Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol11.Issue2.1997:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 ,2 [1997] 5 2 –6 4 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Leadership and the development of quality culture in

schools

Geoff Berry

Se nio r Educ atio n Offic e r, Ne w So uth Wale s De partme nt o f Sc ho o l Educ atio n, Se ve n Hills , NSW, Aus tralia

There is emerging evidence that leadership is an indis-pensable element in the process of initiating and sustaining the development of a quality culture in organiza-tions. Such leadership is of particular importance to schools, where cultural, political and organizational factors make the manage-ment of quality problematic. For leaders to make decisions about the development of quality culture within their schools they require a thor-ough understanding of the theoretical basis of current approaches to quality man-agement in education. In an effort to contribute to this theoretical understanding, considers the paradigm of total quality management (TQM) as a broad philosophy for the development of quality culture in schools. Describes how TQM is being identifi ed increasingly as a viable para-digm for the development of a quality culture in school education and has been the focus for improvement efforts in individual schools interna-tionally and in school dis-tricts, particularly in the USA.

Introduction

T h e sign ifi ca n ce of lea d er sh ip in t h e d evelop -m en t of q u a lit y in it ia t ives in or ga n iza t ion s is w ell d ocu m en t ed in t h e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t lit er a t u r e. Ma n y q u a lit y m a n a gem en t m od els clea r ly st a t e t h e n eed for t op m a n a gem en t t o b e t h e fi r st t o u n d er t a k e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t t r a in in g, or t h a t a q u a lit y com m it t ee or a q u a lit y ch a m p ion sh ou ld t a k e t h e in it ia t ive in est a blish in g q u a lit y p r ocesses. Fox (1991, p. 10), for exa m p le, id en t ifi es t h e n eed for a “TQM st eer in g com m it t ee”, w h ich in clu d es a “q u a lit y ch a m p ion ”, a “q u a lit y sp on sor ” a n d a “TQM co-or d in a t or ” a s p a r t of t h e m a n a ge-m en t coge-m ge-m it ge-m en t , a n d su ggest s t h a t t h er e a r e fou r a sp ect s t o t op m a n a gem en t r esp on si-b ilit y, w h ich a r e t o: d evelop a v ision for t h e fu t u r e; set sp ecifi c q u a lit y ob ject ives; est a b lish t h e bu d get for q u a lit y ; a n d p r ov id e lea d -er sh ip. T h -er e is em -er gin g ev id en ce t o su ggest t h a t it is t h r ou gh t h e exa m p le a n d com m it -m en t t o q u a lit y of sen ior -m a n a ge-m en t t h a t t h e w h ole or ga n iza t ion is a ble t o a d op t a q u a l-it y et h os. E llis (1993), for exa m p le, a r gu es t h a t su ch m a n a gem en t com m it m en t is d em on -st r a t ed by :

• gen er a t in g t h e q u a lit y p olicy t h r ou gh con -su lt a t ion ;

• p u blicizin g t h e q u a lit y p olicy ;

• a lloca t in g m on ey a n d t im e t o t h e q u a lit y p r ocess;

• a t t en d in g q u a lit y t ea m m eet in gs;

• t a lk in g w it h st a ff b ot h in for m a lly a n d for -m a lly a b ou t q u a lit y ;

• m od ellin g t h e q u a lit y cu lt u r e; • va lu in g a n d r esp ect in g p eop le;

• in sist in g on clea r q u a lit y r eq u ir em en t s a n d d ocu m en t ed p r oced u r es.

T h is over a ll r esp on sib ilit y, ou t lin ed by Oa k -la n d (1989, p. 42), cou ld in clu d e: en cou r a gin g a n d fa cilit a t in g q u a lit y im p r ovem en t ; m on i-t or in g a n d eva lu a i-t in g i-t h e p r ogr ess of q u a lii-t y im p r ovem en t ; p r om ot in g t h e p a r t n er sh ip s in q u a lit y b et w een cu st om er s a n d su p p lier s; p la n n in g, m a n a gin g, a u d it in g a n d r ev iew in g q u a lit y sy st em s; a s w ell a s p la n n in g a n d p r o-v id in g q u a lit y t r a in in g a n d cou n sellin g or con su lt a n cy. It cou ld a lso in cor p or a t e giv in g a dv ice t o m a n a gem en t in r ela t ion t o t h e:

• est a blish m en t of q u a lit y sy st em s a n d p r ocess con t r ol;

• r eleva n t st a t u t or y / le gisla t ive r eq u ir em en t s w it h r esp ect t o q u a lit y ;

• q u a lit y im p r ovem en t p r ogr a m m es n ecessa r y ;

• in clu sion of q u a lit y elem en t s in a ll job in st r u ct ion s a n d p r oced u r es.

T h is p a p er w ill con sid er t h e sign ifi ca n ce of lea d er sh ip for t h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y m a n a gem en t in sch ool ed u ca t ion a n d d iscu ss a t h eor et ica l fr a m ewor k w h ich cou ld a ssist lea d er s t o d evelop t h e con ce p t u a l u n d er st a n d -in g n ecessa r y for t h e d evelop m en t of a q u a lit y p h ilosop h y a p p r op r ia t e t o t h eir or ga n iza -t ion s.

Leadership for quality

management in school education

A n u m b er of r esea r ch st u d ies d u r in g t h e la st d eca d e h ave est a blish ed a k ey fu n ct ion of ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip in t h e d evelop m en t of sch ool cu lt u r e gen er a lly (Dea l a n d P et er son , 1994; Gr a ce, 1995; Leit h wood a n d J a n t zi, 1991; Sa sh k in a n d Sa sh k in , 1990; Sch ein , 1985). T h er e is em er gin g ev id en ce t h a t lea d er sh ip is a sign ifi ca n t fa ct or in t h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y or ga n iza t ion s (Bla n t on , 1991; Rob in -son , 1996; Sch olt es a n d H a cq u eb or d , 1988; Sen ge, 1990; T r ibu s a n d Tsu d e, 1987). It is a r gu ed by Gor e (1993, p p. 357-8) for exa m p le t h a t , fr om t h e p let h or a of q u a lit y m a n a ge-m en t a p p r oa ch es ava ila ble t o or ga n iza t ion s, lea d er sh ip, v ision a n d cu lt u r e a r e essen t ia l in sch ools if sign ifi ca n t a n d p er m a n en t ch a n ge is goin g t o b e in st it u t ion a lized . Asp in et a l. (1994, p. 20) a r gu e t h a t :

T h e fu n ct ion s a n d t a sk s t h a t h ave b een id en t ifi ed a s h av in g t o d o w it h , a n d p r om ot -in g q u a lit y -in , ed u ca t ion a r e, -in a m a jor w ay, t h e r esp on sib ilit y of t h ose w h o a r e ch a r ged w it h t h e exer cise of lea d er sh ip a n d m a n a ge-m en t of sch ool a n d sch ool sy st ege-m s.

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Ge o ff Be rry Le ade rship and the de ve lo pme nt o f quality c ulture in sc ho o ls

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 2 [1 9 9 7 ] 5 2 –6 4

Wor k in g on sy st em s a n d p r ocesses w it h t h e p eop le w h o wor k in t h em r eq u ir es m or e t h a n m a n a gem en t . It r eq u ir es lea d er sh ip. Sch ools u sin g TQE t o d evelop st r a t e gies t o b r in g a b ou t la st in g a n d con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t m u st b e led . Lea d er sh ip is a lso essen t ia l t o d evelop a m ission a n d goa ls, a n d wor k con st a n t ly t ow a r d s t h eir im p r ovem en t .

Sim ila r ly, La n gfor d a n d Clea r y (1995, p. 35) su ggest t h a t :

In ed u ca t ion a l sy st em s, t h e r ole of lea d er sh ip is t o su st a in t h e v ision of con n ect ed n ess, so t h a t st u d en t s, t ea ch er s, a d m in ist r a -t or s, p a r en -t s a n d -t a xp ayer s – a ll -t h ose w h o r eceive t h e b en efi t of t h e sy st em – u n d er -st a n d t h eir r oles w it h r esp ect t o t h e la r ger sy st em s of lea r n in g in w h ich t h ey op er a t e.

Su ch lea d er sh ip cou ld in clu d e, for exa m p le, d evelop in g a v ision for t h e fu t u r e, gen er a t in g t h e q u a lit y p olicy t h r ou gh con su lt a t ion , m od -ellin g t h e q u a lit y cu lt u r e, in sist in g on clea r q u a lit y p r oced u r es, set t in g sp ecifi c q u a lit y ob ject ives a n d t h e a lloca t ion of r esou r ces. Sie gel a n d By r n e (1994, p. 113) p oin t ou t t h a t :

In d esign in g su ccessfu l q u a lit y im p lem en t a -t ion s-t r a -t e gies, ed u ca -t ion lea d er s con fr on -t t wo sign ifi ca n t ch a llen ges t h a t m a n y com p a -n ies d o -n ot . T h ey m u st bu ild for t h eir p eop le a n u n d er st a n d in g of in d iv id u a l job s a n d p r ofession a l exp er t ise a s t h e su m t ot a l of con n ect ed wor k p r ocesses w it h a cu st om er a t t h e en d of ea ch p r ocess. An d t h ey m u st a lt er t h e or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e t o su p p or t p eop le wor k in g t oget h er.

A model for leadership in quality management

A r ecen t r ev iew by Leit h wood et a l.(1994) illu st r a t ed t h e com p lexit y a n d d e p t h of r esea r ch r ela t in g t o sch ool lea d er sh ip w h ich h a s t a k en p la ce d u r in g t h e la st t wo d eca d es. Wh ile t h is r ev iew con sid er s a n u m b er of d im en sion s a n d fr a m ewor k s for v iew in g lea d er sh ip in sch ools, t h e sign ifi ca n ce of lea d er s h av in g t h e a b ilit y t o u t ilize exp er t k n ow led ge t o t r a n sfor m or ga n iza t ion a l cu l-t u r e is a k ey l-t h em e em er gin g for fu l-t u r e sch ool lea d er sh ip.

Wit h in t h e con t ext of t h is r esea r ch , lea d er -sh ip is b r oa d ly d escr ib ed a s a p r ocess by w h ich b eh av iou r s, va lu es, b eliefs a n d a t t i-t u d es of m em b er s of a gr ou p, or ga n iza i-t ion or com m u n it y a r e in fl u en ced in a w ay w h ich p r om ot es colla b or a t ive a ct ion t ow a r d s t h e

a ch ievem en t of sh a r ed ou t com es. Lea d er sh ip is con sid er ed t o b e a con ce p t w h ich d escr ib es a ct ion s w h ich y ield socia l ch a n ge a n d im p r ovem en t , a n d is a ssocia t ed w it h t h e d evelop m en t of com m u n it y in volvem en t a n d p a r t icip a t ion on d ecision m a k in g, eq u a lit y of op p or t u n it y for st u d en t lea r n in g, t h e d evelop m en t of a n aw a r e a n d en ligh t en ed com m u -n it y, t h e m a -n a gem e-n t of ed u ca t io-n a l ch a -n ge a n d t h e d evelop m en t of p r ocesses w h ich p r o-m ot e q u a lit y ed u ca t ion a l ou t coo-m es.

In t h is sen se, lea d er sh ip ca n b e p er ceived a s a for m of socia l a ct ion w h ich su p p or t s a sh a r ed v ision for ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ge. A fu n -d a m en t a l r esp on sib ilit y of sch ool lea -d er sh ip is t h e d evelop m en t of a lea r n in g com m u n it y ch a r a ct er ized by r e p r esen t a t ive a n d d em ocr a -t ic d ecision m a k in g, cr i-t ica l r efl ec-t ion a n d d ia logu e, a n d a sh a r ed com m it m en t t o a ch ieve or ga n iza t ion a l ou t com es. T h e n ot ion of a lea r n in g com m u n it y a ssu m es a n or ga n i-za t ion a l st r u ct u r e w h ich en su r es lea r n in g op p or t u n it ies for a ll m em b er s a n d t h e p er ce p -t ion of a ll sch ool m em b er s a s lea r n er s. T h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y lea r n in g r eq u ir es t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of lea r n in g n eed s, t h e id en t ifi -ca t ion of lea r n in g ou t com es a n d a n in cr ea s-in g d e gr ee of p er son a l r esp on sib ilit y for t h e a ch ievem en t of t h ese ou t com es.

Lea d er sh ip in sch ools h a s t h e fu n ct ion of cr ea t in g a sh a r ed or ga n iza t ion a l v ision , bu t it is a lso im p er a t ive t h a t lea d er s h ave t h e u n d er st a n d in g, k n ow led ge a n d sk ills – t h a t is t h e exp er t ise – t o lea d t h e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge. Su ch exp er t ise is n ecessa r y in or d er t o: • set t h e d ir ect ion s for t h e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge

w h ich m igh t b e r eq u ir ed ;

• d evelop a sh a r ed la n gu a ge for q u a lit y im p r ovem en t ;

• d evelop a set of sh a r ed b eliefs a b ou t t h e n a t u r e of q u a lit y w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion ; • p r ov id e a focu s for in t r od u cin g t h e q u a lit y

cu lt u r e;

• in it ia t e t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t in q u a lit y m a n a gem en t w lit h in t h e sch ool com m u -n it y ;

• p r ov id e a p la t for m for t h e r ev iew of em er g-in g q u a lit y p r ocesses;

• r ein for ce t h e com m it m en t of t h e or ga n iza -t ion a l lea d er sh ip -t o a ch a n gin g cu l-t u r e; • cr ea t e t h e exp ect a t ion t h a t t h er e w ill b e

ch a n ges b ot h of a p h ilosop h ica l a n d p r a ct i-ca l n a t u r e.

Leadership for quality schools

Lea d er sh ip is r eq u ir ed t o a r t icu la t e t h e q u a l-it y p olicy t o b e d evelop ed w l-it h in sch ools in cu lt u r a lly a p p r op r ia t e w ay s so t h a t n ot ion s of q u a lit y r efl ect t h e u n iq u e a sp ir a t ion s of t h e sch ool com m u n it y a n d b e r e p r esen t a t ive of t h eir va lu es. T h e n ot ion of a q u a lit y p olicy im p lies t h e exist en ce of a r a n ge of p ossible

‘...L ea d ersh ip is con sid ered to b e a con cep t w h ich d escr ib es a ction s w h ich yield socia l ch a n ge a n d im p r ov em en t, a n d is a ssocia ted w ith th e d ev elop m en t of com m u n ity in v olv em en t a n d

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q u a lit y a lt er n a t ives w h ich n eed t o b e con sid er ed , a n d d ecision s n eed t o b e m a d e in r ela -t ion -t o -t h e con -t en -t a n d s-t r u c-t u r e of q u a li-t y in it ia t ives.

Su ch lea d er sh ip is a lso n ecessa r y b eca u se t h e n ot ion of q u a lit y, q u a lit y m a n a gem en t a n d q u a lit y a ssu r a n ce a r e r ela t ively n ew t o sch ools a n d m ay r eq u ir e t h ose in lea d er sh ip p osit ion s t o in it ia t e st r a t e gies for a b et t er u n d er st a n d in g of q u a lit y issu es a t t h e or ga n i-za t ion a l level. It m ay b e t h a t som eon e, or a gr ou p of or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er s, fi n d s it n ecessa r y t o d evelop sp ecifi c exp er t ise b efor e q u a lit y p r ocesses ca n b e a t t em p t ed .

As t h er e is n o d efi n it e ev id en ce t h a t sp ecifi c q u a lit y st r a t e gies ca n b e u n p r oblem a t ica lly t r a n sfer r ed fr om ot h er in d u st r ies t o t h e ed u -ca t ion a l con t ext , lea d er sh ip is r eq u ir ed t o d evelop a sh a r ed u n d er st a n d in g of q u a lit y w it h in t h e sch ool or gr ou p of sch ools a n d t o gr ow su ch in it ia t ives fr om exist in g p r a ct ices. T h e id en t ifi ca t ion a n d fu r t h er d evelop m en t of a q u a lit y sy st em in a sch ool, for exa m p le, wou ld r eq u ir e a t h or ou gh k n ow led ge of t h e exist in g or ga n iza t ion a l p r ocesses w it h in t h e sch ool, t h e sk ills t o b e a ble t o id en t ify t h e va r iou s p ossible com p on en t s of su ch a sy st em a n d t h e a b ilit y t o m a n a ge it . T h is ch a llen ge for lea d er sh ip is d escr ib ed by Sie gel a n d By r n e (1994, p. 52) in t h e follow in g w ay :

It is on e t h in g for a lea d er t o h ave t h e v ision ; it is q u it e a n ot h er for t h a t v ision t o gu id e t h e b eh av ior of a n en t ir e or ga n iza t ion . Lea d er s in su ccessfu l q u a lit y set t in gs h ave b een a ble t o con ce p t u a lize t h e t h eor y in w ay s t h a t t r a n sla t e in t o p r a ct ice, st eer t h e ch a n ge p r ocess, a n d gu id e t h eir p eop le in d et er m in in g n ot on ly h ow t o p er for m t h eir job s, bu t even m or e im p or t a n t ly, w h a t t h ose job s sh ou ld b e.

T h is con ce p t u a liza t ion p r ocess for lea d er s n eed s t o b e gin w it h a n in vest iga t ion of t h e n a t u r e of q u a lit y in or ga n iza t ion s a n d t h en t o con sid er t h e p h ilosop h ica l p r in cip les of exist -in g q u a lit y m a n a gem en t a p p r oa ch es.

The nature of quality

Cen t r a l t o t h e q u a lit y m ovem en t , w h ich is in fl u en cin g p u blic a n d p r iva t e sect or or ga n i-za t ion s wor ldw id e, is t h e con ce p t of q u a lit y cu lt u r e a n d t h e d evelop m en t of su ch cu lt u r e w it h in or ga n iza t ion s (Ack er -H oceva r, 1996; Gilb er t , 1987; Ka n t er, 1987; Lib er a t or e, 1993). T h e em p h a sis on cu lt u r e in t h e cor p or a t e con t ext r efl ect s t h e h olist ic n a t u r e of or ga n i-za t ion a l q u a lit y in it ia t ives a n d in cor p or a t es t h e n ot ion of t r a n sfor m a t ion fr om exist in g com m on ly h eld a ssu m p t ion s, a t t it u d es, b eh av iou r, va lu es a n d b eliefs t ow a r d s t h e d evelop m en t of a n a lt er n a t ive p a r a d igm .

Su ch a q u a lit y cu lt u r e is d escr ib ed by Sa r a p h a n d Seb a st ia n (1993, p. 73) in t h e follow in g w ay :

Qu a lit y cu lt u r e is t h e t ot a l of t h e collect ive or sh a r ed lea r n in g of t h e q u a lit y -r ela t ed va lu es a s t h e or ga n iza t ion d evelop s it s ca p a cit y t o su r v ive in it s ext er n a l en v ir on -m en t a n d t o -m a n a ge it s ow n in t er n a l a ffa ir s.

Wh ile t h e n ot ion of a q u a lit y cu lt u r e seem s ed u ca t ion a lly d esir a ble in t h a t sch ools a r e con cer n ed w it h cu lt u r a l d evelop m en t a n d ch a n ge for t h e im p r ovem en t of lea r n in g, it is p r oblem a t ic b eca u se t h e con ce p t h a s a sp e-cifi c m ea n in g w it h in t h e con t ext of t h e q u a l-it y m ovem en t . T h is m ea n in g n eed s t o b e exp lor ed t h r ou gh t h e a n a ly sis of t h e con ce p t of q u a lit y on w h ich t h e n ot ion of q u a lit y cu lt u r e is b a sed . In m a in t a in in g t h a t q u a lit y is a “slip p er y con ce p t ”, P feffer a n d Coot e (1991, p. 31), h ow ever, h igh ligh t t h e d ifficu lt y in r ea ch in g a com m on u n d er st a n d in g or u n iver sa l d efi n it ion of t h is t er m . Mu r ga t r oyd (1991, p. 14), for exa m p le, a ssocia t es t h e con -ce p t of q u a lit y w it h st a n d a r d s a n d va lu es by offer in g t h r ee d efi n it ion s of q u a lit y : 1 Qu a lit y is d efi n ed in t er m s of som e

a b solu t e st a n d a r d a n d eva lu a t ion s a r e b a sed on t h e a p p lica t ion of t h ese st a n d a r d s t o t h e sit u a t ion s exp er ien ced a cr oss a va r iet y of or ga n iza t ion s, ir r esp ect ive of t h eir st r a t e gy of d iffer en t ia t ed ser v ices (establish ed sta n d a rd sd efi n it ion ). 2 Qu a lit y is d efi n ed in t er m s of t h e ob

jec-t ives sejec-t for a sp ecifi c p r ogr a m m e or p r ocess in a sp ecifi c loca t ion a t a sp ecifi c t im e (sp ecifi c sta n d a rd sd efi n it ion ). 3 Qu a lit y is d efi n ed a s “fi t n ess for u se” a s

a t t est ed by t h e en d -u ser s on t h e b a sis of t h eir d ir ect exp er ien ce (fi tn ess for u seor m a rk et-d r iv end efi n it ion ).

Sim ila r ly, Cu t t a n ce (1995) id en t ifi es t wo d efi n -it ion s of q u a l-it y by m a k in g t h e d ist in ct ion b et w een q u a lit y a s t h e in t r in sic va lu es a sso-cia t ed w it h a ser v ice or p r od u ct a n d q u a lit y a s t h e m eet in g of cu st om er r eq u ir em en t s. In t h is sen se t h er e is a n eed t o m eet cu st om er exp ect a t ion s in r ela t ion t o t h e p er ceived va lu e or wor t h a t t a ch ed t o a p r od u ct or ser v ice, w h ile a lso en su r in g t h e p r od u ct or ser -v ice h a s in t r in sic m er it a s d efi n ed by w id ely h eld p r ofession a l st a n d a r d s. Cu t t a n ce (1995, p. 4) n ot es t h a t it is t h e n ot ion of q u a lit y a s “va lu e” or “wor t h ” in r ela t ion t o cu st om er exp ect a t ion s t h a t d escr ib es t h e n a t u r e of q u a lit y a s in t er p r et ed w it h in t h e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t con t ext :

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Wit h in t h is n ot ion of q u a lit y it is a ssu m ed t h a t m ost or ga n iza t ion s p r od u ce a p r od u ct or ser v ice w h ich is in t en d ed t o sa t isfy t h e n eed s of u ser s or cu st om er s w it h q u a lit y, t h er efor e, b ein g t h e “t ot a lit y of fea t u r es a n d ch a r a ct er -ist ics of a p r od u ct or ser v ice t h a t b ea r s on it s a b ilit y t o sa t isfy st a t ed or im p lied n eed s” (Br it ish St a n d a r d s In st it u t e, 1992). T h is r ela -t iv is-t n o-t ion of q u a li-t y is su p p or -t ed by Sa llis (1993, p. 13), w h o p er ceives q u a lit y a s: “a p h ilosop h y or m et h od ology w h ich a ssist s in st it u -t ion s -t o m a n a ge ch a n ge, a n d -t o se-t -t h eir ow n a gen d a s for d ea lin g w it h t h e p let h or a of n ew ext er n a l p r essu r es”. In t h is sen se, q u a lit y is a con ce p t im p ly in g “fi t n ess for p u r p ose”, m ea -su r in g u p t o sp ecifi ca t ion a s w ell a s m eet in g p a r t icu la r cu st om er n eed s:

T h e r ela t iv ist d efi n it ion v iew s q u a lit y n ot a s a n a t t r ibu t e of a p r od u ct or ser v ice, bu t a s som et h in g w h ich is a scr ib ed t o it . Qu a lit y ca n b e ju d ged t o exist w h en a good or ser -v ice m eet s t h e sp ecifi ca t ion t h a t h a s b een la id d ow n for it . Qu a lit y is n ot t h e en d in it self, bu t a m ea n s by w h ich t h e en d p r od u ct is ju d ged t o b e u p t o st a n d a r d (Sa llis, 1993, p. 23).

Qu a lit y, t h er efor e, ca n b e p er ceived in r ela -t ion -t o a cce p -t ed q u a li-t y s-t a n d a r d s a ssocia -t ed w it h a p a r t icu la r sp h er e of in t er est , “a p p r o-p r ia t en ess t o o-p u r o-p ose”, t h r ou gh t h e a b ilit y con sist en t ly t o m eet or exceed p er ceived cu st om er n eed s a n d a n or ga n iza t ion a l ca p a c-it y for con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t of p r ocesses a n d sy st em s.

Wh ile t h ese n ot ion s of q u a lit y seem a p p r op r i-a t e t o or gi-a n izi-a t ion s gen er i-a lly, t h ey d o n ot n ecessa r ily m eet a ll of t h e cr it er ia for q u a lit y in sch ools. E d u ca t ion is a p r ocess b a sed on b r oa d ly a cce p t ed et h ica l va lu es w h ich con st i-t u i-t e i-t h e m or a l fi b r e of sociei-t y. Uli-t im a i-t ely, ed u ca t ion a l q u a lit y ca n n ot b e isola t ed fr om t h ese va lu es w h ich r ela t e t o w h a t is p er ceived a s cu lt u r a lly wor t h w h ile in a societ y. T h ese va lu es p r ov id e a n et h ica lly ju st ifi a ble p la t for m for d et er m in in g a n d eva lu a t in g ed u ca -t ion a l p r ocesses a n d ou -t com es w h ich m igh -t p er m ea t e t h e n ot ion of q u a lit y cu lt u r e in sch ools. In d iscu ssin g t h e n a t u r e of q u a lit y sch oolin g, Asp in et a l. (1994, p. 44) su ggest t h a t eq u it y, excellen ce, d em ocr a cy a n d ju st ice p r ov id e t h e d im en sion s for a t h eor y of q u a lit y for sch ools, w h ich su ggest s t h a t q u a lit y sch ools n eed t o com m u n ica t e civ iliza t ion ,

m eet t h e p er son a l n eed s of st u d en t s a n d en su r e t h a t st u d en t s a r e r esp on sive t o t h e n eed s of societ y. Qu a lit y sch oolin g, it is su g-gest ed (Asp in et a l., 1994, p. 45):

…is n ot so m u ch a b ou t b ein g eq u ip p ed t o op er a t e a s a q u a lifi ed fu n ct ion a r y in societ y, h av in g t h e ca p a cit y t o r esp on d t o econ om ic n or m s a n d t o p er for m com p et en t ly in va r i-ou s m od es of econ om ic p r od u ct ion . It is m u ch m or e a b ou t t h e ca p a cit y of t h e in d i-v id u a l t o en h a n ce a n d en r ich t h e societ y of w h ich h e or sh e is b ein g ed u ca t ed t o b ecom e a p a r t – som eon e w h o is goin g t o b e a giver, a n en la r ger a n d a n en h a n cer, a s w ell a s a n in h er it or a n d r ecip ien t . Qu a lit y sch oolin g is a s m u ch a b ou t t h e fu t u r e of t h e societ y w e see for ou r selves, even if a t sever a l gen er a -t ion s h en ce r em oved ; a wor ld b e-t -t er a n d r ich er t h a n t h e on e w e cu r r en t ly in h a b it .

In ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza t ion s q u a lit y ca n b e exp la in ed a s a sp ecifi c for m of cu lt u r e w h ich in clu d es a lon g-t er m p r ocess of con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t t ow a r d s p er ceived st a n d a r d s of excellen ce w it h in t h e con t ext of cor e et h ica l va lu es, st a n d a r d s of excellen ce a n d a p r ocess of con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t . T h e p r ocess of d evelop in g su ch a n or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e ca n b e r efer r ed t o a s q u a lit y m a n a gem en t , a n d t h e m ost com m on a p p r oa ch t o q u a lit y m a n a gem en t in m a n y p r iva t e a n d p u blic sect or or ga n iza t ion s is t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a ge-m en t (TQM). T h e n a t u r e of t h is p h ilosop h y a n d it s em er gen ce in sch ool ed u ca t ion w ill b e con sid er ed b elow.

The total quality management

paradigm

Defi n ed in t h e b r oa d sen se, q u a lit y m a n a ge-m en t h a s coge-m e t o ge-m ea n “t h a t a sp ect of t h e over a ll m a n a gem en t fu n ct ion t h a t d et er m in es a n d im p lem en t s t h e q u a lit y p olicy (in t en t ion s a n d d ir ect ion s) of t h e or ga -n iza t io-n ” (Va -n Vu gh t a -n d West er h eijd a -n , 1992, p. 13). Qu a lit y m a n a gem en t , a s a q u a lit y im p r ovem en t p r ocess, ca n b e p er ceived w it h in t h e con t ext of p la n n ed or ga n iza t ion a l ch a n ge. T h e n ot ion of or ga n iza t ion a l ch a n ge n eed s t o b e con sid er ed if q u a lit y m a n a gem en t is t h e b e u n d er st ood . For exa m p le, or ga n iza -t ion a l ch a n ge ca n b e in -t h e for m of -t h e m ot ion of t h e or ga n iza t ion a s a w h ole a s it r ela t es t o m ot ion in it s en v ir on m en t – ch a n ge t h a t is m a cr o-evolu t ion a r y, h ist or ica l, a n d t y p ica lly r ela t ed t o clu st er s or w h ole in d u st r ies.

Alt er n a t ively, ch a n ge cou ld d escr ib e t h e m ot ion of t h e p a r t s of t h e or ga n iza t ion in r ela t ion t o ea ch ot h er a s t h e or ga n iza t ion gr ow s, a ges a n d p r ogr esses t h r ou gh it s life cycle – ch a n ge t h a t is m icr o-evolu t ion a r y, d evelop m en t a l a n d t y p ica lly r ela t ed t o size or

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sh a p e, r esu lt in g in coor d in a t ion issu es. F u r -t h er m or e, ch a n ge cou ld b e -t h e r esu l-t of s-t r u g-gles for p ow er a n d con t r ol a m on g in d iv id u a ls or gr ou p s w it h a st a k e in t h e or ga n iza t ion t o m a k e d ecision s or en joy b en efi t s a s a n exp r es-sion of t h eir in t er est s – ch a n ge t h a t focu ses on p olit ica l d im en sion s a n d in volv in g r evolu -t ion a r y a c-t iv i-t y.

In t h is sen se ch a n ge is com p lex a n d con t in -u o-u s, w it h ea ch a sp ect of t h e m ovem en t of or ga n iza t ion s h av in g im p lica t ion s for t h e k in d of q u a lit y im p r ovem en t p r ocesses u n d er t a k en . Ch a n ge is t h e r esu lt of cir cu m st a n ces b eyon d t h e con t r ol of t h e or ga n iza -t ion , a s w ell a s b ein g -t h e r esu l-t of p la n n in g a n d r a t ion a l d ecision m a k in g w it h in t h e or ga n iza t ion . Wit h in t h is n ot ion of or ga n iza -t ion a l m ovem en -t , -t h e m a n a gem en -t of q u a li-t y r ela t es t o p la n n ed cu lt u r a l ch a n ge t o en a ble q u a lit y im p r ovem en t p r ocesses t o even t u a t e. Alt h ou gh d ifficu lt t o d efi n e, t h e con ce p t of cu lt u r e ca n b e p er ceived a s b ein g closely a ssocia t ed w it h t h e n ot ion of sh a r ed a t t it u d es, b eh av iou r s, va lu es a n d a ssu m p -t ion s. Wi-t h in -t h is con -t ex-t , Kr oeb er a n d Klu k h oh n (1952) m a in t a in t h a t :

Cu lt u r e con sist s of p a t t er n s of…b eh av ior a cq u ir ed a n d t r a n sm it t ed v ia sy m b ols, con st it u t in g t h e d ist in ct ive a ch ievem en t of h u m a n gr ou p s, in clu d in g t h eir em b od i-m en t s in a r t ifa ct s; t h e essen t ia l cor e cu lt u r e con sist s of t r a d it ion a l (h ist or ica lly d er ived a n d select ed ) id ea s a n d esp ecia lly a t t a ch ed va lu es; cu lt u r e sy st em s m ay, on t h e on e h a n d , b e con sid er ed a s p r od u ct s of a ct ion , on t h e ot h er a s con d it ion in g elem en t s for fu t u r e a ct ion .

Qu a lit y m a n a gem en t , t h er efor e, is b a sed on ch a n ge t ow a r d s t h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y va lu es w h ich m igh t in clu d e a cu st om er focu s, t ea m wor k , sa fet y for a ll st a k eh old er s, ca n -d ou r, t ot a l in volvem en t , in t im a cy, in t e gr it y, u n it y, con sen su s a n d excellen ce (H a r t a n d Sh oolb r ed , 1993, p. 17). A q u a lit y cu lt u r e wou ld in cor p or a t e com p on en t s su ch a s “sh a r ed va lu es, com m it m en t t o get t in g it r igh t , op en a n d exp licit com m u n ica t ion , t im e for t ea m wor k , t r a in in g in q u a lit y, t ot a l in volvem en t , sen sit iv it y t o ot h er s’ n eed s” (E llis, 1993, p. 31). Wit h in t h is h olist ic fr a m ewor k for or ga n iza t ion a l ch a n ge, q u a lit y m a n -a gem en t is -a lon g-t er m ch -a n ge p h ilosop h y r eq u ir in g a cu lt u r a l t r a n sfor m a t ion w it h in a n or ga n iza t ion w h ich cou ld in cor p or a t e t h e d evelop m en t of a sh a r ed v ision for t h e fu t u r e of t h e or ga n iza t ion , a p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t p r ogr a -m -m e t o eq u ip st a k eh old er s w it h t h e r eq u ir ed sk ills t o a ch ieve goa ls, a focu s on p r ov id in g ser v ices w h ich sa t isfy cu st om er n eed s a n d a p r ocess of r ev iew a n d eva lu a t ion (Offn er, 1993).

Un lik e m a n y or ga n iza t ion s, h owever, sch ools a r e com p lex in n a t u r e a n d t h eir con cer n w it h a m u lt it u d e of ed u ca t ion a l p u r p oses, in clu d in g h u m a n d evelop m en t , com -m u n it y gr ow t h a n d lea r n in g ou t co-m es, -m a k es t h e m a n a gem en t of q u a lit y p r oblem a t ic.

TQM in schools and school systems

Su b st a n t ia l in t er est in TQM in ed u ca t ion h a s b e gu n t o em er ge (Sa llis, 1993), a lt h ou gh t h is in t er est h a s b een focu sed p r im a r ily on h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s (Coa t e, 1990; Cop e a n d Sh er r, 1991; Cor n esk y, et a l., 1991; Ma st er s a n d Leik er, 1992; N eed h a m et a l., 1992; Rey n old s, 1992; Sa u n d er s a n d Wa lk er, 1991; Su t cliffe a n d P ollock , 1992; Ta n n ock , 1991; Va n Vu gh t a n d West er h eijd en , 1992; Win t er, 1991), t ech n ica l a n d fu r t h er ed u ca t ion (TAF E N SW, 1994, 1995) a n d t r a in in g in st it u t ion s (E llis, 1993; Sh aw a n d Rop er, 1993). Ot h er ed u ca t ion a l a r ea s w h er e in t er est in TQM h a s b een sh ow n in clu d e ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t ion (H ou gh , 1993), voca t ion a l ed u ca t ion (La a r n k a r d , 1992) a n d cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t (Ma cch ia , 1992). T h is in cr ea sin g in t er est in TQM in r ela t ion t o ed u ca t ion gen er a lly is b a sed on t h e p er ce p -t ion of ed u ca -t ion a l in s-t i-t u -t ion s a s b ein g p r e-d om in a n t ly ser v ice or ga n iza t ion s w h er e t h e focu s is on su ch fa ct or s a s q u a lit y, d eliver y, sa fet y, cost , or ga n iza t ion a l r esp on sib ilit y, in fr a st r u ct u r e, ext er n a l r ela t ion sh ip s, cu s-t om er p r os-t ecs-t ion a n d com p lia n ce (Sm is-t h , 1993, p. 48).

T h e con ce p t of TQM r eq u ir es t h a t sch ools a r e p er ceived a s ser v ice or ga n iza t ion s d esign ed t o fu lfi l t h e n eed s of t h eir clien t s or cu st om er s. Wit h in t h e ed u ca t ion a l con t ext , ser v ices cou ld in clu d e ed u ca t ion a l p r ogr a m m es, a dv ice, ca r e, in for m a t ion , op p or t u n it ies t o p a r t icip a t e or sp ecifi c sk ills t r a in -in g. In r ela t ion t o sch ools, t h e em p h a sis for TQM cou ld b e on t r a n sfor m in g t ea ch in g, cu r r icu lu m , or ga n iza t ion a l a n d m a n a gem en t p r ocesses w it h in ed u ca t ion a l in st it u t ion s in a w ay w h ich ser ves st u d en t , p a r en t a n d com -m u n it y in t er est s. Mu r ga t r oyd (1991, p. 13) exp la in s t h e n a t u r e of su ch a q u a lit y m a n a ge-m en t p r ocess in t h e follow in g w ay :

T h e k ey t a sk of a ser v ice or ga n iza t ion , lik e a sch ool, is t o bu ild a n effect ive ch a in of cu s-t om er s...To cr ea s-t e a lea r n in g or ga n iza s-t ion d ed ica t ed t o t h is r eq u ir es t h e sch ool t o t h in k fr om t h e exp er ien ce of t h e st u d en t b a ck -w a r d s t o ed u ca t ion a l d esign a n d st r u ct u r e. Ra t h er t h a n see st r u ct u r e a s a n or m a liza -t ion of con -t r ol sy s-t em s, s-t r u c-t u r e sh ou ld fa cilit a t e r esp on siven ess t o st u d en t n eed s in t h e st u d en t s’ ow n t er m s.

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p er ceived gen er a lly a s a d esir a ble u n d er t a k -in g for t h e sch ool im p r ovem en t p r ocess, even t h ou gh som e a t t em p t s t o im p lem en t t h e p r ocess in sch ools h ave b een u n su ccessfu l (Beav is, 1995). In a r gu in g t h e b en efi t s of TQM t o sch ools, Gor e (1993, p. 335), for exa m p le, m a in t a in s t h a t TQM is ver y a p p lica ble t o ed u ca t ion in t h a t :

T h e cen t r a l con ce p t of TQM, con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t , is fu n d a m en t a l t o ed u ca t ion . Wh er e else wou ld t h e id ea of a cu lt u r e or i-en t ed t o con t in u ou s im p r ovem i-en t b e m or e a p p r op r ia t e t h a n in in st it u t ion s w h ose p u r p ose is t o su p p or t im p r ovem en t a n d in d iv id u a l gr ow t h ?

It is su ggest ed by Gor e (1993, p. 375) t h a t , a lt h ou gh sch ools n eed t o d evelop t h eir ow n a p p r oa ch , som e a sp ect s of TQM a r e ver y r eleva n t , t h ese b ein g:

• t h e r ole of lea d er sh ip ;

• t h e a r t icu la t ion a n d d evelop m en t of a v ision a n d t h e d evelop m en t of cu lt u r e; • m a n a gem en t by fa ct ;

• a focu s on t ea m bu ild in g a n d p r ocesses t h a t cr oss fu n ct ion a l b ou n d a r ies;

• m a n a gem en t a n d en h a n cem en t of h u m a n r esou r ces;

• b en ch m a r k in g; • cycle t im e r ed u ct ion ;

• cu st om er focu s, sa t isfa ct ion a n d m ea su r e-m en t .

T h is b elief t h a t t h e TQM p h ilosop h y h a s a logica l a p p lica t ion t o sch ool or ga n iza t ion s is su p p or t ed by Mu r ga t r oyd (1993, p. 245), w h o m a in t a in s t h a t q u a lit y im p r ovem en t is cu l-t u r a lly loca l-t ed in l-t h a l-t “im p r ov in g q u a lil-t y b ecom es a n over -r id in g m ission for t h e sch ool. It is n ot a fa d , or a ga m e or a n ew a ct iv it y for a given a ca d em ic yea r. It is a n essen t ia l p a r t of t h e d evelop m en t st r a t e gy for t h e sch ool a n d is som et h in g t h a t is ever yon e’s r esp on sib ilit y.” T h er e is t h e b elief t h a t TQM p r in cip les ca n en h a n ce lea r n in g a t t h e in d i-v id u a l a n d or ga n iza t ion a l lei-vels, t h a t sch ools n eed t o b ecom e t r u ly “lea r n in g or ga n iza -t ion s” a n d -t h a -t sch ools ca n lea r n a gr ea -t d ea l a b ou t q u a lit y m a n a gem en t fr om ot h er k in d s of or ga n iza t ion s.

A definition of TQM

TQM h a s em er ged a s t h e m ost w ell-k n ow n a p p r oa ch t o t h e d evelop m en t of or ga n iza -t ion a l cu l-t u r e for q u a li-t y m a n a gem en -t , r e p r e-sen t in g a p h ilosop h ica l fr a m ewor k for t h e m a n a gem en t of q u a lit y in or ga n iza t ion s w h ich cla im s t o b e a p p lica ble t o b ot h p r iva t e a n d p u blic sect or en t er p r ises a n d in st it u -t ion s. Oa k la n d (1989, p. 14) d efi n es TQM in -t h e follow in g w ay :

Tot a l Qu a lit y Ma n a gem en t (TQM) is a n a p p r oa ch t o im p r ov in g t h e effect iven ess a n d

fl exib ilit y of bu sin esses a s a w h ole. It is essen t ia lly a w ay of or ga n izin g a n d in volv in g t h e w h ole or ga n iza t ion ; ever y d e p a r t -m en t , ever y a ct iv it y, ever y sin gle p er son a t ever y level.

Wit h in t h is d efi n it ion , TQM is con d u cive t o t h e con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t of q u a lit y w it h in a ll k in d s of or ga n iza t ion s a n d , a s a lon g-t er m ch a n ge p r ocess, ca n con t r ibu t e t o or ga n iza t ion a l gr ow t h a n d r en ew a l. F r om t h is p er sp ect ive, TQM r e p r esen t s a q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r ocess w h ich is con cer n ed w it h p eop le, sy st em s a n d cu lt u r e, in cor p or a t -in g p r ocesses su ch a s lea d er sh ip, sy st em s t h in k in g, a n d em p loyee em p ow er m en t con -t in u ou sly -t o im p r ove a n or ga n iza -t ion ’s ca p a c-it y t o m eet cu r r en t a n d fu t u r e cu st om er n eed s. In su ggest in g t h a t t h e ou t com es of TQM a r e im p r oved q u a lit y, en h a n ced effec-t iven ess a n d a ch a n ge of in seffec-t ieffec-t u effec-t ion a l cu leffec-t u r e, Sm it h (1993, p. 57) m a in t a in s t h a t TQM is a m a n a ged p r ocess t h a t seek s or ga n iza t ion -w id e im p r ovem en t t h r ou gh :

• p la n n in g for n ew p r od u ct s a n d ser v ices; • in n ova t ion in exist in g ser v ices;

• con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t in a ll exist in g ser v ice p r ocesses;

• d a ily con t r ol of ser v ice p r ocesses.

The TQM philosophy

In TQM, ever y elem en t of t h e or ga n iza t ion is in volved in t h e en t er p r ise of con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t , w it h ea ch in d iv id u a l sh a r in g r esp on sib ilit y r e ga r d less of h is or h er p osi-t ion or sosi-t a osi-t u s. Iosi-t is m a in osi-t a in ed by Sa llis (1993, p p. 267) t h a t TQM is a p h ilosop h y of or ga n iza -t ion a l cu l-t u r e ch a n ge w h ich , -t h r ou gh

em p loyee p a r t icip a t ion a n d co-op er a t ion , focu ses on t h e sa t isfa ct ion of cu st om er exp ec-t a ec-t ion s:

TQM is a b ou t cr ea t in g a q u a lit y cu lt u r e w h er e t h e a im of ever y m em b er of st a ff is t o d eligh t t h eir cu st om er s, a n d w h er e t h e st r u ct u r e of t h eir or ga n iza t ion a llow s t h em t o d o so. In t h e t ot a l q u a lit y d efi n it ion of q u a lit y t h e cu st om er is sover eign ...It is a b ou t p r ov id in g t h e cu st om er s w it h w h a t t h ey w a n t , w h en t h ey w a n t it a n d h ow t h ey w a n t it . It in volves m ov in g w it h cu st om er exp ect a t ion s a n d fa sh ion s t o d esign p r od -u ct s a n d ser v ices w h ich m eet a n d exceed t h eir exp ect a t ion s.

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in sp ect ion , q u a lit y in d ica t or s or a ch ievem en t ob ject ives. T h ese k ey elem en t s h ave b een in t er p r et ed by TQM en t h u sia st s a n d p r a ct i-t ion er s in a n u m b er of w ay s, a li-t h ou gh ea ch p r ov id es a n in sigh t in t o t h e TQM p a r a d igm .

In d efi n in g TQM a s a “coop er a t ive for m of d oin g bu sin ess t h a t r elies on t h e t a len t s a n d ca p a b ilit ies of b ot h la b or a n d m a n a gem en t t o con t in u a lly im p r ove q u a lit y a n d p r od u ct iv it y u sin g t ea m s”, J a blon sk i (1991, p. 4) a r gu es t h a t TQM is b a sed on six p r in cip les w h ich in clu d e: d evelop in g a focu s on cu st om er s, p r ocesses a s w ell a s r esu lt s, p r even t ion r a t h er t h a n in sp ect ion , m ob ilizin g wor k for ce exp er t ise, fa ct -b a sed m a n a gem en t a n d p r o-v id in g feed b a ck for im p r oo-vem en t . Wit h in t h is m od el, TQM r eq u ir es p a r t icip a t ive m a n a ge-m en t , con t in u ou s p r ocess ige-m p r ovege-m en t a n d t h e u se of t ea m s. Sim ila r ly, La m p r ech t (1993, p. 24) em p h a sizes t h e fu n ct ion of p r ocess im p r ovem en t a s a cen t r a l fa ct or in TQM a n d d efi n es t ot a l q u a lit y a s h av in g fi ve com p o-n eo-n t s:

1 E m p loyee p a r t icip a t ion .

2 Con t in u ou sly im p r ov in g a ll p r ocesses. 3 Mon it or in g you r p r ocesses u sin g a p p r op r

i-a t e st i-a t ist ici-a l t ech n iq u es.

4 Su r vey in g you r cu st om er s a n d b en ch -m a r k in g you r co-m p et it or s.

5 In n ova t ion , in or d er t o r em a in com p et it ive.

In d efi n in g cu st om er ser v ice, con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t , sy st em s t h in k in g a n d lea d er -sh ip a s fu n d a m en t a l elem en t s, Bon st in gl (1992, p p. 6-7) m a in t a in s t h a t t h er e a r e “fou r p illa r s” of t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t : 1 T h e or ga n iza t ion m u st focu s, fi r st a n d

for em ost , on it s su p p lier s a n d cu st om er s. 2 E ver yon e in t h e or ga n iza t ion m u st b e

d ed ica t ed t o con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t , p er son a lly a n d collect ively.

3 T h e or ga n iza t ion m u st b e v iew ed a s a sy st em , a n d t h e wor k p eop le d o w it h in t h e sy st em m u st b e seen a s on goin g p r ocesses. 4 T h e su ccess of t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t is

t h e r esp on sib ilit y of t op m a n a gem en t . Fox (1991), in a dvoca t in g t h e n eed for t h e fu r t h er d evelop m en t of TQM in Au st r a lia n or ga n iza t ion s, su ggest s six seq u en t ia l st e p s for t h e d evelop m en t of a TQM cu lt u r e in or ga -n iza t io-n s. T h e st e p s Fox (1991, p. 8) su ggest s a r e b a sed on w h a t is r efer r ed t o a s “t h e TQM t r ilogy ”, w h ich in clu d es t h e con ce p t s of q u a l-it y, q u a ll-it y sy st em s a n d q u a ll-it y m ea su r e-m en t . T h e “six st e p s t o TQM” a r e:

1 Dem on st r a t e t op m a n a gem en t com m it -m en t .

2 E st a blish t h e cu r r en t st a t e of q u a lit y. 3 Det er m in e t h e q u a lit y st r a t e gies. 4 E d u ca t e m a n a gem en t in TQM. 5 Ra ise q u a lit y aw a r en ess ever y w h er e. 6 In st it u t e n ever -en d in g im p r ovem en t .

Characteristics of TQM

It is a p p a r en t fr om t h e m od els d iscu ssed a b ove t h a t t h e p h ilosop h y of TQM is lon g-t er m , la r ge-sca le a n d a ll-em b r a cin g, in cor p o-r a t in g a ll oo-r ga n iza t ion a l m em b eo-r s a n d a ct iv i-t ies in i-t o i-t h e q u a lii-t y im p r ovem en i-t p r ocess, r a t h er t h a n b ein g focu sed on lim it ed a sp ect s of t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h is in clu d es t h e in t er -n a l i-n t er r ela t io-n sh ip s a m o-n g t h e va r iou s com p on en t s of t h e or ga n iza t ion a s w ell a s it s r ela t ion sh ip s w it h cu st om er s. TQM is a b ou t d evelop in g a n ew cu lt u r e in t h e for m of q u a l-it y -b a sed d ecision m a k in g p er m ea t in g a ll a sp ect s of t h e or ga n iza t ion . T h is n ot ion of q u a lit y is b a sed on t h e w ell d ocu m en t ed W. E dw a r d s Dem in g’s 14 p oin t s w h ich for m t h e p h ilosop h ica l p la t for m of t h e q u a lit y m ove-m en t . T h ese p oin t s a r e:

1 Cr ea t e con st a n cy of p u r p ose for im p r ove-m en t of p r od u ct a n d ser v ice.

2 Ad op t a n ew p h ilosop h y.

3 Cea se d e p en d en ce on m a ss in sp ect ion . 4 E n d t h e p r a ct ice of aw a r d in g bu sin ess on

p r ice-t a g a lon e.

5 Im p r ove con st a n t ly a n d for ever t h e sy s-t em of p r od u cs-t ion a n d ser v ice.

6 In st it u t e t r a in in g. 7 In st it u t e lea d er sh ip. 8 Dr ive ou t fea r.

9 Br ea k d ow n b a r r i er s b et w een s t a ff a r ea s.

10 E lim in a t e sloga n s, exh or t a t ion s a n d t a r get s for t h e wor k for ce.

11 E lim in a t e n u m er ica l q u ot a s.

12 Rem ove b a r r ier s t o p r id e of wor k m a n -sh ip.

13 In st it u t e a v igor ou s p r ogr a m m e of ed u ca -t ion a n d r e--t r a in in g.

14 Ta k e a ct ion t o a ccom p lish t h e t r a n sfor m a t ion .

T h ese, a n d ot h er essen t ia l ch a r a ct er ist ics of TQM, a r e su m m a r ized b elow.

Custo me r-drive n pro c e ss

T h e m et h od s a n d p r ocesses of t h e or ga n iza -t ion a r e d esign ed a n d m a n a ged -t o m ee-t b o-t h in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l cu st om er exp ect a t ion s. Su p p lier s a n d cu st om er s a r e v iew ed a s p a r t -n er s i-n t h e q u a lit y i-n it ia t ive.

Emphasis o n te amwo rk

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Co ntinuo us impro ve me nt

T h e TQM p r ocess is b a sed on t h e p r in cip le t h a t w id esp r ea d cu lt u r a l ch a n ge ca n b e b est a ch ieved t h r ou gh t h e in cr em en t a l p r ocess of gr a d u a l, sm a ll-sca le, a ch iev a b le p r oject s in cor p or a t in g t h e u se of st a t ist ica l t ools a n d t ech n iq u es (exp r essed in t h e J a p a n ese n ot ion of k a iz en) r a t h er t h a n on r a d ica l st r u ct u r a l r eor ga n iza t ion . T h e p er for m a n ce of sim ila r p r ocesses in d iffer en t p a r t s of t h e or ga n iza t ion is com p a r ed t h r ou gh in t er n a l b en ch -m a r k in g.

Pro ble m pre ve ntio n

Qu a lit y is bu ilt in a t t h e d esign a n d p r ocess-in g st a ge r a t h er t h a n b eocess-in g ocess-in sp ect ed ou t a s d efect s in t h e en d p r od u ct . T h e or ga n iza t ion r ew a r d s q u a lit y wor k a n d su ggest ion s for im p r ovem en t , u su a lly t h r ou gh n on p ecu -n ia r y m ea -n s.

Partic ipatio n in de c isio n making

TQM is b a sed on t h e n ot ion of p a r t icip a t ion t h r ou gh a “t ot a l in volvem en t ” a p p r oa ch w h ich r eq u ir es con t in u ou s, fi r st -h a n d in volvem en t of t op m a n a gem en t a s w ell a s t h e p a r t icip a t ion of a ll or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er s in t h e d evelop m en t a n d im p lem en t a t ion of q u a lit y m a n a gem en t st r a t e gies.

Manage me nt by fac t

Ma n a gem en t d ecision m a k in g is b a sed on q u a lit a t ive a n d q u a n t it a t ive d a t a fr om feed -b a ck a -b ou t t h e p er for m a n ce of p r ocesses a n d p r od u ct s. Gu t feelin gs a n d in t u it ion a r e con -sid er ed in a d eq u a t e b a ses for d ecision m a k in g.

Individual re spo nsibility

In or d er t h a t TQM b e su ccessfu l a s a p r ocess of q u a lit y im p r ovem en t , ea ch or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er is r eq u ir ed t o t a k e r esp on sib ilit y for t h e q u a lit y of t h eir ow n p er for m a n ce. Or ga n i-za t ion a l m em b er s a r e p er ceived a s in t er d e-p en d en t on on e a n ot h er w it h in t h e cu st om er / su p p lier r ela t ion sh ip. Ra t h er t h a n d e p en d in g in a n ext er n a l a u t h or it y st r u ct u r e t o en for ce, coer ce or in d u ce d esir ed b eh av iou r s, TQM is con cer n ed w it h m ov in g t h e focu s of con t r ol fr om ou t sid e t h e in d iv id u a l t o w it h in . Co mmitme nt to staff training

All or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er s r eq u ir e ed u ca -t ion a n d -t r a in in g in w ay s of wor k in g in a q u a lit y en v ir on m en t , p r a ct isin g er r or p r e-ven t ion r a t h er t h a n d et ect ion , a s w ell a s t h e u se of p r oblem -solv in g t ech n iq u es a n d t ools. Sen ior m a n a gem en t r eq u ir es ed u ca t ion in r ela t ion t o t h e p h ilosop h y of TQM a n d t h e im p lica t ion s for or ga n iza t ion a l ch a n ge a sso-cia t ed w it h a TQM cu lt u r e. All or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er s r eq u ir e sk ills in r ela t ion t o t ea m m em b er sh ip a n d t h e u se of t ech n iq u es for p r oblem solv in g.

Perceived barriers to TQM in schools Alt h ou gh t h e TQM p r ocess seem s com p a t ible w it h t h e sch ool im p r ovem en t p r ocess, t h er e is a r a n ge of issu es w h ich em er ge in r ela t ion t o TQM a s a p h ilosop h y for q u a lit y im p r ove-m en t in sch ools, a n d t h ese ove-m ay for ove-m b a r r ier s t o t h e in t en d ed ch a n ge p r ocess, som e of w h ich a r e con sid er ed b elow.

Philo so phic al barrie rs

T h e TQM p h ilosop h y is n ot a p a n a cea for t h e d evelop m en t of q u a lit y sch ools a n d ca n n ot b e seen a s t h e on ly m ea n s t h r ou gh w h ich a sch ool or sch ool sy st em ca n a ch ieve im p r oved q u a lit y. Ot h er in st r u ct ion a l or or ga n iza t ion a l r efor m s, su ch a s effect ive sch ools, essen t ia l sch ools, co-op er a t ive lea r n in g, a cceler a t ed lea r n in g a n d ou t com e-b a sed ed u ca t ion a lso n eed t o b e con sid er ed .

Applic atio n to impro ve d stude nt le arning T h e em p h a sis on or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e, w h ich is fu n d a m en t a l t o t h e TQM p h ilosop h y, is a n a p p r oa ch t o q u a lit y im p r ovem en t w h ich is n ew t o sch ools a s or ga n iza t ion s. It cou ld b e t h a t t h is em p h a sis la ck s cr ed ib ilit y w it h in t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession w h ich is m or e con cer n ed w it h t h e p r a ct ica lit ies of t h e t ea ch -in g/ lea r n -in g p r ocess. T h e l-in k a ge b et w een TQM a n d im p r oved lea r n in g ou t com es m ay n ot b e clea r – if, in fa ct , it exist s.

Diffic ultie s with statistic al analysis TQM r eq u ir es t h a t in for m a t ion for p r oblem solv in g a n d d ecision m a k in g b e gen er a t ed t h r ou gh t h e u se of st a t ist ica l t ech n iq u es. T h is a p p r oa ch m ay b e r eleva n t t o in d u st r ia l or p r od u ct -or ien t ed en t er p r ises w h er e ou t com es a r e d ir ect ly ob ser v a b le a n d m ea su r a b le. T h e in t r od u ct ion of su ch t ech n iq u es in sch ools for d ecision m a k in g a n d p olicy d evelop m en t m ay b e in a p p r op r ia t e or cu lt u r a lly r em oved fr om t h e a cce p t ed in t u it ive a n d p r ofession a l ju d ge-m en t s, a s w ell a s t h e p olit ica l p r ocess, t h a t p er m ea t e ed u ca t ion a l p olicy.

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r esp on sib ilit ies a r e com p lex a n d m u lt i-fu n c-t ion a l.

The right first time (RFT) philo so phy On e a im of t h e TQM p r ocess is t o est a blish a n or ga n iza t ion a l cu lt u r e w h ich is er r or -fr ee in t h a t t h e q u a lit y sy st em a ssu r es t h a t m ist a k es a r e elim in a t ed . Wh ile t h is m ay b e a

com m en d a ble ob ject ive in m a n y in d u st r ia l con t ext s, it s p ossib ilit y a n d va lu e a r e d eb a t -a ble in ed u c-a t ion -a l or g-a n iz-a t ion s. E xp er i-m en t a t ion a n d t h e exa i-m in a t ion of a lt er n a t ive id ea s a n d p r ocesses seem t o b e r eq u ir em en t s of t h e lea r n in g p r ocess a n d , su b seq u en t ly, a d esir a ble a sp ect of t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r ocess. The c usto me r-de fine d quality c o nc e pt TQM r eq u ir es t h a t t h e n ot ion of q u a lit y is cu st om er -d r iven , in t h a t t h e fu lfi lm en t of cu st om er n eed s is t h e u lt im a t e d efi n it ion of q u a lit y. T h is p er ce p t ion of q u a lit y m ay b e u n r ea list ic in r ela t ion t o t h e va lu e-la d en en v ir on m en t of sch ools, w it h q u a lit y b ein g m or e a n e got ia t ed p h en om en on d r aw in g on st u d en t , p a r en t , p r ofession a l a n d d e p a r t m en t exp ect a t ion s a n d a sp ir a t ion s.

The industrial c ulture in e duc atio n

TQM is p r ed om in a n t ly a n in d u st r ia l or m a n -u fa ct -u r in g or ga n iza t ion a l c-u lt -u r e w h ich a ssu m es t h a t t h e or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e is h ier a r ch ica l in n a t u r e a n d t h a t or ga n iza -t ion a l p er son n el h ave clea r ly d efi n ed r oles a n d r esp on sib ilit ies. Sch ools a r e m or e fl exible in t h eir r ole d efi n it ion s a n d t h e id en t ifi ca -t ion of a sch ool’s q u a li-t y sy s-t em m ay b e m u ch m or e d ifficu lt .

Pe rc e ive d lac k o f a te ac hing/ le arning fo c us

Qu a lit y st r a t e gies for focu sin g on op er a t ion s a n d a d m in ist r a t ive fu n ct ion s a t t h e m icr o-level m ay b e r eleva n t t o t h e su p p or t st r u ct u r e for t h e d eliver y of ser v ices, r esou r ces a n d p r ogr a m m es t o sch ools. T h ey m ay n ot b e a p p lica ble t o t h e im p r ovem en t of sch ools’ p r im a r y wor k , w h ich is t h e t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice of ct ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g, or ct o ct h e eva lu a -t ion of p er for m a n ce a -t -t h e sy s-t em level. Intro duc tio n pro c e sse s

T h e in t r od u ct ion of TQM r eq u ir es t h a t t op m a n a gem en t b e com m it t ed t o t h e p h ilosop h y of TQM a n d b e p r e p a r ed t o u n d er t a k e in it ia l TQM ed u ca t ion a n d t r a in in g in or d er t h a t t h ey ca n t a k e a cen t r a l r ole in it s im p lem en t a -t ion . T h e com p lex n a -t u r e of sch ools a n d -t h e d em a n d in g r ole of sch ool execu t ives cou ld w ell p r even t or r est r ict t h is in it ia l p h a se t o t a k e p la ce sa t isfa ct or ily.

Stage s o f o rganizatio nal de ve lo pme nt TQM m ay b e m or e a p p r op r ia t e t o or ga n iza t ion s a t p a r t icu la r st a ges of t h eir d evelop -m en t . Sch ools d o n ot n ecessa r ily p a ss

t h r ou gh t h ese st a ges, in t h a t t h ey a r e on goin g a n d p er m a n en t est a blish m en t s.

Ne e d fo r so me inspe c tio n pro c e sse s in sc ho o ls

TQM r eq u ir es t h e con ce p t of bu ilt -in q u a lit y r a t h er t h a n t h e u se of q u a lit y con t r ol or in sp ect ion p r ocesses. Wit h in sch ools, t h e p r ocesses of a ssessm en t , a p p r a isa l a n d t est -in g a r e r ecogn ized a s le git im a t e a n d n eces-sa r y p r ocesses t o a scer t a in a ccou n t a b ilit y a n d m ea su r e im p r ovem en t , a n d t h eir r em ova l m ay ca u se com m u n it y con cer n .

H ow ever, d esp it e t h ese p er ceived b a r r ier s, t h er e a r e a n u m b er of a dva n t a ges r ela t in g t o t h e exist en ce of TQM in sch ool ed u ca t ion , a n d t h ese b en efi t s h ave p r ov id ed a n in cen t ive for som e in d iv id u a l sch ools a n d sch ool sy s-t em s s-t o in is-t ia s-t e TQM a p p r oa ch es.

Perceived advantages of TQM in school education

TQM h a s a n u m b er of ch a r a ct er ist ics w h ich m a k e it p h ilosop h ica lly com p a t ible w it h t h e d evelop m en t of ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza t ion s, p r ov id ed t h a t TQM in it ia t ives ca n b e lin k ed w it h t h e cor e ed u ca t ion a l p u r p ose of sch ools. F r om t h e exp er ien ce of som e sch ools a n d sch ool sy st em s it is ev id en t t h a t t h e TQM p h ilosop h y ca n p r ov id e a con ce p t u a l fr a m e-wor k for ed u ca t ion a l or ga n iza t ion s t o d evelop t h e cu lt u r e r eleva n t t o t h eir in d iv id u a l p u r -p oses. T h e TQM -p r ocess cou ld b e com -p a t ible w it h sch ool or ga n iza t ion s for a n u m b er of r ea son s, w h ich in clu d e t h e follow in g: • T h eoretica l com p a tib ility. Sch ools a r e

a lr ea dy u n d er t a k in g p r ocesses w h ich r efl ect t h e TQM p h ilosop h y. T h ese in clu d e t h e u se of cu r r icu lu m d evelop m en t t ea m s, t h e r ela t ively h igh level of r esp on sib ilit y w h ich t ea ch er s h ave for ed u ca t ion a l d eci-sion m a k in g in t h eir cla ssr oom s a n d t h e u se of sch ool-b a sed st r a t e gic p la n n in g p r ocesses. As a gen er ic p h ilosop h y of q u a l-it y im p r ovem en t , TQM a llow s for t h e d evel-op m en t of m od els for q u a lit y im p r ovem en t w h ich ser ve t h e sp ecifi c n eed s of t h e or ga n iza t ion .

• E d u ca tion a l com p a tib ility. T h e TQM p r ocess va lu es p eop le a n d t h eir a ch ieve-m en t s, t h er efor e r efl ect in g coieve-m p a t ib ilit y w it h t h e d evelop m en t a l p u r p oses of t h e ed u ca t ion a l p r ocess.

• E qu ity p r in cip les. TQM r eq u ir es ed u ca t ion a n d t r a in in g of a ll or ga n iza t ion a l p er son n el – a p h ilosop h y w h ich is com p a t ible w it h t h e p u r p oses of sch oolin g. Mor eover, in d iv id u -a ls -a r e given t h e op p or t u n it y t o con t r ibu t e on a n eq u a l b a sis t h r ou gh t ea m st r u ct u r es. • E th ica lly com p a rable. TQM is b a sed on

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w h ich a r e va lu es w id ely h eld a s b ein g et h i-ca lly wor t h w h ile.

• Com p a tible w ith ex istin g orga n iz a tion a l stru ctu res.TQM d oes n ot n ecessa r ily a dvoca t e st r u ct u r a l ch a n ge t o ed u dvoca t ion a l or ga -n iza t io-n s or ed u ca t io-n a l sy st em s, w h ich i-n a la r ge en t er p r ise lik e sch ool ed u ca t ion cou ld b e d ifficu lt t o a ch ieve a n d cou n t er -p r od u ct ive a s a st r a t e gy for ch a n ge a n d im p r ovem en t .

• L on g-ter m com m itm en t to im p r ov em en t. TQM is a lon g-t er m a p p r oa ch t o q u a lit y im p r ovem en t b a sed on or ga n iza t ion a l selfa ct u selfa lizselfa t ion . T h is p h ilosop h y seem s com -p a t ible w it h sch ool ed u ca t ion a s lon g-t er m p er son a l, or ga n iza t ion a l, cu lt u r a l a n d soci-et a l d evelop m en t .

T h ese a dva n t a ges h ave led t o t h e d evelop m en t of a r a n ge of TQM in it ia t ives in a n u m b er of ed u ca t ion a l sy st em s wor ldw id e, a s w ell a s a d evelop in g lit er a t u r e b a sed on q u a lit y m a n -a gem en t in ed u c-a t ion . T h er e is em er gin g bu t lim it ed r esea r ch in t o q u a lit y m a n a gem en t in sch ools or sch ool sy st em s t o su p p or t sch ool lea d er s in d evelop in g q u a lit y p h ilosop h ies for t h eir or ga n iza t ion s. In t h e USA, w h er e m ost r esea r ch h a s b een u n d er t a k en , su ch r esea r ch exist s in t h e for m of p h ilosop h ica l a n a ly ses of t h e va lu e of q u a lit y p r in cip les t o st u d en t lea r n in g (La n gfor d a n d Clea r y, 1995), a n a ly -ses of t h e d evelop m en t of TQM w it h in a n d b et w een sch ool sy st em s (H or in e et a l., 1994) a n d com p a r a t ive ca se st u d ies b et w een bu si-n ess a si-n d sch ool or ga si-n iza t iosi-n s (Sie gel a si-n d By r n e, 1994). Resea r ch in Gr ea t Br it a in a n d Au st r a lia is less p r eva len t a n d in clu d es a n in vest iga t ion of t h e p ot en t ia l of TQM in Br it ish sch ools (Gr een wood a n d Ga u n t , 1994), t h e im p lem en t a t ion of TQM t o secon d a r y sch ools in Au st r a lia (Beav is, 1995; P a in eet a l., 1992) a n d t h e d evelop m en t of TQM in p r im a r y sch ools (Rob in son , 1996). T h is r esea r ch h a s con cen t r a t ed on b ot h q u a lit y m a n a gem en t a t t h e in d iv id u a l sch ool level a n d a t t h e sch ool sy st em s level, w it h a n u m b er of q u a lit y m a n a gem en t m od els em er gin g w it h in t h ese lev -els.

Models for TQM in schools

On e focu s for TQM in it ia t ives in sch ools h a s b een on t h e in d iv id u a l sch ool a s a sy st em . T h ose w h o a dvoca t e TQM effor t s in in d iv id -u a l sch ools (Gla sser, 1986, 1990, 1993; Gor e, 1993; Gr een wood a n d Ga u n t , 1994; Mu r ga -t r oyd , 1993; P a in e e-t a l., 1992) a r gu e -t h a -t TQM h a s im p lica t ion s for t h e im p r ovem en t of st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es a n d m a xim izin g t h e p ot en t ia l of t h e sch ool t o su p p or t st u d en t lea r n in g. T h is a p p r oa ch m a in t a in s t h a t in d iv id u a l sch ools in cor p or a t e q u a lit y

m a n a gem en t p r ocesses in t o t h eir exist in g cu lt u r e in a w ay w h ich su p p or t s id en t ifi ed or ga n iza t ion a l lea r n in g n eed s. Two m od els for sch ool-b a sed q u a lit y m a n a gem en t a r e d iscu ssed b elow.

The quality marketing model

T h e q u a lit y m a r k et in g m od el (Mu r ga t r oyd , 1991, 1993) for t h e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r ocess in sch ools is b a sed on a com p et it ive p h ilosop h y, w h ich sees in d iv id u a l sch ools com p et in g a ga in st on e a n ot h er in a n op en m a r k et for st u d en t s a n d r esou r ces. Qu a lit y is su st a in ed t h r ou gh ea ch sch ool est a blish in g a p a r t icu la r n ich e in it s ed u ca t ion a l p h iloso-p h y a n d iloso-p olicies. TQM is eq u a t ed w it h t h e n ot ion of cu st om er -d r iven q u a lit y, a lt h ou gh t h e com p lem en t a r y p r ocesses of con t r a ct con for m a n ce a n d q u a lit y a ssu r a n ce (eq u a t ed w it h q u a lit y con t r ol) a r e p er ceived a s b ein g n ecessa r y bu t of lesser im p or t a n ce t o t h e q u a lit y p r ocess.

The quality learning model

T h e q u a lit y lea r n in g m od el (Gla sser, 1990, 1993; Gossen a n d An d er son , 1995; La n gfor d a n d Clea r y, 1995) for t h e q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r ocess in sch ools con cen t r a t es on t h e r ela -t ion sh ip b e-t w een -t h e s-t u d en -t a n d -t h e -t ea ch er in t h e lea r n in g p r ocess. In t h is m od el, st u -d en t s a r e en cou r a ge-d t o a cce p t r esp on sib ilit y for t h e q u a lit y of t h eir wor k , w it h t h e t ea ch er en su r in g t h a t t h e em ot ion a l, p h y sica l a n d p sych ologica l con d it ion s for lea r n in g a r e in exist en ce. Qu a lit y is eq u a t ed w it h t h e con t in -u o-u s im p r ovem en t of lea r n in g o-u t com es a n d t h e a b ilit y of st u d en t s t o t a k e r esp on sib ilit y for t h is im p r ovem en t .

TQM in school systems

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1 Orga n iz a tion a l n etw ork s. T h e fu n d a m en -t a l a ssu m p -t ion u n d er ly in g d is-t r ic-t -b a sed a p p r oa ch es is t h a t t h e p r ocess of d evelop -in g TQM -in sch ools a n d n on -sch ool or ga n za t ion s ca n b e u n d er t a k en w it h in a sim i-la r con ce p t u a l a n d m et h od ologica l fr a m e-wor k . Qu a lit y, it is a r gu ed , ca n b e

en h a n ced in a n y or ga n iza t ion t h r ou gh t h e sh a r in g of in t er or ga n iza t ion a l in for m a -t ion a n d p r a c-t ices, a n d -t h e d evelop m en -t of m u t u a l su p p or t n et wor k s. Qu a lit y is d e p en d en t on a r a n ge of bu sin ess a n d p u blic sect or or ga n iza t ion s fu n ct ion in g a s a u n it for t h e m u t u a l b en efi t of a ll

in volved . In d iv id u a l sch ools h ave t h e a dva n t a ge of sh a r in g t h e k n ow led ge a n d exp er t ise of a r a n ge of TQM or ga n iza t ion s, t h er efor e b ecom in g p a r t of a la r ger TQM sy st em .

2 R esou rce op tim iz a tion . T h e d ist r ict a p p r oa ch r eq u ir es t h a t a n u m b er of sch ools w it h in a sp ecifi ed d ist r ict fu n ct ion a s p a r t of a com m on q u a lit y im p r ovem en t st r u ct u r e, w h ich is n on -com p et it ive a n d colla b or a t ive in n a t u r e. It is a r gu ed by t h e Am er ica n Associa t ion of Sch ool Ad m in is-t r a is-t or s (1992) is-t h a is-t TQM ca n b e is-t h ou gh is-t of a s con t en t -fr ee, a p p lica ble t o a n y in st r u c-t ion a l or sc-t r u cc-t u r a l r efor m , a n d c-t h a c-t c-t h e lim it ed r esou r ces ava ila ble t o ed u ca t ion a l sy st em s ca n b e u t ilized w it h in a d ist r ict t o m a xim ize a dva n t a ges w it h in ea ch sch ool.

Conclusion

Lea d er sh ip n eed s t o u n d er t a k e a fu n d a m en -t a l r ole in -t h e d evelop m en -t of or ga n iza -t ion a l sy st em s t o gen er a t e a n d su st a in cu lt u r a l ch a n ge in sch ools. T h e d evelop m en t of a q u a l-it y cu lt u r e in sch ools r eq u ir es sch ool lea d er s t o d evelop a t h or ou gh u n d er st a n d in g of, a n d com m it m en t t o, a q u a lit y p h ilosop h y a s a m ea n s of sch ool im p r ovem en t , a n d exp er t ise in q u a lit y m a n a gem en t p r ocesses a n d t ech n iq u es for t h e est a blish m en t of or ga n iza -t ion a l q u a li-t y sy s-t em s.

T h is is a d ifficu lt u n d er t a k in g in or ga n iza t ion s lik e sch ools w h er e cu lt u r a l, or ga n iza t ion a l a n d p olit ica l fa ct or s in fl u en ce d ecision -m a k in g p r ocesses, a n d r en d er p la n n in g a n d m a n a gem en t p r ocesses p r oblem a t ic. Re ga r d -less of t h e exist en ce of t h eor et ica l m od els a n d t h e em er gin g p osit ive r esea r ch r ela t in g t o q u a lit y m a n a gem en t in sch ools, cu lt u r a l ch a n ge is a ch a llen ge for lea d er sh ip,

esp ecia lly in sch ools w h er e st r on g cu lt u r a l t r a d it ion s m ay h ave b een d evelop ed over t im e. T h e cu lt u r a l ch a n ge p r ocess m ay n eed t o b e gin w it h in t h e exist in g cu lt u r a l p la t for m of t h e sch ool. T h er e m ay w ell b e cu lt u r a l, p sych ologica l or a t t it u d in a l b a r r ier s t o t h e in t en d ed ch a n ge p r ocess, a s w ell a s t h e m or e p r a ct ica l con cer n s of sch ool ch a n ge, r eq u ir -in g st r on g a n d su st a -in ed lea d er sh ip if q u a lit y m a n a gem en t is t o p er m ea t e t h e sch ool cu l-t u r e.

As a lon g-t er m p r ocess of cu lt u r a l ch a n ge, h ow ever, TQM seem s va lu a ble a s a w h ole sch ool a p p r oa ch for con t in u ou s im p r ovem en t in t h a t it p r ov id es lea d er s w it h a p a r a d igm fr om w h ich t h ey ca n d evelop a q u a lit y p h ilosop h y con d u cive t o t h e n eed s of t h eir or ga n iza -t ion .

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