cr em en t a lly a n d h a n d lin g t h in gs a s t h ey a r is e”. Willis (1980, p. 71) n ot ed t h a t p r in cip a ls a p p ea r ed t o a cce p t in t er r u p t ion s a s p a r t of t h e job sin ce “a wor k -d ay t ot a lly sch e-d u le-d a n -d in it ia t e-d by t h e p r in cip a l m ea n s sever e lim it s on sou r ces of in for m a t ion a n d im p or t a n t p eop le con t a ct ”.

In or d er, fi n a lly, t o a d d r ess t h e q u est ion em b ed d ed in t h e t it le of t h is p a p er, it is a p p r op r ia t e t o r ev iew t h e d efi n it ion a l b a sis of in t er -r u p t ion . T h e OE D d efi n it ion cit ed p -r ev iou sly is bu t a sign p ost t o a n ela b or a t ed con st r u ct . In t er r u p t ion is “a b r ea k in g in u p on som e a ct ion , p r oces s or con d it ion (esp ecia lly sp eech ) so a s t o ca u se it (u su a lly t em p or a r ily ) t o cea se; h in d r a n ce of t h e cou r s e or con t in u -a n ce of s om et h in g; -a b r e-a ch of con t in u it y in t im e; a st op p a ge; t em p or a r y cess a t ion , in t er -m ission .”

In a ccor d w it h P h illip p s (1990), b ot h t h e ob ser va t ion s a n d , esp ecia lly, t h e d eb r iefi n g com p on en t of ea ch d ay ’s r es ea r ch , p r ov id ed a m p le ev id en ce t h a t t h e t h r ee p r in cip a ls d id n ot n ecessa r ily v iew in t er r u p t ion s a s h in d er -in g or t h w a r t -in g t h eir t a sk s a s s ch ool lea d er s. In t er r u p t ion s w er e in fr eq u en t ly r efer r ed t o in a p ejor a t ive sen se. T h ey w er e bu t p a r t of a p r in cip a l’s u se of t im e—n ot t im e t h a t is t r a d ed , bu t t im e t h a t is in vest ed .

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Type s o f inte rruptio n

Type Description

Concatenate Starting, or belonging to, an interdependent sequenc e of interrup-tions c onnec ted like the links of a c hain.

Double-barrelled Initiated to prepare the princ ipal for an interruption. Fragmented Continuing intermittently.

Pseudo Causing the princ ipal to neglec t or defer a more c ongenial task. Repercussive Causing the princ ipal to ac t or reac t in ways direc tly related to the

interruption in order to produc e a positive outc ome.

Self-inflicted Brought, by virtue of a partic ular behaviour or predilec tion, by the princ ipals upon themselves.

Snowball Leading, when followed up, to unexpec ted ac tivities. Stressful Causing visible or audible signs of stress.

Stress-related Causing both observed and physiologic ally measured signs of stress. Thought Breaking the c ontinuity of thought, sometimes ac knowledged by the

princ ipal, but of no obvious ac tivity.

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