Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1996] 3 2 –4 1 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

LMS: the managerial climate and its ef fects on the

interpersonal climate of the school

John Leo Doyle

Re se arc h Asso c iate , Hughe s Hall, Unive rsity o f Cambridge , UK

S. Wells

Sidne y Susse x Co lle ge , Unive rsity o f Cambridge , Cambridge , UK

Reports that the introduction of local management of schools (LMS) was one of the main features of the Educa-tion Reform Act (1988). Considers the effects of LMS on four London schools in contrasting socio-economic areas, in order to evaluate the impact of LMS on the ethos of the four schools, and its effects on staff attitude, therefore enabling an exami-nation to be of the success of LMS as an agent of change.

Introduction

T h e con ce p t of loca l m a n a gem en t of sch ools (LMS) w a s a cr it ica l p a r t of t h e E d u ca t ion Refor m Act (E RA) of 1988. Toget h er w it h t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m a n d op en en r olm en t it h a s a lt er ed t h e ver y p ow er st r u ct u r e of t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em . Un lik e t h e 1944 E d u ca t ion Act , it h a s n ot b een t h e r esu lt of a len gt h y, t h or ou gh a n d sen sit ive ser ies of con su lt a -t ion s. T h e 1988 Ac-t w a s essen -t ia lly im p osed on t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em by cen t r a l gover n m en t , w it h on ly lip ser v ice given t o n e got ia -t ion s w i-t h in -t er es-t ed p a r -t ies.

T h e 1988 Act w a s in essen ce a p olit ica l p a ck a ge w h ich op en ed u p t h e b ou n d a r ies of sch oolin g a n d b r ou gh t ext er n a l in fl u en ces in t o t h e wor k in gs of sch ool m a n a gem en t , sh ift in g t h e b a la n ce of p ow er aw ay fr om ed u -ca t ion p r ofession a ls. T h e a im s of t h is a r t icle w ill b e t o exa m in e h ow t h e in t r od u ct ion of LMS h a s in fl u en ced r ela t ion s b et w een st a ff, d iscover t h e im p a ct of LMS on sch ool st r u c-t u r e a n d a ssess c-t h e su ccess of LMS a s a n a gen t of ch a n ge.

T h e 1988 Act con t in u ed t h e t r en d in 1980s ed u ca t ion p olicy of giv in g m or e p ow er t o p a r en t s a n d gover n or s. T h is st em m ed fr om t h e gover n m en t ’s v iew t h a t t h e ed u ca t ion est a blish m en t (t h e p r ofession a ls w h o wor k ed in h igh er ed u ca t ion a n d sch ools, a n d a d m in -ist r a t or s in loca l a u t h or it ies), h a d b ecom e a selfser v in g gr ou p w h ich w a s m or e con -cer n ed w it h it s ow n in t er est s a n d p ow er a t t h e exp en se of t h ose w h o u sed t h e ser v ice.

T h e gover n m en t felt esp ecia lly t h a t sch ools, w it h a gu a r a n t eed sou r ce of fi n a n cia l su p p or t a n d clien t ele, w er e n o lon ger m ot iva t ed t o p u t t h e in t er est s of p a r en t s a n d p u p ils fi r st . H en ce t h e in t r od u ct ion , v ia t h e E RA a n d LMS, of m a r k et for ces a n d bu sin ess m et h od s t o in cr ea se com p et it ion a n d a ccou n t a b ilit y in or d er t o r a ise st a n d a r d s.

T h e in t r od u ct ion of E RA a n d , in p a r t icu la r, LMS w a s essen t ia lly t o u n d er m in e t h e p ower of loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it ies (LE As) w it h a v iew t o t h eir even t u a l d em ise; a n d t o r ed u ce t h e p ower of t ea ch er s by m a k in g t h em a gr ou p m or e a ccou n t a ble t o p a r en t s. Clea r ly if t h e LE As h eld r ed u ced p ower s, t h en som e m ech a n ism wou ld b e r eq u ir ed t o en su r e sch ools wer e im p lem en t in g gover n m en t p olicy. T h is d ifficu lt y w a s solved by giv in g gover n or s t h e p ower a n d r esp on sib ilit y t o

en su r e t h a t p olicies su ch a s t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m a r e im p lem en t ed a n d a d h er ed t o.

T h is sh ift in loca l p ow er fr om LE As t o p a r -en t s a n d gover n or s w a s a lso com b in ed w it h a som ew h a t con t r a d ict or y con cen t r a t ion of p ow er w it h in cen t r a l gover n m en t . P olicy for m a t ion h a s clea r ly b een p la ced w it h in t h e r em it of t h e Secr et a r y of St a t e for E d u ca t ion ; p r od u cin g a t wo-t ier sy st em , w it h som e m on i-t or in g p ow er s a i-t i-t h e loca l level in i-t h e h a n d s of p a r en t s a n d t ot a l p ow er over a ll a sp ect s of ed u ca t ion cen t r a lized in Wh it eh a ll.

T h e n a t u r e of t h ese ch a n ges w en t b eyon d fi n a n cia l m a t t er s a n d ca lled for n ew

a p p r oa ch es t o sch ool m a n a gem en t a s a w h ole. T h er efor e, t o st u dy t h e effect s of LMS on t h e sch ool on e n eed s t o v iew t h e sch ool a s a n or ga n iza t ion . Lit t le a t t en t ion h a s b een given t o t h e p r im a r y sch ool a s a n or ga n iza t ion .

Wh a t con st it u t es a n or ga n iza t ion ca n n ot b e d efi n ed sim p ly sin ce t h er e a r e a va r iet y of or ga n iza t ion a l t y p es a n d a n u m b er of m et a p h or s u sed t o d escr ib e t h em [1]. An or ga n iza t ion h a s b een seen a s a m a ch in e w h ich focu ses on a sp ect s of bu r ea u cr a cy a n d h ier a r ch y [2], or a p olit ica l sy st em w h ich em p h a sizes t h e u se of p ow er a n d a lloca t ion of r esou r ces[3]. LMS in volved sh ift s in p ow er a n d r esp on sib ilit y w h ich , in t u r n , a ffect ed t h e m a n a gem en t of h u m a n a n d m a t er ia l r esou r ces. T h er efor e, w h en con sid er in g sch ools, it is r ea son a ble t o a d op t t h e d efi n i-t ion of a n or ga n iza i-t ion a s a p olii-t ica l sy si-t em .

T h e su b ject s of t h is a r t icle a r e p r im a r y sch ools w h ich , b eca u se of t h e 1988 E RA, h ave exp er ien ced a gr ea t d ea l of ch a n ge. T h e p olit ics of ch a n ge in v a r ia b ly b r in gs t o t h e su r fa ce u n d er ly in g con fl ict s a n d d iffer en ces w it h in t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of a n or ga n i-za t ion . T h er efor e t h e ch a n ges r esu lt in g fr om t h e in t r od u ct ion of LMS, in p a r t icu la r t h e r ed efi n it ion of t ea ch er s in t o m a n a gem en t a n d n on -m a n a gem en t gr ou p s, m ay r esu lt in ch a n ges t o t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool in t er m s of st a ff r ela t ion s a n d p ossible n ew for m s of con fl ict .

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Jo hn Le o Do yle and S. We lls LMS: the manage rial c limate and its e ffe c ts o n the inte rpe rso nal c limate o f the sc ho o l

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 3 2 –4 2

or ga n iza t ion a l m em b er s. Micr o-p olit ics is a n a sp ect of or ga n iza t ion a l a ct iv it y w h ich r e p r e-sen t s a fa ir ly r ecen t d evelop m en t in t h e st u dy of or ga n iza t ion s, w it h a n a t t em p t by t h eor ist s t o in cr ea se u n d er st a n d in g of t h e r ea lit y of or ga n iza t ion a l life.

T h is is a fa r cr y fr om Web er ’s[2] for m a list ic h ier a r ch ica l bu r ea u cr a cies, sin ce m icr o-p olit ics im o-p lies t h er e is con fl ict w it h in or ga n iza t ion s. It is con cer n ed w it h t h e m ea n s by w h ich in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s in or ga n iza -t ion s seek -t o u se p ow er -t o fu r -t h er -t h eir in t er est s. H en ce, d esp it e a ll p a r t ies in a n or ga n iza t ion h av in g a com m on goa l (su ch a s su ccessfu lly ed u ca t in g ch ild r en ), in d iv id u a ls a n d gr ou p s m ay su b scr ib e t o ot h er goa ls – for exa m p le, p er son a l con cer n s for a u t on om y, st a t u s, p ow er a n d in fl u en ce in d ecision m a k in g a n d p r ofession a l in t er est s r ela t ed t o t h e cu r r icu lu m a n d p ed a gogy.

It ca n b e a r gu ed t h a t ever y d ecision t a k en in a sch ool is a p olit ica l a ct , b eca u se it in -volves t h e exer cise of in fl u en ce a n d a u t h or it y a n d t h e d ist r ibu t ion of r esou r ces. T h r ou gh a n exa m in a t ion of t h e m icr op olit ics of t h e p r i-m a r y sch ool t h ese ch a n ges in t h e p olit ica l p r ocess a n d su b seq u en t in t er p er son a l clim a t e ca n b e a n a ly sed in or d er t o see w h et h er a n y sign ifi ca n t ch a n ges h ave r ea lly t a k en p la ce, su ch a s t h e em er gen ce of t h e u se of bu sin ess m et h od s in sch ools, or if in fa ct LMS is h av in g a q u it e d iffer en t im p a ct on t h e p r im a r y sch ool.

A k ey con cer n of t h is a r t icle is t o exa m in e t h e d e gr ee t o w h ich t h e en t er p r ise cu lt u r e h a s b een est a blish ed in sch ools. T h is cu lt u r e r efer s t o a for m a l, h ier a r ch ica l st r u ct u r ed wor k for ce in w h ich t h er e is a clea r ly d efi n ed m a n a gem en t gr ou p, r esp on sible for set t in g or ga n iza t ion a l goa ls a n d t a k in g d ecision s. T h ose w h o a r e n ot p a r t of t h is gr ou p h ave t h eir wor k t a sk s clea r ly d efi n ed a n d m on i-t or ed .

It w a s clea r ly a n in t en d ed a im of t h e gover n m en t t h a t su ch a cu lt u r e sh ou ld b e est a blish ed , in or d er t o r a ise st a n d a r d s t h r ou gh in cr ea sed efficien cy a n d r ed u ce t h e p ow er of t ea ch er s a n d LE A a d m in ist r a t or s a s p r ofession a l gr ou p s, t h u s r e p la cin g t h e colle-gia t e cu lt u r e com m on in ed u ca t ion w it h a m od el t h a t h a s it s or igin s in in d u st r y a n d com m er ce. H en ce it is im p or t a n t t o est a blish w h et h er t h e in t en d ed cu lt u r e a n d con -seq u en ces h ave b een a ch ieved a n d , if so, w h et h er a n d for w h om t h ese con seq u en ces h ave b een p osit ive.

F in a n cia l d ele ga t ion a t fi r st sigh t r e p r esen t s on e of t h e m ost p r a ct ica l a n d lea st con -t en -t iou s p a r -t s of -t h e Ac-t in -t er m s of p la cin g m or e d ecision s a t sch ool level. A closer exa m -in a t ion r evea ls a fr a m ewor k of m or e r a d ica l ch a n ges – in ev it a bly it w ill r esu lt in t ea ch er s d evelop in g a t t it u d es p r ev iou sly a ssocia t ed w it h a n in d u st r ia l wor k for ce, b eca u se t h e effect s of t im e m a n a gem en t a n d a ssessm en t

of t h eir p er for m a n ce a s wor k er s w ill u n d er -m in e t h eir p r ofession a l et h os.

T h is is b eca u se fi n a n cia l d ele ga t ion h a s a lt er ed t h e b a la n ce of p ow er w it h in t h e ed u -ca t ion sy st em a s w h ole bu t , m or e p er t in en t ly, b eca u se it h a d a lt er ed t h e b a la n ce of p ow er (a n d t h u s r ela t ion sh ip s) w it h in t h e sch ool. Clea r ly t h is r a ises a n u m b er of q u est ion s a n d issu es a b ou t t h e n a t u r e of a sch ool’s or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e, for exa m p le t h e r ole of h ea d -t ea ch er s a s m a n a ger s, a n d w h a -t -t y p e of cu l-t u r e sh ou ld b e esl-t a blish ed in sch ools.

N ot a ll t h ose wor k in g in ed u ca t ion h ave w elcom ed t h e gover n m en t ’s a t t em p t t o a lt er t h e cu lt u r e of sch ools, a n d t h er e a r e p ow er fu l for ces w h ich a r e su p p or t ive of t h e old cu lt u r e t h e gover n m en t is a t t em p t in g t o r e p la ce. T h is old cu lt u r e st em m ed fr om t h e fa ct t h a t t h e va st m a jor it y of t ea ch er s in t h e p r esen t wor k for ce w er e t r a in ed in t h e Colle ges of E d u ca t ion . T h ese est a blish m en t s (m a n y of w h ich w er e r eligiou s fou n d a t ion s), w er e t y p ifi ed by t h e fa ct t h a t t h ey em p h a sized a n in d iv id u a list ic a p p r oa ch t o t ea ch in g. Tea ch -er s w -er e n ot t r a in ed t o see t h em selves a s p a r t of a t ea m , or a s a d m in ist r a t or s a n d m a n a ger s, bu t a s t ea ch er s in ch a r ge of p u p ils.

It is a n im p or t a n t q u est ion t o con sid er h ow su ccessfu l t h e gover n m en t h a s b een in a lt er in g t h is cu lt u r e, b a sed on a v iew of t ea ch er s a s in d e p en d en t p r ofession a ls a n d r e p la cin g it w it h a n en t er p r ise cu lt u r e. T h e r a d ica l r est r u ct u r in g of t h e p r ocesses by w h ich t ea ch er s a r e p r od u ced , (p la cin g m or e of t h eir t r a in in g w it h in t h e con t ext of sch ools, a n d d ist a n ce lea r n in g); ca n b e seen a s a fu r t h er a t t em p t t o er a d ica t e t h e old cu lt u r e gover n ed by lt h e ed u ca lt ion a l eslt a blish -m en t .

An im p or t a n t con sid er a t ion is w h et h er t h e en t er p r ise cu lt u r e is h av in g t h e effect s t h a t t h e gover n m en t h a d in t en d ed . T h er e is a d a n ger of a lien a t in g t ea ch er s w it h in t h is n ew cu lt u r e. P a r t icu la r ly w it h t h e in t r od u ct ion of a “m a n a gem en t ” gr ou p, it is p ossible t h a t t h ese ch a n gin g r oles h ave h u ge im p lica t ion s for t h e p r ofession a l st a t u s of t ea ch er s.

T h e id ea of a n en t er p r ise cu lt u r e w it h in ed u ca t ion p r ov id in g ch oice is a n illu sion . P op u la r sch ools w ill ch oose t h eir p u p ils, n ot v ice-ver sa , a n d m a n y p a r en t s w ill h ave a r est r ict ed ch oice, p a r t icu la r ly t h ose in in n er cit ies or t h ose w h o h ave ch ild r en w it h sp ecia l n eed s. Clea r ly t h e n ew m a n a gem en t cu lt u r e m u st b e con cer n ed w it h t h e r u n n in g of t h e sch ool; t h e gover n m en t a ssu m p t ion t h a t , in a m a r k et econ om y, bu sin ess en t er p r ise is in t h e ser v ice of t h e con su m er is m ist a k en . In fa ct , t h e con su m er is ver y su b st a n t ia lly in t h e ser v ice of t h e bu sin ess fi r m ; con su m er w a n t s a r e sh a p ed t o t h e p u r p oses a n d n ot a bly t h e fi n a n cia l in t er est s of t h e fi r m .

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of m a r k et p r in cip les. H ow ever, t h e fi n d in gs of ou r r esea r ch in d ica t e t h a t it is r esu lt in g in con fl ict b et w een m a n a ger s a n d t h e m a n a ged : t h e im p lem en t a t ion of E RA a n d LMS a r e cr ea t in g t en sion s in a wor k for ce essen t ia lly t r a in ed t o v iew t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em a s a collect ive good .

T h e t ea ch er s in t h e st u dy r ea ct ed u n fa vou r a b ly t o m a r k et p r in cip les, w h ich em p h a -size in d iv id u a l r a t h er t h a n collect ive b en efi t , a n d d efi n ed t h eir r ole a s t h a t of a wor k er, a s op p osed t o t h a t of a p r ofession a l.

On e issu e t h a t em er ges fr om t h is is t h e q u est ion of h ea d sh ip st y le, a n d t h e level of con su lt a t ion t h er e sh ou ld b e w it h st a ff. T h ese q u est ion s h ave b ecom e p a r t icu la r ly t op ica l w it h t h e a dven t of LMS, a n d r ecen t con cer n s over b a la n cin g sch ool bu d get s t h r ou gh t h e m ech a n ism of t ea ch er r ed u n d a n cies.

Wh en m em b er s of st a ff a r e d en ied in fl u en ce a n d r esp on sib ilit y t h eir p r ofession a l st a t u s a n d gr ow t h w ill b e a dver sely a ffect ed . If som e m em b er s of a sch ool st a ff a r e n ot in clu d ed in t h is p r ocess, it w ill d en y a ccess t o t h e ver y p eop le w h o a r e in a st r on g p osit ion t o r esp on d a n d im p lem en t ch a n ge effect ively. For LMS t o b e su ccessfu l, a m ovem en t t ow a r d s a m or e colla b or a t ive a p p r oa ch t o d ecision m a k in g is r eq u ir ed .

It is im p or t a n t t o n ot e t h a t , w h ile n ew a p p r oa ch es t o m a n a gem en t a r e seen a s a n ecessa r y effect of d ele ga t ed bu d get s, t h is n ew cu lt u r e m ay w ell h ave r esu lt ed in u n for e-seen con seq u en ces. By cr ea t in g m a n a ger s you in ev it a b ly a lso cr ea t e wor k er s r a t h er t h a n co-p r ofession a ls. T h is h a s m a n y im p li-ca t ion s, n ot lea st for t h e p r ofession a lism of t ea ch er s. Desp it e t a lk of d ele ga t ion a n d n ew m a n a gem en t st y les, it is p ossible t h a t t h e en t er p r ise cu lt u r e exist s on ly for t h e m a n a ge-m en t gr ou p in volved in su ch ge-m a t t er s a s b a l-a n cin g bu d get s l-a n d d ecision m l-a k in g w it h in t h e sch ool.

In or d er t o exa m in e t h e effect LMS is h av in g on t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ools ch osen , t h er e w er e sever a l fa ct or s t o b e con sid er ed . T h ese in clu d e t ea ch er s’ a n d h ea d t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s of t h e in t er p er -son a l clim a t e of t h eir sch ool a n d h ow t h ey t h in k LMS h a s a ffect ed it . Con n ect ed closely w it h t h is is t h e h ea d ’s lea d er sh ip st y le a n d t ea ch er s’ a t t it u d es a b ou t t h eir r ole a n d p r ofession a l st a t u s w it h in t h e sch ool.

Fou r sch ools w er e exa m in ed : t wo in t h e in n er Lon d on Bor ou gh of N ew h a m , a n d t wo in Ch in gfor d , p a r t of t h e ou t er Lon d on Bor ou gh of Wa lt h a m For est . T h ese d iffer en t socio-econ om ic a r ea s w er e select ed for com p a r a t ive r ea son s. T h ese d iffer en t socio-econ om ic a r ea s w er e select ed for com p a r a t ive r ea son s t o a ssess t h e im p a ct of LMS in socia lly d iver se a r ea s. T h e r esea r ch is

d esign ed t o m ea su r e h ea d t ea ch er s’ a n d t ea ch -er s’ a t t it u d es, op in ion s a n d p -er ce p t ion s of t h eir p r esen t sit u a t ion in sch ools, a n d t h eir

u n d er st a n d in g of h ow LMS h a s a ffect ed t h eir sit u a t ion .

In or d er t o m ea su r e t h ese a t t it u d es, closed q u est ion n a ir es w er e u sed . T h e a r ea of sch ool m icr op olit ics is a sen sit ive a n d con t r over sia l on e, a n d q u est ion s con cer n in g a t t it u d es a n d op in ion s a r e lik ely t o t ou ch on sen sit ive a n d d ee p ly h eld v iew s. H ow ever, it is im p or t a n t t o n ot e t h a t on e ca n n ever b e su r e t h a t

r esp on ses a r e t r u e in d ica t ion s of a p er son ’s feelin gs a n d a t t it u d es.

T h e q u est ion n a ir e con sist ed of 50 closed q u est ion s. Closed q u est ion s w er e u sed a s t h ey h ave t h e a dva n t a ge of b ein g ea sier t o p r ocess, a s w ell a s b ein g less t im e-con su m in g for t h e r esp on d en t t o com p let e. As a t t it u d es a n d op in ion s a r e h eld a t va r y in g d e gr ees, t h e su m m a t ed r a t in gs m et h od w a s u sed t o m ea -su r e t h e a t t it u d es of t ea ch er s. T h e -su m m a t ed sy st em u sed w a s Lik er t sca lin g (d evelop ed by Ren sis Lik er t , 1932). T h is sy st em is in essen ce m on ot on ic (or or d er -m a in t a in in g) so t h a t t h e p r ob a b ilit y of a cce p t in g a Lik er t it em st a r t s a t 0 a n d r ises u p t h e a t t it u d e con t in u u m t o 1.

H ow ever, t h e m id d le, n eu t r a l op t ion w a s om it t ed , r esu lt in g in a fou r -p oin t sca le of st r on gly a gr ee, a gr ee, d isa gr ee a n d st r on gly d isa gr ee. T h is w a s d on e b eca u se a cen t r a l p osit ion su ggest s a p osit ion of in d iffer en ce, a n d ver y few p eop le a r e gen u in ely in d iffer -en t ; t h e m or e ca t e gor ies t h er e a r e, t h e m or e m a r gin a l a n sw er s t h er e a r e, a n d t h e m or e lik ely p eop le a r e t o t a k e a less ext r em e op t ion . Alt h ou gh a cce p t in g t h a t t h is loses cer t a in su b t let ies of op in ion , it ser ves t o p r od u ce st r on ger d iffer en ces for com p a r ison , a s w ell a s sim p lify in g d a t a p r ocessin g.

On e h a s a lso t o b e aw a r e of t h e n a t u r e of t h e st a t em en t s on w h ich r esp on d en t s h ave t o a gr ee or d isa gr ee. For exa m p le, it m ay b e ea sier t o a n sw er “st r on gly d isa gr ee” t o a st r on gly n e ga t ive st a t em en t t h a n t o a n sw er “st r on gly a gr ee”. T h u s t h e d e gr ee of d iffer en -t ia -t ion a -t on e en d of a n a -t -t i-t u d e con -t in u u m m ay b e ver y d iffer en t fr om t h a t a t t h e ot h er en d . It wou ld b e im p osin g on e’s ow n va lu e ju d gem en t s on t o t h e q u est ion n a ir e if on e sou gh t t o ch a n ge t h e w eigh t in g:

• st r on gly a gr ee; • a gr ee;

• d isa gr ee;

• st r on gly d isa gr ee;

w h ich is even ly d ist r ibu t ed t o: • st r on gly a gr ee;

• a gr ee; • d isa gr ee;

• st r on gly d isa gr ee.

w h ich a ck n ow led ges t h a t v iew s cou ld b e m ea su r ed a s fu r t h er a p a r t for p a r t icu la r st a t em en t s.

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of ch a n ge. T h e a ssessm en t of t h ese glob a l a im s w a s u n d er t a k en t h r ou gh t h e exa m in a -t ion fi ve va r ia bles:

1 t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le; 2 t h e level of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision

m a k in g; 3 job sa t isfa ct ion ;

4 t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool; 5 p er ce p t ion s of LMS.

T h ese va r ia bles a r e in t er r ela t ed , a n d t h e r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een t h em a r e exa m in ed in r ela t ion t o t h e r esp on d en t s fr om ea ch of t h e fou r sch ools. P a r t icu la r a r ea s exa m in ed in t h is r esea r ch w h ich r ela t e t o t h e glob a l a im s in clu d e: t h e effect s of LMS on r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een st a ff, t ea ch er a t t it u d es con cer n in g t h eir r ole a n d st a t u s a n d a t t it u d es t ow a r d s LMS.

Description of the schools

Sch ool A is a fa ir ly la r ge ju n ior sch ool w it h a b ou t 250 ch ild r en on r ole. It is loca t ed in a r esid en t ia l a r ea (m a in ly ow n er occu p ied ) in a n ea st Lon d on , p r ed om in a n t ly wor k in g-cla ss, La b ou r con t r olled b or ou gh (N ew h a m ). T h e sch ool h a s a la r ge p r op or t ion of et h n ic m in or it y ch ild r en ; for a b ou t 75 p er cen t E n g-lish is n ot t h e fi r st la n gu a ge.

Sch ool B is a lso sit u a t ed in N ew h a m . T h e sch ool is a la r ge p r im a r y sch ool ca t er in g for a r ou n d 330 ch ild r en . It s ca t ch m en t a r ea com p r ises a la r ge cou n cil est a t e, a s w ell a s p r iva t ely ow n ed h ou ses. T h e ch ild r en com e fr om a w id e va r iet y of r a cia l a n d cu lt u r a l b a ck gr ou n d s. T h e sch ool is p op u la r w it h p a r en t s a n d , a s n u m b er s a r e in cr ea sin g, t h e sch ool h a s b een for ced t o a d d a n ot h er cla ss t o a ccom m od a t e p u p ils.

Sch ool C is sit u a t ed in Ch in gfor d , in t h e ou t er Lon d on b or ou gh of Wa lt h a m For est . It a ccom m od a t es ch ild r en b et w een t h e a ges of fi ve a n d 11, a n d t h e n u m b er on r ole is a p p r oxi-m a t ely 200. T h e sch ool cou ld b e d escr ib ed a s a n “a ll w h it e” sch ool, w it h t h e ch ild r en m a in ly com in g fr om m id d le-cla ss, p r ofes-sion a l fa m ilies, a n d p a r en t a l in volvem en t in a ll sch ool a ct iv it ies is h igh .

Sch ool D is a lso sit u a t ed in Ch in gfor d . It is a fi r st sch ool ca t er in g for a b ou t 250 ch ild r en a ged b et w een fi ve a n d n in e. T h e sch ool is sit u a t ed in a r esid en t ia l a r ea m a d e u p m ost ly of p r iva t ely -ow n ed h ou ses, a lt h ou gh t h er e a r e som e cou n cil h ou ses. T h e ch ild r en com e fr om a m ixt u r e of m id d le-cla ss a n d wor k in g-cla ss fa m ilies.

Response rates

T h e r esp on se r a t es for ea ch sch ool (see Ta ble I) va r ied fr om 40 t o 64 p er cen t , p r od u cin g a good r esp on se r a t e of 53 p er cen t ; b et t er t h a n t h e u su a l 30-40 p er cen t for q u est ion n a ir es.

Resp on ses w er e r eceived fr om h ea d t ea ch er s fr om a ll sch ools exce p t Sch ool A. T h ese a r e in d ica t ed by a n a_{in t h e d a t a .}

Headteacher’s leadership style

T h e fi r st va r ia ble t o b e con sid er ed is t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le. T h is is a p a r t icu la r ly im p or t a n t va r ia ble t o exa m in e in it ia lly, a s it is a n in d ica t or of t h e cu lt u r e of t h e sch ool. It is p ossible t o id en t ify t wo m a in lea d er sh ip st y les p r esen t in a va r iet y of m od els[3]: in t er p er son a l a n d a u t h or it a r ia n , a n d t h ese m ay b e r ela t ed t o t h e cu lt u r a l n a t u r e of t h e sch ool in t h e follow in g w ay.

T h e in t er p er son a l st y le em p h a sizes t h e n eed for t h e h ea d t o b e fr ien d ly a n d a p p r oa ch -a ble t o -a ll st -a ff, -a n d t h u s r el-a t ion sh ip s -a r e in for m a l. Decision m a k in g is d ecen t r a lized a n d t h er e is a p r efer en ce for in d iv id u a l n e got ia t ion s a n d on e-t o-on e con su lt a t ion s in or d er t o ga t h er op in ion s or sou n d ou t id ea s. Com m u n ica t ion is t h er efor e p r im a r ily t h r ou gh in for m a l ch a n n els. T h is st y le is t h er efor e m or e in d ica t ive of a colle gia t e cu l-t u r e w h er e a ll l-t ea ch er s a r e v iew ed eq u a lly a s fellow p r ofession a ls, a n d a s su ch h ave a va lu ed v iew on a ll a sp ect s of t h e sch ool a n d a r ole (a lt h ou gh n ot n ecessa r ily a n eq u a l on e) in d ecision m a k in g.

H ea d t ea ch er s w it h a n a u t h or it a r ia n lea d er sh ip st y le a d op t a m or e for m a l, bu r ea u -cr a t ic v iew of or ga n iza t ion s. On ly p eop le a t a cer t a in level of t h e h ier a r ch y of t h e sch ool a r e in volved in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess, w it h t h e d ecision s of t h is gr ou p b ein g d is-sem in a t ed t o ot h er s t h r ou gh m eet in gs or m em os. T h er e is r igid a d h er en ce t o t h e for m a l r u les of t h e sch ool, w it h t h e r esp on sib ilit ies of t ea ch er s clea r ly d efi n ed siby r e gu la -t ion s.

Alt h ou gh it cou ld b e a r gu ed t h a t t h er e h ave a lw ay s b een a u t h or it a r ia n h ea d t ea ch er s, t h is lea d er sh ip st y le is n on et h eless in d ica t ive of a ch a n ged cu lt u r e w it h in sch ools. P r ev iou sly, h ea d t ea ch er s m ay h ave b een a u t h or it a r ia n , bu t t h eir st a ff wou ld st ill h ave h a d som e in volvem en t in m ost a sp ect s of t h e sch ool. LMS r eq u ir es m or e a u t h or it a r ia n lea d er sh ip b eca u se it gives t h e h ea d t ea ch er exclu sive

Table I

Re spo nse rate s fo r individual sc ho o ls Number of questionnaires

School distributed returned

A 1 0 4

B 1 1 7

C 8 4

D 1 0 5

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r oles (su ch a s m a n a gin g bu d get s) w h ich d o n ot r eq u ir e colla b or a t ion w it h a ll st a ff. Clea r ly t h en , t h is st y le of lea d er sh ip is m or e in d ica t ive of a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e w it h in t h e sch ool; a s r eq u ir ed by LMS. T h e t er m m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e is u sed h er e a s a m od i-fi ca t ion of t h e t er m en t er p r ise cu lt u r e. T h e en t er p r ise cu lt u r e r efer s t o t h e or ga n iza -t ion a l s-t y le w h ich is p r esen -t in bu sin ess a n d com m er ce; on e of com p et it ion . Ma n a ger ia list cu lt u r e r efer s t o sp ecifi c a sp ect s of t h e en t er -p r ise cu lt u r e, su ch a s t h e est a blish m en t of d ist in ct m a n a gem en t gr ou p s, goa l set t in g a n d p er for m a n ce m on it or in g.

Wh en exa m in in g Ta ble II, it is a p p a r en t t h a t st a ff in sch ools A a n d B (t h e in n er Lon -d on sch ools) t en -d e-d t o v iew t h eir h ea -d t ea ch er a s h av in g a n in t er p er son a l or in for m a l st y le of lea d er sh ip, w h er ea s t h ose in t h e Ch in gfor d sch ools (C a n d D) v iew ed t h eir h ea d t ea ch er ’s st y le a s a u t h or it a r ia n . It is in t er est in g t o n ot e t h a t w h er e a h ea d t ea ch er ’s p er ce p t ion of t h eir lea d er sh ip st y le is ava ila ble, t wo of t h em sh a r ed t h e v iew t h a t t h ey h a d a n a u t h or it a r ia n a p p r oa ch (h ea d s C & D).

H ow ever, t h e h ea d t ea ch er of Sch ool B d iffer ed in h is r esp on se fr om h is st a ff, in d i-ca t in g a n a u t h or it a r ia n st y le r a t h er t h a n in t er p er son a l. It is n ot ed t h a t t h is d iffer en ce m ay b e of sign ifi ca n ce, a n d it w ill d iscu ssed fu r t h er in t h e “a n a ly sis”; t h e lea d er sh ip st y le of t h e h ea d t ea ch er of Sch ool B w ill, t h en , b e t a k en a s in t er p er son a l a s r efl ect ed by t h e scor e (Ta ble II).

T h e r esu lt s t h er efor e in d ica t e t h a t t h e t wo in n er Lon d on sch ools a p p ea r t o h ave a m or e colle gia t e (old ) cu lt u r e, w h ile t h e t wo Ch in g-for d sch ools a p p ea r t o h ave m or e g-for m a l, m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r es (a v iew su p p or t ed by t h e h ea d s).

Participation in decision making

T h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le clea r ly h a s im p lica t ion s for t h e level of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g by st a ff. On e wou ld exp ect t o fi n d t h a t in sch ools w h er e t h e h ea d -t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip s-t y le w a s a u -t h or i-t a r ia n , st a ff p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g wou ld b e r ela t ively lim it ed .

As Ta ble III in d ica t es, t h is lin k w a s con -fi r m ed , w it h r esp on d en t s in Sch ools C a n d D cla im in g con sid er a b ly low levels of p a r t icip a -t ion . How ever, i-t is a lso wor -t h n o-t in g -t h a -t n o r esp on d en t s cla im ed t o h ave h igh levels of p a r t icip a t ion in t h is a r ea ; w it h r esp on d en t s in sch ools A a n d B h av in g on ly sligh t ly h igh er levels t h a n r esp on d en t s in sch ools C a n d D, a t m od er a t e levels.

Job satisfaction

J ob sa t isfa ct ion is a p a r t icu la r ly sign ifi ca n t in d ica t or of st a ff p er ce p t ion s of t h eir r ole a n d st a t u s. T h is ca n b e seen esp ecia lly w h en levels of job sa t isfa ct ion a r e exa m in ed in r ela t ion t o ot h er va r ia bles.

As Ta ble IV in d ica t es, levels of job sa t isfa c-t ion d id cover a sp r ea d of a c-t c-t ic-t u d es, a lc-t h ou gh t h er e w a s a d efi n it e lea n in g t ow a r d s low job sa t isfa ct ion . Sch ool B h a d t h e h igh est over a ll levels of job sa t isfa ct ion , follow ed by sch ool A w it h a m od er a t e scor e, a n d sch ools C a n d D w h ich b ot h h a d ver y low levels of job sa t isfa c-t ion . In c-t er esc-t in gly, h ea d c-t ea ch er s’ scor es in d ica t ed t h a t t h ey h a d a m on g t h e h igh est levels of job sa t isfa ct ion in t h e sa m p le.

Table II

He adte ac he r’ s le ade rship style

School

Response A B C D

1 4 2 3 5 2 7 2 0

2 4 6 4 1 2 1 1 5

3 4 4 3 5 2 3 2 6

4 3 8 4 6 1 7a _{2 2}

5 – 2 3a _– _{1 9}a

6 – 3 9 – –

7 – 4 2 – –

High possible score (I) 2 0 0 3 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0

Low possible score (A) 6 0 1 0 5 6 0 7 5

Actual score I 1 7 0 I 2 6 1 A 8 8 A 1 0 2

Notes:

Highest possible sc ore per respondent 50 = interper-sonal/ informal

Lowest possible sc ore per respondent 15 = authoritarian I = Interpersonal/ informal

A = Authoritarian

a_{= Headteac her’ s sc ore}

Table III

Le ve l o f partic ipatio n in de c isio n making

School

1 2 3 3 9 4 8 4 4

2 3 3 3 7 3 9 4 6

3 3 4 2 8 4 6 3 6

4 3 1 2 0 – 4 8

5 – 4 4 – –

6 – 2 8 – –

7 – – – –

High possible score (L) 2 0 0 3 5 0 1 5 0 2 0 0

Low possible score (H) 6 0 1 0 5 4 5 6 0

Actual score M 1 2 1 M 1 9 6 L 1 3 2 L 1 7 4

Notes:

Highest possible sc ore per respondent 50 = low partic ipa-tion in dec ision making

Lowest possible sc ore per respondent 15 = high partic ipa-tion in dec ision making

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H ow ever, t h e m ost in t er est in g fi n d in gs b ecom e a p p a r en t w h en exa m in in g low levels of job sa t isfa ct ion w it h ot h er va r ia bles. Wh en com p a r in g levels of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g (Ta ble III) a n d job sa t isfa ct ion (Ta ble IV) a r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h ese t wo va r ia bles b ecom es a p p a r en t .

In sch ools w h er e t h er e is a low level of in volvem en t in d ecision m a k in g (sch ools C a n d D) t h er e is a n eq u a lly low level of job sa t isfa ct ion . T h is r ela t ion sh ip is a lso r efl ect ed t o a d e gr ee in sch ools A a n d B, w h er e m od er a t e levels of in volvem en t in d ecision m a k in g a r e eq u a l t o m od er a t e t o h igh levels of job sa t isfa ct ion .

It is t h er efor e p ossible t o id en t ify a lin k b et w een t h e cu lt u r e of ea ch sch ool a n d t h e level of job sa t isfa ct ion of it s t ea ch in g st a ff. Wh er e a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e is p r om in en t , in d ica t ed by t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le (Ta ble II), a s in sch ools C a n d D, job sa t isfa ct ion a m on g st a ff is ver y low. T h is is in con t r a st t o t h e colle gia t e sch ools (A a n d B), w h ich h ave com p a r a t ively h igh er levels of job sa t isfa ct ion .

Alt h ou gh t h e sa m p le in t h is st u dy is n ot su fficien t ly la r ge t o a sser t a d ir ect ca u sa l r ela t ion sh ip h er e, it d oes n on et h eless in d ica t e t h a t w h er e a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e exist s, t ea ch er a t t it u d es a r e sign ifi ca n t ly m or e n e ga t ive. Clea r ly, a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e a n d low p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g h ave im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er s’ r oles a n d st a t u s; a s w ell a s t h eir effect iven ess a s t ea ch er s, sin ce low m or a le is u n lik ely t o lea d t o im p r oved p er for m a n ce. It m ay w ell b e t h ese t h r ea t s t o p r ofession a lism w h ich a r e

r esu lt in g in a low level of job sa t isfa ct ion for t ea ch er s.

It m ay b e a r gu ed h er e t h a t a lin k b et w een d ecr ea sed levels of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g a n d t h r ea t en ed p r ofession a lism d oes n ot st a n d , a s t ea ch er s d o n ot n eed for m a l con t r ol w it h in t h e sch ool t o m a in t a in t h eir st a t e of p r ofession a lism . As a u t on om ou s ed u ca t ed p r ofession a ls, it cou ld b e a r gu ed t h a t t h eir v iew s a r e va lu ed a n d t h u s con -su lt ed in a less for m a l w ay. T h is a r gu m en t d oes n ot h old for t wo r ea son s.

F ir st t ea ch er s’ con t r ol over a ll a sp ect s of t h e sch ool a n d t h eir a u t on om y w it h in t h e sch ool a r e b ecom in g in cr ea sin gly lim it ed w it h t h e a dven t of su ch p olicies a s t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m a n d t ea ch er a p p r a isa l. T h er efor e t h eir in fl u en ce over a n u m b er of a r ea s h a s a lr ea dy b een d ecr ea sed by le gisla -t ion . Secon d , a m a n a gem en -t cu l-t u r e is less lik ely t o a llow for in for m a l con su lt a t ion s or in fl u en ce, w it h t h e p r ocess of d ecision m a k in g occu r r in g in a m u ch m or e for m a l w ay.

T h er efor e, in t h is con t ext it is clea r t h a t b ein g in con t r ol of m a n y a sp ect s of sch ool life a n d h av in g a n in for m a l b ea r in g on d ecision m a k in g is n ot lik ely t o b e a r ea lit y for m a n y t ea ch er s. An y r esid u a l in fl u en ce ca n n ot b e eq u a t ed w it h m ea n in gfu l p a r t icip a t ion a n d a r ea son a ble level of a u t on om y a n d con t r ol; su r ely t h e d efi n in g a sp ect s of a p r ofession a l. T h e lin k b et w een low job sa t isfa ct ion a n d low p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g, a n d t h e im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er s’ st a t u s a n d p r ofes-sion a lism id en t ifi ed in t h ese fi n d in gs is t h er e-for e a sign ifi ca n t on e.

In d eed , t h e gen er a l h igh level of n e ga t iv it y of t ea ch er s’ a t t it u d es d oes n ot b od e w ell for t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool or for t h e effect of LMS a s a p osit ive a gen t of ch a n ge.

The interpersonal climate of the

school

T h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool is a ffect ed by a ll t h e ot h er va r ia bles id en t ifi ed , sin ce t h ey a ll h ave a b ea r in g on t h e n a t u r e of t h e r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een t ea ch er s. Given t h a t levels of job sa t isfa ct ion a r e low (a s illu s-t r a s-t ed by Ta ble IV) on e wou ld exp ecs-t s-t h a s-t p er ce p t ion s of t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e wou ld follow t h is.

Ta ble V con fi r m s t h is, a lt h ou gh it is n ot a s n e ga t ive a s m ay h ave b een exp ect ed . Aga in , t ea ch er s in sch ool D h a d a n e ga t ive p er ce p -t ion of -t h e in -t er p er son a l clim a -t e, w h ich r efl ect ed t h e low level of job sa t isfa ct ion w it h in t h e sch ool a n d t h e n e ga t ive effect s of a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e. H ow ever, t h is lin k is n ot fi r m ly su p p or t ed by t h e r esu lt s fr om t h e ot h er sch ools. Resp on d en t s in sch ool C (w h ich a lso h a s a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e) h ave Table IV

Le ve l o f jo b satisfac tio n

School

1 1 7 1 1 2 9 3 0

2 2 4 1 3 1 7a _{2 4}

3 1 9 1 7 3 5 2 7

4 1 6 9 3 1 2 7

5 – 1 1a _– _{2 5}a

6 – 1 2 – –

7 – 2 2 – –

High possible score (L) 1 4 4 2 5 2 1 4 4 1 8 0

Low possible score (H) 3 6 6 3 3 6 4 5

Actual score M 7 6 H 9 5 L 1 1 2 L 1 3 3

Notes:

Highest possible sc ore per respondent 36 = low level of job satisfac tion

Lowest possible sc ore per respondent 9 = high level of job satisfac tion

H = High M = Moderate L = Low

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a m od er a t e v iew of t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool d esp it e low levels of job

sa t isfa ct ion .

Perceptions of LMS

It w a s im p or t a n t t o exa m in e t ea ch er a t t it u d es con cer n in g LMS in or d er t o a ssess t h e effect s of LMS on t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool, a n d a s a n a gen t of ch a n ge. Given t h e n e ga t iv it y fou n d in t ea ch er a t t it u d es w it h in t h e sa m p le, it wou ld a lso b e p er t in en t t o exa m in e t h em in t er m s of m or e p a r t icu la r a im s issu es su ch a s t h e effect s of LMS on t ea ch er a t t it u d es con cer n in g t h eir r ole a n d st a t u s. As Ta ble VI in d ica t es, t ea ch er s’ p er ce p t ion s con cer n in g LMS a r e ver y clea r. T h e over a ll v iew of LMS is a n e ga t ive on e, w it h t ea ch er s in sch ools B, C a n d D a ll in d i-ca t in g t h is w it h n e ga t ive h igh scor es.

It is a lso a p p a r en t t h a t few r esp on d en t s v iew ed LMS in a p osit ive w ay, exce p t n ot a b ly t h e h ea d t ea ch er s, w h o h a d ver y m u ch m or e p osit ive v iew s of LMS a s w ell a s in t er m s of t h eir job sa t isfa ct ion (p a r t icu la r ly in sch ools C a n d D).

H ow ever, b eca u se a t t it u d es a r e m od er a t e t o n e ga t ive a cr oss t h e fou r sch ools, fu r t h er a n a ly sis is r eq u ir ed t o a scer t a in w h et h er t h ese n e ga t ive a t t it u d es a r e a r esu lt of p a r t ic-u la r a sp ect s of a m a n a ger ia list cic-u lt ic-u r e (m or e a k in t o LMS), su ch a s a u t h or it a r ia n m a n a ge-m en t a n d cen t r a lized d ecision ge-m a k in g; or m or e gen er a l con d it ion s w h ich a r e n ot in h er -en t a sp ect s of t h e n ew m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e.

T h er efor e, in or d er t o est a blish t h e sp ecifi c ca u ses of t h is n e ga t ive p er ce p t ion of LMS, r esp on d en t s w er e a sk ed t o u n d er lin e sp ecifi c st a t em en t s con cer n in g a sp ect s of LMS w h ich w er e eit h er p osit ive or n e ga t ive.

F r om exa m in in g Ta ble VIII it is a p p a r en t t h er e a r e a n u m b er of n e ga t ive st a t em en t s w h ich r eceived a h igh r esp on se, a n d som e p osit ive st a t em en t s w h ich r eceived lit t le or n o a t t en t ion . T h is in d ica t es a h igh d e gr ee of con cer n w it h t h ose a sp ect s of LMS r ela t ed t o st y les of m a n a gem en t w h ich r efl ect a m a n -a ger i-a list cu lt u r e.

T h e st a t em en t “st a ff colla b or a t ion ”, for in st a n ce, w a s ch osen by on ly t wo r esp on d en t s fr om sch ool A, w h ich , a s a lr ea dy st a t ed , h a s a cu lt u r e closer t o a colle gia t e m od el. T h is r esu lt a lso r efl ect s t h e low level of p a r t icip a -t ion in d ecision m a k in g w i-t h in -t h e sch ools, w h ich is m or e lik ely t o b e t h e ca se w h er e t h er e is a n a u t h or it a r ia n h ea d t ea ch er a n d t h u s a cu lt u r e closer t o a m a n a ger ia list et h os.

Closely r ela t ed t o t h is issu e is t h e st a t em en t “em p ow er m en t of t ea ch er s”. T h is p osit ive st a t em en t w a s n ot ch osen by a n y of t h e r esp on d en t s. T h is clea r ly in d ica t es t h a t t h ey d o n ot see LMS, or t h e m a n n er in w h ich it h a s b een im p lem en t ed , a s em p ow er in g t ea ch er s a s a p r ofession a l gr ou p.

Alt h ou gh n e ga t ive p er ce p t ion s of LMS d o cover som e gen er a l con cer n s, su ch a s fu n d -in g, it is t h u s a p p a r en t fr om a n a ly s-in g Ta ble VII t h a t t h e m ost ext r em e r esp on ses (or n on -r esp on ses) a -r e con ce-r n ed w it h a sp ect s of LMS d ir ect ly r ela t ed t o ch a n ges in sch ool cu lt u r e a n d t h e r ole a n d st a t u s of t ea ch er s. Table V

The inte rpe rso nal c limate o f the sc ho o l

School

1 2 7 5 4 6 0 4 2

2 3 2 4 8 5 7 5 9

3 2 9 4 8 6 7 6 5

4 3 8 4 6 3 8a _{7 3}

5 – 4 8 – 3 9a

6 – 6 7 – –

7 – 5 1a – –

High possible score

(negative) 3 8 0 6 6 5 3 8 0 4 7 5

Low possible score

(positive) 1 0 0 1 7 5 1 0 0 1 2 5

Actual score P 1 2 6 M3 6 2 M 2 1 8 N 2 7 8

Notes

Highest possible sc ore per respondent 95 = negative perc eption of interpersonal c limate

Lowest possible sc ore per respondent 25 = positive perc eption of interpersonal c limate

P = Positive perc eption of interpersonal c limate M = Moderate perc eption of interpersonal c limate N = Negative perc eption of interpersonal c limate

a_{= Headteac her’ s sc ore}

Table VI

Pe rc e ptio ns o f LMS

School

1 6 1 4 9 5 7 3 2

2 6 4 4 3 2 2a _{4 0}

3 3 7 6 2 4 1 5 7

4 5 3 3 7 5 4 6 1

5 – 4 1a _– _{2 6}a

6 – 3 3 – –

7 – 2 8 – –

High possible score

(negative) 3 1 6 5 5 3 3 1 6 3 9 5

Low possible score

(positive) 8 4 1 4 7 8 4 1 0 5

Actual score M 2 1 5 N 2 9 3 N 1 7 4 N 2 1 6

Notes

Highest possible sc ore per respondent 79 = negative attitude towards LMS

Lowest possible sc ore per respondent 21 = positive attitude towards LMS

P = Positive M = Moderate N = Negative

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T h is is a ga in ev id en t w h en r e ga r d in g t h e st a t em en t “im p osed ch a n ges t o wor k in g con d it ion s”, w h ich r eceived on e of t h e h igh -est r esp on ses of t h e en t ir e list .

F r om exa m in in g t h e fi n d in gs over a ll, it is a p p a r en t t h er e a r e som e ver y sign ifi ca n t t r en d s t h r ou gh ou t t h e sa m p le. It a p p ea r s t h a t w h er e a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e is p r esen t , a t t it u d es a m on g st a ff a r e gen er a lly m or e n e ga t ive. T h er e d oes a p p ea r t o b e a r ela t ion -sh ip b et w een low p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g (a p r od u ct of a m a n a ger ia l et h os w it h in t h e sch ool) a n d low job sa t isfa ct ion , w it h som e im p lica t ion s for t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool.

T h er e cer t a in ly a p p ea r s t o b e a lin k b et w een LMS a n d t ea ch er a t t it u d es t ow a r d s st a t u s a n d p r ofession a lism , a s in d ica t ed by t h e n a t u r e of t h e st a t em en t s ch osen in Ta ble VII. It is im p or t a n t t o n ot e t h a t on e m u st b e ca u t iou s a b ou t a sser t in g a d ir ect ca u sa l r ela -t ion sh ip b e-t w een a m a n a ger ia l cu l-t u r e a n d t h ese issu es given t h e sca le of t h e st u dy.

Analysis

T h e q u est ion n a ir e h a d a good r esp on se r a t e of 53 p er cen t a n d t h er efor e p r od u ced a w ea lt h of d a t a . It is p ossible t o id en t ify d ist in ct p a t -t er n s w i-t h in -t h ese d a -t a w h ich ca n b e d is-cu ssed in r ela t ion t o t h e fou r sch ools, a n d in t h e w id er con t ext of t h e con t r ibu t ion s m a d e in t h is a r ea by va r iou s com m en t a t or s.

Th e m a in fi n din gs of t h e st u dy wer e a s follow s; a ver y sign ifi ca n t differ en ce exist ed bet ween t h e a t t it u des of h ea d t ea ch er s a n d t h ose of t h e t ea ch in g st a ff in gen er a l. Also t h a t a r ela t ion sh ip exist ed bet ween t h e level of pa r t icipa t ion in decision m a k in g expr essed by t ea ch er s, a n d t h eir levels of job sa t isfa ct ion . It w a s a lso fou n d t h a t , wh er e a m a n a ger ia list

cu lt u r e exist ed w it h in a sch ool, t ea ch er a t t i-t u des wer e m or e n e ga i-t ive. T h er e wer e som e in dica t ion s t h a t n e ga t ive a t t it u des t ow a r ds LMS r ela t ed t o issu es con cer n in g t ea ch er s’ r oles a n d st a t u s.

T h e r esea r ch fou n d t h a t t ea ch er a t t it u d es gen er a lly t en d ed t ow a r d s n e ga t iv it y. T h is w a s p a r t icu la r ly t r u e in r ela t ion t o levels of job sa t isfa ct ion a n d p er ce p t ion s of LMS.

H ow ever, in con t r a st t o t h is w er e t h e a t t it u d es of h ea d t ea ch er s, w h o exh ib it ed sign ifi ca n t ly m or e p osit ive a t t it u d es t h a n t h ose of t h eir st a ff.

All h ea d t ea ch er s cla im ed com p a r a t ively h igh levels of job sa t isfa ct ion , even in sch ools in w h ich job sa t isfa ct ion w a s low (sch ools C

a n d D). P er ce p t ion s of LMS w er e a lso n e ga t ive a m on g t ea ch er s in gen er a l, bu t a ga in h ea d t ea ch er s exp r essed ver y p osit ive a t t it u d es w it h som e of t h e h igh est scor es of t h e sa m p le.

H ow ever, t h e a t t it u d es exp r essed by t ea ch -er s in t h is st u dy su ggest t h a t even seven yea r s a ft er t h e in t r od u ct ion of LMS, t h e m a jor it y of t ea ch er s h ave n ot r ea ch ed a st a ge a t w h ich t h ey p osit ively a cce p t ed LMS. T h is is in d ica t ed n ot on ly in t h e n e ga t ive levels of op in ion exp r essed t ow a r d s LMS in gen er a l, bu t a lso in t h e h igh level of r esp on se t o n e ga t ive st a t em en t s in Ta ble VII. T h ese in clu d e “a d d ed p r essu r es”, “im p osed ch a n ges in wor k in g con d it ion s” a n d “ch a n ges w it h ou t a d d it ion a l r esou r ces”.

Alt h ou gh t h e fi n d in gs of t h is st u dy in d ica t e t h a t t ea ch er s a r e st ill a t t h e ea r ly st a ges in t er m s of t h eir r ea ct ion s t o ch a n ge, t h is d oes n ot a p p ea r t o b e t h e ca se for h ea d t ea ch er s. Wh ile t h er e w a s d a t a on ly ava ila ble for t h r ee h ea d t ea ch er s, it w a s st ill p ossible t o id en t ify a d ist in ct ion b et w een t h eir v iew s a n d t h ose of t h eir st a ff.

J ob sa t isfa ct ion levels for h ea d t ea ch er s w er e a m on g t h e h igh est in t h e st u dy, a s w er e t h eir p er ce p t ion s of LMS. H ea d t ea ch er s’ scor es wer e con sider a bly m or e posit ive t ow a r ds LMS, w it h t h e h ea d t ea ch er s of sch ools C a n d D a ch iev in g scor es of 22 a n d 26 r esp ect ively ; t h e m ost p osit ive scor e p ossible b ein g 21.

T h ese p osit ive v iew s w er e a lso r efl ect ed in st a t em en t s ch osen in Ta ble VII, w it h t h e h ea d t ea ch er s of sch ools C a n d D b ein g t h e on ly r esp on d en t s t o exp r ess en t h u sia sm t ow a r d s LMS. H ea d t ea ch er s w er e a lso t h e on ly r esp on d en t s t o ch oose t h e p osit ive st a t em en t “sch ool a u t on om y ”, a n d a lso ch ose t h e st a t em en t “in cr ea sed com m u n it y lin k s”. F r om exa m in in g t h ese v iew s it wou ld t h er e-for e b e lik ely t h a t t h e h ea d t ea ch er s in t h e sa m p le (a n d cer t a in ly t h ose fr om sch ools C a n d D), h ave r ea ch ed t h e st a ge of

“con st r u ct ive a d a p t a t ion ”: a ct ively en ga ged in t h e r ea lit y of LMS, p la n n in g for t h e ch a n ges it in cu r s a n d feelin g q u it e secu r e w it h in t h is ch a n ge.

Table VII

Ove rall vie ws o f LMS

School A B C D

Enthusiasm (P) – – 2a 5a

Added pressure (N) 1234 35a₆₇ ₁₂a ₁₃₄₅a

Staff collaboration (P) 2 – – –

Low morale (N) – 7 134 23

School autonomy (P) – 5a _– ₅a

Imposed changes in working conditions (N) 1234 12345a₆ ₁₄ ₁₂₃₄

Empowerment of teachers (P) – – – –

Scepticism (N) 1 36 – 3

Need for extra training (N) 1234 245a7 1 245a

Increased community links (P) 13 15a₇ ₂a ₅a

Change without additional resources (N) 14 5a₇ ₂a₃ ₂₄

Reduced resources (N) 2 67 – –

Increased resources (P) – – – –

Notes:

(P) = Positive statement (N) = Negative statement

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T h e fa ct t h a t t h is d ist in ct ion of v iew s b et w een h ea d t ea ch er s a n d st a ff exist s, h igh -ligh t s p ossible r ea son s for n e ga t ive a t t it u d es a m on g t ea ch er s. T h ese in clu d e ch a n ged r oles w it h in t h e sch ool (i.e. less p a r t icip a t ion in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess a n d it s im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er p r ofession a lism ).

T h e im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er s fu lly a cce p t -in g LMS a s a n a gen t of ch a n ge a r e n e ga t ive on es. A b elief in LMS is a lso a b elief in a t r a n sit ion fr om a p r ofession a l, a u t on om ou s gr ou p, t o a m a n a ged wor k for ce w it h lit t le in fl u en ce or in volvem en t in im p or t a n t issu es w it h t h e sch ool. For h ea d t ea ch er s t h ese issu es a r e less lik ely t o b e felt , w it h t h e t r a n sit ion fr om p r ofession a l t o m a n a ger, a n d it s im p lica t ion s of in cr ea sed sch ool a u t on -om y a n d m a n a gem en t r esp on sib ilit y, n ot seen a s a t h r ea t t o t h eir p er son a l or p r ofession a l st a t u s.

An ot h er fi n d in g of t h e r esea r ch w a s a sign ifi ca n t r ela t ion sh ip b et w een low levels of job sa t isfa ct ion a n d ver y low levels of p a r t ici-p a t ion in d ecision m a k in g; t h is w a s illu s-t r a s-t ed p a r s-t icu la r ly in sch ools C a n d D. T h is b en t t ow a r d s low job sa t isfa ct ion r efl ect ed t h e fa ct t h a t n o r esp on d en t s cla im ed t o h ave a h igh level of p a r t icip a t ion in t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess.

T h er efor e it a p p ea r s t h a t low levels of job sa t isfa ct ion com e n ot so m u ch fr om a n in cr ea se in m en ia l t a sk s, bu t fr om b ein g exclu d ed fr om t h e d ecision -m a k in g p r ocess, a n d t h e su b seq u en t feelin g of p ow er lessn ess. Su ch feelin gs of p ow er lessn ess, a n d n e ga t ive a t t it u d es t ow a r d s t h eir wor k , clea r ly h ave m a n y im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er s’ r oles a n d st a t u s. T h e p r ofession a lism of t ea ch er s is clea r ly a n issu e t h a t wou ld b e a ffect ed by a d ecr ea sed r ole in cer t a in a sp ect s of sch ool life.

T h ese issu es of p r ofession a lism a lso r ela t e t o a n ot h er sign ifi ca n t lin k fou n d in t h e st u dy ; t h a t b et w een t h e p r esen ce of a m a n a ger ia list or en t er p r ise cu lt u r e a n d t ea ch er a t t it u d es. As m en t ion ed in t h e in t r od u ct ion , LMS w a s in t r od u ced by t h e gover n m en t in or d er t o in cr ea se efficien cy in sch ools by b r in gin g “m a r k et p r in cip les” in t o t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em ; in clu d in g t h e bu sin ess m et h od s (su ch a s t im e m a n a gem en t ) w h ich a ccom p a n y t h is.

T h is n ew cu lt u r e d iffer s fr om t h e old colle-gia t e cu lt u r e in sch ools, w h ich v iew ed a ll t ea ch er s a s p r ofession a ls, a n d t h e sch ool a s a n or ga n iza t ion in w h ich t ea ch er s a r e r esp on -sible for m a n a gin g t h em selves a n d t h eir cla ssr oom s gu id ed by t h e h ea d t ea ch er. T h e in t r od u ct ion of LMS h a s in ev it a b ly ch a n ged t h is cu lt u r e, cr ea t in g m a n a gem en t a n d n on -m a n a ge-m en t gr ou p s w it h in t h e sch ool.

In t h e sch ools w h er e a m a n a gem en t cu lt u r e w a s in d ica t ed (v ia t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er -sh ip st y le) job sa t isfa ct ion w a s m u ch low er t h a n in sch ools w h ich a p p ea r ed t o r et a in a m or e colle gia t e et h os. It w a s a lso fou n d t h a t

n e ga t ive a t t it u d es cou ld b e seen a s r ela t in g t o a sp ect s of LMS a ssocia t ed w it h t h is m a n a ge-m en t et h os; w it h t ea ch er s r ea ct in g n e ga t ively t o st a t em en t s su ch a s “st a ff colla b or a t ion ” a n d “em p ow er m en t of

t ea ch er s”. H ow ever, a s d iscu ssed ea r lier, t h is w a s n ot t h e ca se for h ea d t ea ch er s.

As m en t ion ed , t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le (Ta ble II) w a s t a k en a s a n in d ica t or of t h e cu lt u r e of t h e sch ool. T h e h ea d t ea ch er s’ ow n p er ce p t ion s of t h eir lea d er sh ip st y le w a s on ly ava ila ble for t h ose of sch ools B, C a n d D. T h e r esp on d en t s of sch ools C a n d D a gr eed w it h t h eir h ea d t ea ch er t h a t t h eir lea d er sh ip st y le w a s a u t h or it a r ia n . How ever, t h e h ea d -t ea ch er of sch ool B saw h im self a s h av in g a n a u t h or it a r ia n lea d er sh ip st y le, w h ile h is st a ff cla im ed t h a t it w a s in t er p er son a l.

T h is d iffer en ce in t h e p er ce p t ion of t h e h ea d t ea ch er ’s lea d er sh ip st y le d r aw s a t t en -t ion -t o som e ver y p er -t in en -t issu es. I-t m ay b e t h a t t h e t er m s “a u t h or it a r ia n ” a n d

“in t er p er son a l” w er e in t er p r et ed d iffer en t ly by t h e h ea d t ea ch er a n d h is st a ff. For t h e h ea d t ea ch er, t h e t er m a u t h or it a r ia n m ay h ave d en ot ed d ecisiven ess a n d st r on g lea d er -sh ip, evok in g p osit ive con n ot a t ion s.

In con t r a st , st a ff in t er p r et a t ion s of “a u t h or it a r ia n ” m ay h ave in clu d ed d ict a t or ia l im a ges of lea d er sh ip a n d u n a p p r oa ch a -b ilit y. T h e h ea d t ea ch er of sch ool B m ay t h er efor e h ave b een p er ceived a s h av in g a n in t er -p er son a l lea d er sh i-p st y le b eca u se h e d id n ot exh ib it t h e n e ga t ive con n ot a t ion s in t er p r et ed a s “a u t h or it a r ia n ”, a n d w a s v iew ed a s h av in g a n “in t er p er son a l” st y le b eca u se of t h e st a ff in t er p r et a t ion of t h is t er m a lso (i.e. a p p r oa ch -a ble, r e-a son -a bly fr ien d ly, et c.).

It m ay b e p ossible t h a t t h e h ea d t ea ch er of sch ool B d id h ave a n a u t h or it a r ia n st y le of lea d er sh ip, bu t w a s a lso a p p r oa ch a ble t o h is st a ff, giv in g t h em t h e im p r ession of in for m a l-it y a n d in t er p er son a l lea d er sh ip, (t h e m a r k of a good m a n a ger p er h a p s). Un for t u n a t ely, t h e q u est ion n a ir e d esign d id n ot a llow for cla r ifi -ca t ion of t h is issu e a n d so on e -ca n on ly sp ecu la t e a b ou t r ea son s for t h is d iffer en ce.

An ot h er d im en sion of t h e fi n d in gs w er e t h e d iffer en ces in t ea ch er a t t it u d es n ot on ly b et w een t h e fou r sch ools, bu t a lso in d iffer en t socio-econ om ic a r ea s. On e m igh t h ave exp ect ed , given t h a t job sa t isfa ct ion t en d ed t o b e low a n d t h a t p er ce p t ion s of LMS w er e gen er a lly n e ga t ive, t h a t t h e m ost ext r em e n e ga t ive a t t it u d es a m on g t ea ch er s wou ld b e con cen t r a t ed in t h e t wo in n er cit y sch ools (sch ools A a n d B).

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fou n d t h a t n e ga t ive a t t it u d es w er e m or e lik ely t o b e h eld by t ea ch er s in t h e sch ools in Ch in gfor d .

It is p ossible t h a t cer t a in ext er n a l fa ct or s w h ich r ela t e t o t h e fi n d in gs of t h is st u dy ca n exp la in t h is d iffer en ce. As st a t ed , w h er e a m a n a gem en t cu lt u r e w a s in d ica t ed t o b e p r esen t in a sch ool, a t t it u d es w er e gen er a lly m or e n e ga t ive; sch ools C a n d D illu st r a t e t h is.

Sch ools C a n d D a r e sit u a t ed in t h e ou t er Lon d on Bor ou gh of Wa lt h a m For est . Wa lt h a m For est in gen er a l, a n d Ch in gfor d in p a r t icu la r, a r e a r ea s wh ich a r e t r a d it ion a l Con ser va t ive t er r it or y. It wou ld b e p r ob a ble, t h en , t h a t a n a r ea su ch a s t h is wou ld em b r a ce LMS in it s en t ir et y, a n d t h er efor e t h e im p a ct of t h e le gisla t ion wou ld b e fu lly felt .

Con ver sely, t h e Lon d on Bor ou gh of N ewh a m h a s a h ist or y of st r on g La b ou r su p p or t . It is a lso lik ely t h a t t ea ch er s wh o ch oose t o t ea ch in su ch a n a r ea a r e aw a r e of t h is lin k w it h left -w in g p olit ica l v iew s a n d m ay sh a r e t h em . T h er efor e st r on g su p p or t sy st em s m ay exist , su ch a s cer t a in t y p es of p olit ica l a ct iv it y a n d st r on g u n ion lin k s. Hen ce t h e im p a ct of LMS m ay n ot b e so h a r sh ly felt . Th e w id er p olit ica l con t ext of t h e loca l com m u n it y m ay h ave a b ea r in g on a n in d iv id u a l’s a t t it u d es, a s well a s t h e m icr o-p olit ica l con t ext of t h e sch ool.

T h e q u est ion w h ich t h is r esea r ch r a ises is: w h a t a r e t h e im p lica t ion s of n e ga t ive

a t t it u d es for t h e su ccess of LMS a s a n a gen t of ch a n ge? It cou ld b e a r gu ed t h a t LMS w ill in ev it a b ly b e dy sfu n ct ion a l. Alt h ou gh LMS is en for ced by le gisla t ion , it is n ot p ossible t o le gisla t e a ga in st t h e n e ga t ive a t t it u d es (w h ich t h is st u dy in d ica t es) a n d p ossible su bver sion w h ich m ay r esu lt . If LMS is t o b e su ccessfu l (i.e. a ch iev in g it s st a t ed a im of in cr ea sin g efficien cy a n d t h e q u a lit y of ed u ca t ion in t h e st a t e sect or ) t h en su r ely t ea ch er s h ave t o b e r ea son a bly h a p py a n d m ot iva t ed b eca u se t h ey a r e a t t h e for efr on t of t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em .

H ow ever, it cou ld b e a r gu ed t h a t LMS is in n o w ay dy sfu n ct ion a l, a s it s m a in fu n ct ion is t o im p r ove st a n d a r d s a n d efficien cy. Rea d in g st a n d a r d s a n d exa m in a t ion r esu lt s h ave con t in u ed t o im p r ove in t h e la st few yea r s. It m ay b e fu r t h er a r gu ed t h a t d issa t isfa ct ion is n ot a t h r ea t t o efficien cy bu t , on t h e con t r a r y, a r ea ct ion t o it by t h e ed u ca t ion a l est a blish -m en t w h ich h a s for so lon g en joyed a self-in t er est ed m on op oly on ed u ca t ion . T h u s t h e p la cin g of p ow er in t h e h a n d s of con su m er s is b ou n d t o b e u n com for t a ble a t fi r st , bu t t h e in cr ea sed st a n d a r d s r esu lt in g fr om LMS w ill v in d ica t e t h is a ct ion .

T h e fi n d in gs of t h e r esea r ch , w h ile n ot in d ica t in g t h a t LMS is dy sfu n ct ion a l, d o r a ise

som e con cer n s a b ou t t h e d e gr ee of it s su c-cess. T h e level of n e ga t ive a t t it u d es w h ich w er e fou n d a m on g t ea ch er s seven yea r s on fr om t h e im p lem en t a t ion of LMS su ggest a st a t e of lon g-t er m d iscon t en t w it h t h e p olicy, r a t h er t h a n in it ia l n e ga t ive r ea ct ion s t o ch a n ge.

Clea r ly, t h is level of d iscon t en t m en t ca n n ot a id efficien cy in a n or ga n iza t ion , a n d w ill h ave t a n gible n e ga t ive effect s. In d eed it is p ossible t h ese a r e a lr ea dy ev id en t . T h er e a r e con cer n s exp r essed a b ou t t h e n u m b er of t ea ch er s leav in g t h e p r ofession , a n d su b se-q u en t sh or t a ges of t ea ch er s in sp ecia list a r ea s su ch a s scien ce a n d t ech n ology.

T h e r esea r ch id en t ifi ed a n u m b er of r ela -t ion sh ip s con cer n in g LMS a n d i-t s effec-t on t h e in t er p er son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool. It w a s fou n d t h a t a lt h ou gh n e ga t ive a t t it u d es w er e t o b e fou n d t ow a r d s LMS a m on g t ea ch er s in gen er a l, h ea d t ea ch er s, in com p a r ison , h eld ver y p osit ive v iew s. It w a s a lso fou n d t h a t a lin k exist ed b et w een levels of p a r t icip a t ion in d ecision m a k in g a n d n e ga t ive a t t it u d es a m on g t ea ch er s t ow a r d s job sa t isfa ct ion .

Wh er e a m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e exist ed , t ea ch er a t t it u d es w er e on t h e w h ole m or e n e ga t ive t h a n in sch ools w it h a m or e in for m a l colle gia t e cu lt u r e. Alt h ou gh n ot con clu sive, t h er e w a s som e in d ica t ion t h a t n e ga t ive v iew s of LMS w er e r ela t ed t o sp ecifi c a sp ect s of t h e m a n a ger ia list cu lt u r e. T h e in d ica t ion s fr om t h is st u dy a r e t h a t t h e se p a r a t ion of t ea ch er s in t o m a n a gem en t a n d t ea ch er s h a s n ot ser ved sch ools or t h e r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een t ea ch er s w ell.

References

1 Mor ga n , G., Im a ges of Orga n iz a tion s, Sa ge, Bever ly H ills, CA, 1991.

2 Web er, M., T h e T h eor y of S ocia l a n d E con om ic Orga n iz a tion, F r ee P r ess, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1947. 3 H a n dy, C., Un d ersta n d in g Orga n iz a tion s,

P en gu in , H a r m on d swor t h , 1990.

Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:

LMS: the managerial climate and its ef fects on the

interpersonal climate of the school

John Leo Doyle

S. Wells

Introduction

Description of the schools

Response rates

Headteacher’s leadership style

Participation in decision making

Job satisfaction

The interpersonal climate of the

school

Perceptions of LMS

Analysis

References

Further reading