Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue1.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 1 [1998] 5 –1 3 MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Whither market forces in education?

Stephen Gorard

Sc ho o l o f Educ atio n, Unive rs ity o f Wale s , Cardiff, UK

Provides an overview of some of the fi ndings of a recently completed study of school choice in 33 local schools which may be indicative of the effect of an increase in the marketisation of schools. Since it is unlikely that debate over parental choice can be settled by theoretical argument alone and it may also be too early to under-stand the full implications of the relevant recent govern-ment reforms in the UK, results from research in other sectors of education can be used in the interim. Presents research which is partly based on a limited market model of cheap fee-paying schools. This market has been established for a long time, and so some of the benefi ts or damage caused by markets in education may already be observable in operation.

Introduction

Sever a l t h eor ist s a n d w r it er s h ave su gges t ed t h a t a n in cr ea se in t h e r igh t s of p a r en t s t o ch oos e s ch ools for t h eir ch ild r en wou ld b e b en efi cia l s ocia lly a n d ed u ca t ion a lly, w h ile, on t h e ot h er h a n d , p er h a p s a m a jor it y of ed u ca t ion a l r esea r ch er s s ee t h is p olicy a s p ot en t ia lly d a m a gin g a n d d iv isive. Som e of t h eir a r gu m en t s a r e ou t lin ed b elow, bu t p ol-icy ch a n ges su ch a s t h os e t h a t t ook p la ce in t h e UK in t h e 1980s n eed a con sid er a ble t im e b efor e lon g-t er m t r en d s a r e clea r ly v is ible (M cP h er s on a n d Willm s, 1987). Sin ce 1988 t h er e h ave b een s ever a l em p ir ica l s t u d ies in ves t iga t in g h ow t h e “m a r k et ” in sch ools op er a t es a n d w h ich give som e in d ica t ion of t h es e lon ger -t er m t r en d s. H ow ever s om e of t h e b es t wor k h a s b een eit h er ver y ea r ly, m a k -in g u se of h ist or ica l d a t a (Ad ler et a l., 1989), or ver y s p ecifi c in it s con cer n s (Ba gley, 1995). T h er e h ave, in a d d it ion , b een a s er ies of st u d -ies cen t r ed on giv in g a dv ice t o p r os p ect ive p a r en t ch ooser s (Cox et a l., 1989). Som e m or e r ecen t wor k s, su ch a s Dav id et a l. (1994) a n d Gew ir t z et a l. (1995), h ave b een b a s ed on ver y sm a lls ca le st u d ies a llow in g lit t le gen er a lisa -t ion w h ile u sin g, in on e ca s e a -t lea s-t , q u es-t ion a ble m ees-t h od s of a n a ly sis (Gor a r d , 1997). Als o, d es p it e t h e r h et or ica l lin k b et w een ch oice a n d d iver s it y, few s t u d ies con s id er t h e m a r k et in s ch ools a s a w h ole, w it h t h e focu s t en d in g t o b e on loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it y con t r olled sch ools or gr a n t -m a in t a in ed sch ools or a s m a ll p r op or t ion of t h e p r iva t e sect or. It is in t h is clim a t e t h a t a st u dy of a gen u in e a n d lon g-es t a blis h ed m a r k et in sch ools a lon gs id e t h e m or e r ecen t m a r k et of p u blicly -fu n d ed sch ools ca n b e of a s s ist a n ce. T h is p a p er is in t wo m a in sect ion s. T h e fi r st con t a in s a b r ief d iscu ss ion of som e of t h e id ea s t h a t ca n b e a dva n ced b ot h for a n d a ga in st t h e r ecen t in cr ea sed p a r en t a l ch oice of s ch ools in E n gla n d a n d Wa les. It illu st r a t es som e of t h e d ifficu lt ies in t r y in g t o p r ed ict t h e ou t com e of p olicy ch a n ges, a n d p r ov id es a ser ies of q u est ion s t o b e a d d r es s ed by

r esea r ch in t h is a r ea . T h e secon d sect ion in clu d es a n ou t lin e m et h od ology a n d a su m -m a r y of p er t in en t r es u lt s fr o-m a r ecen t ly com p let ed s t u dy of s ch ool ch oice. In t h is w ay,

t h e secon d sect ion h igh ligh t s a n d t en t a t ively a n sw er s som e of t h e q u es t ion s in t h e fi r st .

Market forces in education

T h er e h a s n ever b een a n y p r et en ce t h a t com -p r eh en sive sch ools in t h e UK b efor e 1988 w er e a ll of eq u a l q u a lit y, w h et h er t h a t q u a lit y w a s m ea su r ed in fu n d in g, a ca d em ic ou t com es or p a r en t a l sa t isfa ct ion . T h e p r oblem for t h ose con cer n ed w a s t o t r y a n d a ssess t h a t “q u a l-it y ” – a n ecessa r y p r ecu r s or t o a n y a t t em p t t o eq u a lise p r ov ision . T h e in t r od u ct ion of gr ea t er m a r k et for ces h a s b een seen by som e, su ch a s Keit h J ose p h , a s a solu t ion t o b ot h p r oblem s (E dw a r d s et a l., 1992). T h eir a r gu -m en t is a si-m p le on e. P a r en t s a s t h e u ser s of a sch ool ca n r ecogn ise it s “q u a lit y ” a n d t h ey w a n t w h a t is b est for t h eir ow n ch ild (e.g. Lev in , 1992). Giv in g t h em t h e ch oice of a n ew sch ool r evea ls t h e r ela t ive q u a lit y of sch ools in t er m s of t h eir p op u la r it y a n d gives ever y -on e eq u a lit y of a ccess t o t h e “b et t er ” -on es (Cook son , 1994; Tooley, 1994).

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Ste phe n Go rard Whithe r marke t fo rc e s in e duc atio n?

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 1 [1 9 9 8 ] 5 –1 3

s t r a t ifi ca t ion t h a t r ou t in ely t a k es p la ce in s ch ools u s in g a ca t ch m en t s y s t em .

In t h is m od el, on e of t h e p r er eq u is it es n ec-essa r y for com p et it ion t o lea d t o a n y im p r ove-m en t in ed u ca t ion a l ou t coove-m es is t h e cor r ect m ixt u r e of “a ler t ” a n d “in er t ” clien t s (H ir s ch m a n , 1970). T h ose p a r en t s w h o a r e m or e a ler t t o ed u ca t ion a l r igh t s, p r oblem s, a n d op p or t u n it ies p r ov id e t h e s t im u lu s for ch a n ge eit h er by exer cis in g t h eir “voice” t o t h e gover n or s of t h e sch ool, or by sign a llin g t h eir d is sa t is fa ct ion t h r ou gh exit . Un for t u -n a t ely it is lik ely t o b e t h e p a r e-n t s m ost lik ely t o b r in g a b ou t ch a n ge w h o a r e a lso t h ose m os t lik ely t o leave (Willm s a n d E ch ols, 1992), a n d t h e effect of t h is h a s b een sh ow n in t h e r a p id d eclin e of som e u r b a n s ch ools in t h e USA w h en r eject ed by t h e m id d le cla s s es (Wit t e, 1990b ). It t h er efor e fa lls t o t h e m or e in er t p a r en t s, t h ose p er h a p s less a t t u n ed t o t h e s it u a t ion , t o p r ov id e t h e b a sis of loya l clien t s, w h o give t h e s ch ool t im e, a n d a “d ol-la r cu s h ion ”, for a n y im p r ovem en t s t o t a k e effect . Bot h a r e n eces sa r y. If m os t p a r en t s a r e “in er t ”, ch oice d oes n ot st im u la t e com p et it ion . If m os it a r e “a ler it ”, iit m ay ca u s e p r ob -lem s for s ch ools t r y in g t o exp a n d , a n d so s u ffer in g in t h e sh or t t er m , lea d in g t o a n ot h er exod u s, a n d n ot en ou gh s t a b ilit y for a n y s u b s t a n t ive m ea su r es t o b e seen t o t a k e effect . In t h eor y t h e m er e t h r ea t of exit m ay b e s u fficien t t o m a k e s u p p lier s a n xiou s t o r es p on d t o t h eir cu st om er s ’ n eed s, bu t , in p r a ct ice, im p r ovem en t s in s ch ools ca n t a k e yea r s t o b ecom e obv iou s in t h e for m of q u a n -t ifi a ble ou -t com es, w h ich w ill b e -t oo lon g -t o w a it for a s elfi sh a gen t w it h on ly on e s h ot a t ed u ca t ion . It is m u ch ea s ier t o leave t h a n t o a r t icu la t e t h e p r oblem w it h t h e cu r r en t ser -v ice (e.g. Cook s on , 1994).

E v id en ce on t h e exis t en ce a n d p r op or t ion of t h es e t wo t y p es of clien t s in societ y is con fl ict in g. On t h e on e h a n d , t h e Ca r n e gie Fou n -d a t ion r e p or t est im a t es t h a t in US s t a t es w h er e s ch ool ch oice h a s b een a d op t ed , less t h a n 2 p er cen t of p a r en t s p a r t icip a t e in t h e p r ogr a m m e (Cook s on , 1994). T h er e is, h ow -ever, a n in d ica t ion t h a t t h e n u m b er of p a r en t s p r e p a r ed t o b ecom e in volved in ch oice is gr ow in g in b ot h t h e USA a n d UK (E ch ols et

a l., 1990), a n d t h a t t h e p oor er fa m ilies a r e

b ecom in g ju s t a s in volved a s a n y ot h er s ec-t ion of s ocieec-t y (Ba u ch , 1989). Iec-t m ay b e ec-t h a ec-t s om e fa m ilies a r e n a t u r a l con s u m er s, u sed t o m a k in g ch oices, a n d t h es e a r e t h e m in or it y, or p er h a p s t h e élit e, r e p or t ed in ea r ly r es u lt s, bu t t h a t ot h er s a r e n ot n ecess a r ily “in er t ”. Som e fa m ilies m ay s im p ly b e s low er t h a n ot h er s in b ecom in g aw a r e of t h eir r igh t s t o ch oos e a n d a p p ea l, in w h ich ca s e t h e p r op or -t ion of “a ler -t ” clien -t s wou ld b e exp ec-t ed -t o gr ow con t in u ou sly, a n d t h er e is a lr ea dy

ev id en ce t h a t t h is is h a p p en in g in t h e UK. In t h e st u dy p r esen t ed in t h is p a p er, ever y sin gle p a r en t r efu sed a p la ce in som e of t h e m ost p op u la r LE A sch ools in Sou t h Wa les in 1995 w en t t o a p p ea l a n d t h e h ea r in gs w er e h eld en

m a sse.

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ot h er s ch ools in t er m s of r aw in d ica t or s. T h u s a m a r k et ca n lea d t o com p la cen cy a n d d em ot iva t ion for s u cces s fu l sch ools, em u la -t ion of -t h eir con ser va -t is m by -t h os e less su c-ces sfu l, a n d so t o d is -im p r ovem en t over a ll. A p olicy of “im p r ovem en t ” t h r ou gh select ion of in t a k e m ay m a k e sen se for a s ch ool in t h e m a r k et , bu t it is on ly cosm et ic, n ot m a k in g a n y s ch ool m or e effect ive. It m u st a ls o b e r efl ect ed in a d eclin e in r es u lt s elsew h er e. In r ea lit y t h e sch ools wou ld b e m a k in g t h e ch oice, a n d n ot t h e p a r en t s. A p olicy of s elec-t ion by s ch ools ca n elec-t h er efor e a lso lea d elec-t o se gr e ga t ion by fi r s t la n gu a ge, gen d er or socia l cla s s, a s sch ools u se p r ofi les of a n “aver a ge” su cces sfu l ca n d id a t e in or d er t o p r ed ict fu t u r e s u ccess. T h e r ecen t r is e in exclu s ion s, a n d a s socia t ed a p p ea ls, s u gges t s t h a t sch ools a r e t r y in g t o scr een ou t w h a t t h ey s ee a s p r oblem p u p ils (Ba ll, 1994).T h er e is a lr ea dy som e ev id en ce t h a t sch ool r esp on s es t o m a r k et d em a n d s a r e d iscr im i-n a t ii-n g a ga ii-n st bla ck fa m ilies a i-n d gr ou p s, a i-n d a cou r t in t h e UK h a s r u led t h a t t h e r igh t t o ch oos e over r id es t h e Ra ce Rela t ion s Act (Bla ir, 1994). T h e p a r a d ox of ch oice

p r ogr a m m es is t h a t , a lt h ou gh t h ey a r e p op u -la r w it h p oor er u r b a n fa m ilies, r ecen t im m i-gr a n t s, n on -w h it es, a n d less p r es t igiou s socio-econ om ic cla s s es, t h ese m ay b e t h e ver y t y p es of fa m ilies w h o m ay b e lea s t lik ely t o u se t h eir ch oice (Lee et a l.,1994).

Sever a l p oin t s ca n b e m a d e a ga in st t h ese ob ject ion s, in a d d it ion t o t h e ev id en ce t h a t t h e p r op or t ion of a ler t clien t s is gr ow in g, es p ecia lly a m on g t h e p oor er a n d m in or it y fa m ilies. Sin ce in com e a n d w ea lt h a r e u n eq u a lly d is t r ibu t ed in s ociet y t h is w ill in ev it a bly lea d t o u n eq u a l a ccess t o ed u ca t ion in a fr ee m a r k et . P oor er fa m ilies w ill h ave few er fu n d s for t r avel, a n d a d d it ion a l con t r i-bu t ion s t o s ch ools, a n d less op p or t u n it y t o m ove (in t r od u ct ion in Ma n ley -Ca s im ir, 1982). H ow ever, t h is h a s a lw ay s b een t r u e, even u n d er a ca t ch m en t s y s t em , a n d ca n b e s een a s a n a r gu m en t for gr ea t er eq u a lit y in societ y, a n d n ot on e a ga in st p a r en t a l ch oice p er se. If in eq u a lit y is s een a s u n d es ir a ble in it s ow n r igh t , it s exist en ce s h ou ld n ot t h er efor e b e a cce p t ed a s a “given ”, a n d t h en u sed t o a r gu e a ga in s t ch oice. E d u ca t ion , by it self, ca n n ot b e exp ect ed t o solve m a jor societ a l in ju s t ices. T h e ev id en ce t h a t sch ools s een a s su cces sfu l w ill b e over loa d ed w it h a p p lica t ion s s u gges t s t h a t t h er e a r e m a n y p a r en t s n ot h a p py w it h t h eir cu r r en t n eigh b ou r h ood s ch ools. T h is is, in it s elf, ev id en ce of t h e n eed for ch a n ge in sch ools, a n d of t h e en t h u s ia sm of p a r en t s for t h eir in cr ea sed ch oice. It is n ot a t a ll clea r t h a t a p olicy of n ot a llow in g t h e p a r en t s in t h e les s d es ir a ble sch ools t o exp r es s t h eir d iss a t -is fa ct ion -is p r efer a ble in a n y w ay. T h e b a s ic

p r oblem a t p r esen t lies in t h e a b ilit y of UK s ch ools t o t u r n p u p ils aw ay on ce t h eir st a n -d a r -d n u m b er, a com p let ely a r b it r a r y fi gu r e, is r ea ch ed . It is t h is w h ich m ay lea d t o select ion , a n d cou ld b e p r even select ed by su p p lem en -t a r y le gisla -t ion , a llow in g su cces sfu l sch ools t o exp a n d . It m ay b e t h a t a s sch ools gr ow a n d b e gin t o op er a t e on s p lit sit es, in “p or t a -k a b in s” a n d em p loy t ea ch er s fr om sch ools w it h d eclin in g r olls, t h eir a t t r a ct iven ess m ay d eclin e, a n d a n eq u ilib r iu m b e r ea ch ed w it h -ou t a sin gle p u p il h av in g t o b e t u r n ed aw ay.

On e p r oblem for t h e m od el of con su m er ch oice in ed u ca t ion is t h a t it op er a t es m a xi-m a lly in u r b a n or su bu r b a n en v ir on xi-m en t s. Low p op u la t ion d en sit y a n d t r avel r est r ic-t ion s m ea n ic-t h a ic-t m a n y fa m ilies in r u r a l a r ea s effect ively h ave n o ch oice a t a ll. E a r ly r e p or t s su ggest t h a t a ct ive ch oice, or d eselect ion of t h e loca l sch ool, is con seq u en t ly m u ch h igh er in u r b a n a r ea s t h a n r u r a l (Ad ler et a l., 1989), a n d in a r ea s wh er e t h er e a r e m or e sch ools (E ch ols et a l., 1990). Som e r u r a l a r ea s a r e in fa ct st ill r u n n in g a p u r e ca t ch m en t a r ea sy s-t em , a lloca s-t in g p la ces by p r oxim is-t y wh er e a sch ool is over -su b scr ib ed (Ha m m on d a n d Den n ison , 1995). Men t er et a l. (1995) fi n d lit t le ev id en ce t h a t p a t t er n s of en r olm en t in p r im a r y sch ools h ave b een a ffect ed by t h e im a r -k et sin ce 1988. Th is is fu r t h er com p lica t ed by a d m in ist r a t ive r u les r ela t in g t o fr ee sch ool t r a n sp or t . Som e p a r en t s a r e of cou r se st ill p r e p a r ed t o p ay for t r a n sp or t , or t o d r ive t h em selves, bu t su ch a st r a t e gy is lik ely t o h ave socia l cla ss im p lica t ion s. It is clea r t h a t for ch oice t o wor k , t r avel cost s m u st b e t a k en in t o con sid er a t ion in a n y p la n s t o r et a in eq u it y of p r ov ision . However, it is n ot clea r wh et h er t h e op p osit ion t o ch oice b a sed on t h e u n even d ist r ibu t ion of sch ools a n d p op u la t ion d en sit y a ssu m es t h a t sch ool ch oice is a “good t h in g” of wh ich som e a r e b ein g d ep r ived , or wh et h er it is a “b a d t h in g” in wh ich ca se t h ose in r u r a l a r ea s, wh er e it is im p ossible t o im p lem en t , a r e b et t er off, a n d ca n h a r d ly b e u sed a s t h e b a sis for a n ob ject ion .

Ch oice s ch ools a r e n ow en ga ged in r iva lr y for exp a n sion a n d su r v iva l, w h ich m ay b e lea d in g t o a “d u ll u n ifor m it y ” of p r ov ision in t h e UK (Tom lin son , 1994). All sch ools a r e a im in g t o follow m a jor it y t r en d s, a n d n on e is r esp on d in g t o t h e d iver s it y a m on g p a r en t s by p r ov id in g a d is t in ct ive k in d of sch ool, a n d t h en t a r get in g t h eir p ot en t ia l con su m er s (Wood s, 1992). P er h a p s t h e r ea son t h a t sch ools a r e b ein g so u n a dven t u r ou s a n d u n r e-sp on sive is t h a t t h ey d o n ot h ave good

p r ocesses for lea r n in g or r esp on d in g t o ch a n ges fr om ou t sid e (Lev in a n d Riffel, 1997). T h is is n ot d u e t o ill-w ill or in com p et en ce bu t “lon g-in gr a in ed p a t t er n s of t h ou gh t a n d b eh av iou r ” (Lev in a n d Riffel, 1995, p. 1), The re is alre ady s o me

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w h ich is w h y it m igh t b e t h a t t h e a dven t of ch oice w ill b e b ot h less b en efi cia l t h a n a dvo-ca t es su ggest , a n d less h a r m fu l t h a n cr it ics fea r. Wh a t ever t h e lon g-t er m con seq u en ces, for good or ill, of t h e r ecen t ch a n ges in t h e UK, som e ch ild r en w ill fi n d t h em s elves s t r a n d ed in d eclin in g sch ools. Alt h ou gh s u ch s ch ools m ay even t u a lly clos e, a n y im p r ove-m en t s t h r ou gh ove-m a r k et -d r iven evolu t ion w ill r eq u ir e “ca su a lt ies”. It is t h er efor e p os sible t o a r gu e t h a t t h e ch ild r en in t h ese s ch ools a r e t h e for got t en v ict im s of t h e ch oice p r ocess, a lt h ou gh it is a ls o p os s ible t o cla im t h a t t h e s ch ools t h ey a t t en d w er e “fa ilin g” a n y w ay, a s ev id en ced by t h eir d eclin e in r oll s in ce t h e a dven t of ch oice, a n d s o, a lt h ou gh t h er e h a s b een n o im p a ct for t h e r u m p, ch oice h a s a ct u -a lly r ed u ced t h e n u m b er of c-a s u -a lt ies.

At t h e cor e of a p r ogr a m m e of s ch ool im p r ovem en t t h r ou gh m a r k et com p et it ion lies t h e n ot ion of p a r en t a l ch oice. If p a r en t s m a k e good ch oices, t h e m od el wor k s w ell, a t lea st in t h eor y, a n d if t h ey d o n ot , t h e m a r k et fa ils t o d eliver. P eop le d o n ot gen er a lly m a k e r a t ion a l ch oices, p a r t ly t h r ou gh in a b ilit y t o cop e w it h u n cer t a in t ies, p r ob a b ilit ies, a n d t h e “law of sm a ll n u m b er s”. P eop le u s u a lly “lim it t h em selves t o on e sa lien t d im en sion w h ile scr een in g ou t d im en s ion s t h a t su gges t a d iffer en t s olu t ion ” (E is er a n d va n d er P ligh t , 1988, p. 99). T h e d ifficu lt ies in a ct in g ou t t h e r ole of con su m er of ed u ca t ion a r e im m en s e. In or d er t o b e a ble t o ch oose effec-t ively, p a r en effec-t s n eed a cces s effec-t o effec-t h e op effec-t ion s ava ila ble, con ven ien t geogr a p h ica l a ccess t o m or e t h a n on e sch ool, va lid in for m a t ion a b ou t t h e a lt er n a t ives, h elp t o a r t icu la t e t h eir n eed s, fa m ilia r it y w it h p r es en t ed u ca t ion a l p r ogr a m m es, t h e ca p a cit y t o u n d er s t a n d t h e in for m a t ion , a n d t h e t im e t o con s id er a n d r ev iew it (Raven , 1989). In p r a ct ice, t o m a k e a ch oice b a sed on t h e effect iven es s of a sch ool, on e n eed s t o b e clea r w h a t t h e ob ject ive of ed u ca t ion is, bu t t h is is s om et h in g t h a t even p r ofes s ion a l t ea ch er s a n d r es ea r ch a ca d e-m ics ca n n ot a gr ee on . P a r en t s ca n n ot b e exp ect ed t o m a k e s u ch ch oices a ccor d in g t o T h iess en (1982). Som e p a r en t s a r e u sin g t h e r aw exa m in a t ion p er for m a n ce in d ica t or s (Willm s a n d E ch ols, 1992), a n d s o a r e ch oos-in g t h e p a st p u p ils of a sch ool, a n d n ot t h e s ch ool it s elf. T h er e m ay b e a n elem en t of s u p er s t it ion in volved in s en d in g a ch ild of w h a t ever a b ilit y t o a s ch ool in w h ich ot h er ch ild r en of u n k n ow n a b ilit y h ave p r ev iou s ly d on e w ell in exa m in a t ion s.

The fee-paying model

T h e p r ev iou s sect ion exa m in ed s om e of t h e p oin t s m a d e in t h e d eb a t e over t h e u s e of

m a r k et for ces in ed u ca t ion , a n d sh ow ed h ow d ifficu lt it is t o d ecid e on t h e lik ely ou t com es, esp ecia lly a s t h e UK le gisla t ion a p p ea r s t o con t a in con t r a d ict or y elem en t s. Sin ce t h e r esu lt s of p olicy ch a n ges ca n t a k e a lon g t im e t o b ecom e clea r, it m a k es sen se t o u se t h e lon g-est a blish ed m a r k et of fee-p ay in g sch ools a s p a r t of a s t u dy in or d er t o t r y a n d p r ed ict w h a t t h e effect s of m a r k et is a t ion m ay b e in t h e st a t e s ect or. For in st a n ce, wou ld a m ove t ow a r d s a m or e or t h od ox m a r k et by a llow in g sch ools t o op er a t e for p r ofi t lea d t o t h e a dva n ces p r ed ict ed by som e (Colem a n a n d H offer, 1987; Tooley, 1995)? Also, given t h a t ch oice is s een by s om e a s a n a n t id ot e t o st r a t i-fi ca t ion a n d s ocia l r e p r od u ct ion in ed u ca t ion , a n d by ot h er s a s a m a jor ca u se of it , it w ill b e in t er est in g t o see t o w h a t ext en t fee-p ay in g sch ools a r e élit ist , a n d t o w h a t ext en t t h ey a r e com p en sa t or y. F in a lly, a s it is n ot clea r w h et h er p a r en t s a r e ca p a ble of m a k in g r a t io-n a l ch oices a b ou t sch ools, eveio-n w h eio-n t h ey b eh ave a s “selfin t er est m a xim isin g” in d iv id -u a ls, d o-u b t m -u st b e ca st on t h e p os sib ilit y of u sin g in cr ea s ed ch oice a s a n en gin e for im p r ov in g s ch ools. Aga in , t h e fee-p ay in g sect or ca n sh ed som e ligh t on t h is, t h e k in d s of ch oices m a d e by fa m ilies, t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e sch ools a r e d r iven by t h eir “con -su m er s’” p r efer en ces, a n d u lt im a t ely t h e com p a r a t ive q u a lit y of t h e sch ools.

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Sin ce t h es e s ch ools w er e a ls o gen er a lly u n d er -su b s cr ib ed , a n d d eclin in g in size, w h ile b ecom in g in cr ea sin gly n on -select ive of p u p ils on a n y gr ou n d s, in clu d in g gen d er, a b ilit y, a n d r eligion , t h e m a r k et in w h ich t h ey op er a t e is p er h a p s a s fr ee a s is p os s ible a t p r es en t . T h e fi n d in gs fr om t h is s t u dy ca n t h er efor e b e u s ed t o t h r ow ligh t on s om e lik ely ou t com es of t h e ob s er ved in cr ea sed m a r k et is a t ion in t h e s t a t e-fu n d ed sch ools a lso t a k in g p a r t in t h e st u dy.

T h e fi n d in gs a r e b a sed on a st u dy of s ec-on d a r y s ch ool ch oice in Sou t h Wa les, u sin g a n ew m et h od ology for collect in g a n d

a n a ly sin g d a t a on s ch ool ch oice a s a dvoca t ed in Gor a r d (1997). In su m m a r y, a s u r vey w a s ca r r ied ou t of 1,267 in d iv id u a ls w it h a n 80 p er cen t r esp on se r a t e, u sin g b ot h p a r en t s a n d ch ild r en , in b ot h u r b a n a n d r u r a l set t in gs, b efor e a n d a ft er m a k in g t h e ch oice of a n ew sch ool. T h e 33 s ch ools in t h e s t u dy w er e select ed a s a s y s t em a t ica lly s elect ed st r a t ifi ed sa m p le of t h e fu ll r a n ge of t y p es of s ch ool fou n d t o b e p r esen t in on e loca lis ed m a r k et . T h e im p or t a n ce of s t u dy in g a sp ecifi c m a r k et a t on e p la ce a n d t im e ca n n ot b e over s t r es s ed (e.g. Lover in g, 1990), sin ce t h e effect s of im p le-m en t in g a n a t ion a l ed u ca t ion a l p olicy a r e r a r ely u n ifor m (Rees et a l., 1997), a n d it is on ly by m a k in g t h e m er ely loca l fa ct or s exp licit (a s w a s d on e h er e) t h a t t h ey ca n b e is ola t ed so t h a t t h e r es u lt s ca n b e s een a s r eleva n t t o ot h er a r ea s (Gor a r d et a l., 1997). T h e in s t r u m en t u sed in t h e su r vey con t a in ed 95 q u es t ion s, in clu d in g a t lea st on e b a sed on ea ch r ea son for ch oosin g a s ch ool t h a t h a d b een en cou n t er ed in p r ev iou s r es ea r ch . P r in -cip a l com p on en t s a n a ly sis w a s u sed t o r ed u ce t h e m a jor it y of t h es e va r ia bles t o s even fa c-t or s u n d er ly in g c-t h e r e p or c-t ed r ea son s for ch oice, w h ile clu st er a n a ly sis w a s u sed t o r ed u ce t h e 33 s ch ools in volved in t o s even d iffer en t t y p es (Gor a r d , 1996c). T h e r es u lt s w er e “t r ia n gu la t ed ” w it h t h os e fr om in t er -v iew s w it h s elect ed fa m ilies, in t er -v iew s w it h p r in cip a l a ct or s in t h e s ch ools, a n d ob s er va -t ion of -t h e ch a r a c-t er is-t ics of -t h e ch osen sch ools. T h is com b in a t ion , a lon g w it h t h e u se of loglin ea r m od els t o p r ed ict t h e ch oice of sch ool, h a s p r ob a bly n ot b een a t t em p t ed b efor e.

Findings from the fee-paying model P a r en t s u s in g fee-p ay in g sch ools, in gen er a l, h ave n o b a ck gr ou n d in p r iva t e ed u ca t ion , a n d m os t h ave u s ed st a t e-fu n d ed sch ools for t h e ch ild in q u est ion or it s s iblin gs. Ar ou n d a q u a r t er r eceive h elp fr om t h e sch ools or gov -er n m en t in t h e for m of fees con ces sion s, a n d p r ob a bly m a n y m or e a r e h elp ed by r ela t ives, es p ecia lly t h e gr a n d p a r en t s. T h er e is n o clea r t h r esh old of a ffor d a b ilit y, a n d , t o som e

fa m ilies, p ay in g for ed u ca t ion r a t h er t h a n a h olid ay, for exa m p le, is ju st a m a t t er of p r ior i-t ies. T h e level of fees r a r ely d ici-t a i-t es ch oice of sch ool w it h in t h e sect or. T h e p a r en t s con -cer n ed a r e oft en u pw a r d ly m ob ile r a t h er t h a n t r a d it ion a lly m id d le cla ss, w it h a h igh p r o-p or t ion fr om r eligiou s m in or it y b a ck gr ou n d s, a n d r ecen t in -m igr a n t s t o Sou t h Wa les. T h er efor e, if fee-p ay in g sch ools a r e p lay in g a p a r t in socia l or cu lt u r a l r e p r od u ct ion (cf. Ma xw ell a n d M a xw ell, 1995), it is n ot a d ir ect in -fa m ily k in d of r e p r od u ct ion . It m ay a lso b e seen by p a r en t s, a n d esp ecia lly ch ild r en , a s a n op en in g in t o socia l n et wor k s of p r iv ile ge a n d in fl u en ce. Wh et h er it is a ct u a lly so in m ost of t h e focu s p r iva t e sch ools is a d eb a t -a ble p oin t .

T h e sch ools t h ey a r e u sin g a r e, in t h e m a in , sm a ll co-ed u ca t ion a l n on -select ive d ay sch ools, w it h lim it ed fa cilit ies a n d ver y lim it ed sp a ce a n d t h is m ay exp la in t h e d iffer -en ces b et w e-en t h eir u s er s a n d t h ose of t h e élit e sch ools of p r ev iou s r esea r ch . T h e n u m -b er of sch ools con s id er ed -by ea ch fa m ily is sligh t ly la r ger for fee-p ayer s, p er h a p s

b eca u se t h ey h ave a w id er ch oice. T h e sch ools a r e ch osen n ot for con ven ien ce, or t h eir fa cili-t ies, bu cili-t b eca u s e cili-t h ey a r e sm a ll, n oscili-t a lgic, a n d ob t a in r ea son a ble ou t com es. Select ion by gen d er a n d a b ilit y is n ot a b ig issu e in t h e sect or. M a n y of t h e p a r en t s w it h u n for t u n a t e exp er ien ces of t h e st a t e sect or a r e m a k in g a n e ga t ive ch oice – ch oice aw ay fr om a t y p e of sch ool – a n d t h er e is som e ev id en ce t h a t t h is is p a r t ly m ot iva t ed by d islik e of t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m . T h er e is lit t le d iver sit y a m on g Welsh st a t e-fu n d ed sch ools, a n d b eca u se of t h e r ela t ively low p op u la t ion d en sit y of p a r t s of Sou t h Wa les, a n d t h e cover t ca t ch m en t a r ea s op er a t ed by t h e LE As, t h er e is a lso lit t le ch oice for m os t fa m ilies. In t h e fee-p ay in g sect or, t h e sit u a t ion is sligh t ly d iffer en t . T h e fee-p ay in g sect or is s m a ll a n d d im in ish in g, a n d m ost of t h e sch ools in it a r e ver y sm a ll a n d s en s it ive t o t in y va r ia t ion s in loca l su p -p ly. For exa m -p le, in 1994-95, over on e-q u a r t er of t h e sch ools in Sou t h Wa les closed , op en ed , or m er ged . In m os t ca s es, t h e “con su m er ” a ble t o cr oss t h e “t h r esh old of a ffor d a b ilit y ” h a s a gen u in e ch oice, in t h a t t h e s ch ool select ed is u su a lly ver y h a p py t o a cce p t a ll com er s. On t h e ot h er h a n d , w h ile t h er e a r e or ga n isa t ion a l d iffer en ces b et w een t h e sch ools, t h ese econ om ic t h r ea t s a r e m a k in g t h em m or e sim ila r over t im e, b ot h in r ea lit y a n d in t h eir p r esen t a t ion . All of t h e ch a n ges t a k in g p la ce a r e m ov in g sch ools t ow a r d s t h eir m ost m a r k et a ble for m , w h ich is t h a t of t h e m a jor it y of sch ools – a ll-a ge

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In a m a r k et sy s t em of s ch oolin g, a n y b en efi -cia l effect on ed u ca t ion a s a w h ole r elies on p a r en t s m a k in g “good ” ch oices. In s om e for -m u la t ion s of ch oice t h eor y t h is -m igh t b e t a u t ologou s, in t h a t p op u la r ch oices a r e by d efi n it ion good , a n d u n p op u la r s ch ools a r e b a d . H ow ever a t h eor y ca n n ot su r v ive a s a t a u t ology, a n d s o it m u s t b e p os sible t o con -s id er t h e q u a lit y of t h e d eci-s ion -s m a d e in t h i-s s t u dy in or d er t o a ssess t h e lik ely ou t com e of t h e exp er im en t . Som e p a r en t s w er e fou n d t o h ave a com p let ely in a ccu r a t e id ea of h ow la r ge t h e cla s ses w er e in t h e sch ools t h ey w er e u s in g, a n d of h ow good t h e exa m in a t ion r esu lt s a r e. Few k n ew w h a t t h e fa cilit ies w er e lik e, a n d t h is ign or a n ce w a s fos t er ed by t h e s ch ools w h ich p r esen t t h em selves a s p r et t ily a s p os s ible. Som e sch ools a r e b ein g d elib er a t ely m is lea d in g in t h e m a r k et in g a n d h a n -d lin g of a p p lica n t s. Of cou r s e, s om e of t h ese p a r en t s m ay b e “b a d ” ju d ges, bu t t o w r it e t h em a ll off a s s u ch wou ld b e t o m is s t h e p oin t . It d oes n ot m a t t er w h et h er it is t h e s ch ools m is lea d in g p a r en t s, or p a r en t s com -p a r in g t h e s ch ools t od ay t o t h os e t h ey a t t en d ed , t h e r eleva n t fi n d in g is t h a t t h e s er -v ice a n d in t er m ed ia t e cla s s fa m ilies t a k in g p a r t in t h is r es ea r ch w er e m a k in g d ecis ion s con cer n in g sch ools b a s ed on in a d eq u a t e in for m a t ion . T h is con clu sion is in gen er a l a gr eem en t w it h t h a t of Wes t et a l. (1995), w h o fou n d t h a t a lt h ou gh fa m ilies t a k e t h e ch oice of a n ew sch ool ser iou sly, t h ey m ay n ot a ct com p et en t ly in som e ca s es. P a r en t s m ay n ot k n ow t h eir r igh t s u n d er t h e law, or m ay n ot u s e t h em t h r ou gh la ck of s k ill, or fea r of t h e con s eq u en ces. Sim ila r ly, M a r t in (1995) fou n d t h a t even p a r en t s w h o w er e a ct ive ch ooser s sou gh t s ch ools t h a t w er e n ot h in g lik e t h e cr it er ia t h a t t h ey s et in it ia lly. T h e a u t h or con clu d ed t h a t “t h e exis t in g lit er a t u r e r ela t ed t o p a r en t a l ch oice in d ica t es t h a t p a r en t s h ave n eit h er t h e sk ills or t h e in for m a -t ion a b ou -t sch ools -t o a c-t in su ch a r a -t ion a l w ay ” (M a r t in , 1995, p. 13). T h e fi n d in gs a ls o sh ow h ow im p or t a n t t h e r ole of t h e ch ild is in select in g t h e s ch ool, oft en in a w ay t h a t m a k es a m ock er y of econ om ic t h eor ies of ch oice.

T h e st u dy h igh ligh t s t wo p h en om en a a ffect -in g t h e ch oice p r ocess, w h ich h ave t u r n ed t h os e s ch ools w h ich a r e r es p on s ive t o t h e d em a n d s of a m a r k et in t o m or e con ser va t ive a n d t r a d it ion a l in s t it u t ion s – t h e r efl ect ion effect , w h ich is t h e t wo-w ay in fl u en ce of t h e sch oolin g of t h e p a r en t s, a n d t h e d om in o effect , w h ich is t h e in fl u en ce of t h e sch oolin g of eld er s iblin gs on s ch ool ch oice. T h is st u dy h a s s h ow n t h e s im ila r it ies of t h es e t wo p r ocess es of “d om in oes” a n d “r efl ect ion ”, w h ich a r e d iscer n ible a cr os s b ot h s ect or s, in lea d in g t o ju d gem en t s b a sed on ou t -of-d a t e

in for m a t ion . T h is fi n d in g d r aw s a s h a r p con t r a st t o t h e su p p osed ou t com es of m a r k et t h eor ies of ch oice, b a s ed on cu r r en t p er for -m a n ce in d ica t or s. On e of t h e ou t co-m es of m a r k et for ces, in t h e p r iva t e sect or a t lea st , is t h a t ch a n ge lea d s t o r est or a t ion of a m or e t r a d it ion a l st y le. P a r en t s a r e a t t r a ct ed t o p r iva t e sch ools b eca u s e t h ey a r e sm a ll a n d t r a d it ion a l, evoca t ive of a p a st a ge (p er h a p s a m od el for t h e gr a n t -m a in t a in ed sch ools d escr ib ed by F it z et a l., 1995), a s w ell a s a p p ea r in g t o offer t h e ch a n ce of b et t er ou t -com es in t er m s of cer t ifi ca t ion . Ch ild r en , a n d t o s om e ext en t t h eir p a r en t s, a r e ch iefl y a t t r a ct ed t o t h e a p p a r en t socia l st a t u s of a t t en d in g a fee-p ay in g sch ool. T h ese a r e t h e ch ief in gr ed ien t s of t h e m ix, a lt h ou gh fr ee-d om fr om t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m , fr eeee-d om fr om SATs a n d t h e d is p u t es over t es t in g – w h a t on e p a r en t d escr ib ed a s “t h e m ess t h e st a t e sy st em is in ” – a n d , in s om e ca ses, r eli-giou s d et er m in a t ion , a ll con t r ibu t e t h eir p a r t . It is clea r t h a t t h e sch ools in q u est ion a r e gen er a lly sm a ll, a n d old -fa sh ion ed . T h ey a r e exem p t fr om t h e p r ov ision s of t h e E d u ca -t ion Refor m Ac-t 1988. Do -t h ey a lso offer -t h e op p or t u n it y of b et t er ou t com es, or is t h eir r e p u t a t ion b a sed on t h e p er for m a n ce of a few fa m ou s sch ools, on t h e p r esen t p olicy of u sin g r aw scor e in d ica t or s, a n d on t h e a t t r ibu t ion of q u a lit y ca u sed by t h e p ay m en t of fees?

An a ly sis of t h e lea gu e t a bles of p er for m a n ce of t h e fee-p ay in g sch ools in Sou t h Wa les gives a m ixed p ict u r e (Wester n M a il, 1995). All su ch sch ools w h ich en t er ca n d id a t es for GCSE h ave a b en ch m a r k fi gu r e con sid er a b ly h igh er t h a n t h e aver a ge for Wa les. H ow ever, n ea r ly 50 p er cen t of t h e s ch ools en t er n o ca n d id a t es, eit h er b eca u se t h ey a r e so sm a ll t h a t t h ey h ave n o ch ild r en in t h a t yea r, or b eca u se t h ey offer t h eir ow n cer t ifi ca t ion . In a d d it ion , t h e r em a in in g sch ools a s a w h ole a r e d oin g lit t le b et t er t h a n aver a ge for Wa les a s a w h ole in t er m s of t h e p r op or t ion of s ch ool leaver s w it h n o q u a lifi ca t ion , or in t er m s of t h e aver a ge n u m b er of A-level p oin t s ga in ed p er ca n d i-d a t e. As a n ext r em e exa m p le, on e of t h e m ost exp en sive sch ools in Wa les en t er ed on ly 33 of it s 43 Alevel st u d en t s for A levels. Wh a t h a p -p en ed t o t h e ot h er t en is u n clea r. E ven so, t h ey a ch ieved over a ll r esu lt s w h ich a r e wor se t h a n t h e n a t ion a l aver a ge, a n d w h ich h ave b een so for t h e p a s t t h r ee yea r s. T h ese fi gu r es m u st b e con sid er ed in t h e ligh t of r eser va -t ion s exp r essed a b ou -t r aw scor e -t a bles, a n d t h e d ifficu lt ies of isola t in g a sch ool effect in ou t com es. H ow ever, even if t h e r es u lt s in t a bles a r e t a k en a t fa ce va lu e, t h ey give ver y m ixed su p p or t t o t h e id ea t h a t p r iva t e sch ools, a s su ch , lea d t o b et t er exa m in a t ion r es u lt s. Som e p r iva t e sch ools in Wa les, a n d som e st a t e sch ools, ga in excellen t r esu lt s. Analys is o f the le ague table s

o f pe rfo rmanc e o f the fe e -paying s c ho o ls in So uth Wale s give s a mixe d pic ture . All s uc h s c ho o ls whic h e nte r c andidate s fo r GCSE have a be nc hmark figure

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Ot h er s d o n ot . In gen er a l, t h e t r a d it ion a l sch ools t en d t o b e m or e s elect ive, if on ly b eca u s e of t h e sch ola r s h ip s a n d a s sis t ed p la ces, w h ile t h ey a r e a lso m or e exp en s ive. It is t h er efor e p os sible t o a r gu e t h a t t h ese sch ools h ave b a r r ier s isola t in g t h em fr om t h e m a r k et , bu t t h a t t h e n ew er s ch ools s h ou ld b e m u ch m or e sen sit ive t o m a r k et for ces. Yet , w it h t h e exce p t ion n ot ed a b ove, t r a d it ion a l sch ools gen er a lly h ave p u p ils w h o ob t a in b et t er q u a lifi ca t ion s a t a ll levels w h ile t h e n ew s ch ools oft en h ave in d ica t or s w h ich a r e wor s e t h a n t h e n a t ion a l aver a ge, a n d t h is sit u a t ion gives n o s u p p or t t o t h e m a r k et t h eo-r ist v iew t h a t p a eo-r en t p ow eeo-r w ill lea d t o a ca d e-m ic ie-m p r ovee-m en t s in ed u ca t ion .

Conclusion

It is t oo ea r ly t o t ell w h a t t h e fu ll effect s of m a r k et s in ed u ca t ion w ill b e, bu t it is b e gin -n i-n g t o look a s t h ou gh t h e r efor m s a r e lik ely t o b e b ot h les s effect ive t h a n or igin a lly s u g-gest ed by som e, a n d less d a m a gin g t h a n fea r ed by ot h er s. Of cou r s e, for s om e it d oes n ot m a t t er w h a t t h e in t en d ed effect s of a ch oice p r ogr a m m e a r e – ch oice is a good t h in g by d efi n it ion , a ccor d in g t o v iew s su ch a s t h e lib er t a r ia n p er sp ect ive of E r ick s on (1989). Sin ce t h e st a t e on ly in t er ven es in t h e h om e life of a ch ild – it s clot h in g, s h elt er, a n d food – in ca s e of n e glect or a bu s e, it s h ou ld b eh ave in t h e sa m e w ay w it h ed u ca t ion . H ow -ever, a s fa r a s it ca n b e d ed u ced fr om t h e for e-goin g, t h e p r ogn os is for t h e effect of m a r k et s on sch ools is n ot good . T h er e a r e in d ica t ion s t h a t t h e p u r p or t ed ly d a m a gin g effect s of t h e m a r k et in s ch ools m ay b e m or e of a p r oblem in t h e s h or t -t er m t r a n sit ion a n d ch a n geover. In t h e US ch oice exp er im en t s it w a s ob s er ved t h a t “p oor p a r en t s t a k e lon ger t o a cq u ir e in for m a t ion ; over t im e t h ey ca t ch u p a n d b ecom e aw a r e a t t h e sa m e level a s n on -p oor p a r en t s” (Ba u ch , 1989, p. 302). A s im ila r t r en d is ob s er v a b le in Br it a in , w it h a r is e of 120 p er cen t in t h e n u m b er of a p p ea ls fr om 1990-94, w it h t h e r a t e of in cr ea se r is in g ever y yea r. H ow ever, in r ea lit y, n ot h in g m u ch h a s a ct u -a lly ch -a n ged . Sch ools s t ill op er -a t e -a s y s t em of ca t ch m en t , or select ion by m or t ga ge, cr ea t in g ed u ca t ion a l gh et t os in s om e a r ea s. P a r en t s ca n s t ill on ly exp r ess a p r efer en ce. Som e of t h e p u r p or t ed ly d a m a gin g effect s of m a r k et isa t ion a r e in fa ct b a sed on t h e la ck of a m a r -k et s t r u ct u r e in st a t e s ch ools. T h e r ise in a p p ea ls p u t s p r ess u r e on t h e p op u la r s ch ools t o exp a n d , w h ich t h ey a r e u n a ble t o d o, exce p t in a ver y few ca s es, s u ch a s t h os e h op -in g t o b en efi t fr om t h e “P op u la r s ch ools -in i-t ia i-t ive” in Wa les i-t o give a n exi-t r a £23 m illion t o 12 sch ools (P y k e, 1995).

Sin ce t h e fee-p ay in g sect or h a s b een in exist en ce a s a m a r k et for so m u ch lon ger, it is p ossible t o d r aw som e con clu sion s on t h e cost s a n d b en efi t s of “con su m er ch oice”. On t h e p osit ive sid e, a p p lica n t s t o p r iva t e sch ools a r e n ot gen er a lly t u r n ed aw ay, a n d so d esp it e t h e ver y sm a ll n u m b er of fee-p ay in g sch ools in Wa les, sever a l p a r en t s sp ok e of t h e en or m it y of t h e ch oice, esp ecia lly, bu t n ot exclu -sively, in u r b a n a r ea s. Given t h e r ela t ively la r ge n u m b er of st a t e sch ools in t h e r e gion , it ca n b e im a gin ed w h a t t h e im p a ct of a gen u in e m a r k et in cor p or a t in g fr ee ch oice wou ld b e. Beca u se t h er e a r e n o “st a n d a r d n u m b er s” in m ost p r iva t e sch ools, a p p lica n t s d o n ot gen er -a lly h -ave t o r esor t t o t h e d eceit s -a n d

su b t er fu ges a p p a r en t in t h e s t a t e sect or. Beca u se p r iva t e sch ool u ser s a r e ch a r ged for exa m in a t ion en t r y, t h eir p u blic exa m in a t ion en t r y p olicy is on e of t h e a r ea s w h er e p a r en t s ca n m a k e a d iffer en ce. P r iva t e sch ools a r e t h er efor e gen er a lly m or e a dven t u r ou s in m a k in g en t r ies, esp ecia lly in d ou ble en t er in g, a n d select in g a m b it iou s t ier s a n d m od es for m a r gin a l ca n d id a t es. T h is is a h igh -r isk , h igh -p ot en t ia l ga in p olicy, p ossibly giv in g b et t er r esu lt s for loca l p r iva t e sch ools a t GCSE level, bu t t h eir h igh over a ll fa ilu r e r a t e m ay b e p a r t ly d u e t o t h is. On e op t im ist ic fi n d in g for t h e im p a ct of s ch ool ch oice is t h a t , in gen er a l, p u p il a n d socia l select ion in a n y for m w er e n ot im p or t a n t t o t h e fa m ilies in t h is r es ea r ch .

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