Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue4.1998:

(1)

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f

Hughe s Hall, Unive rs ity o f Cambridge , Cambridge , UK

(2)

concern-Jo hn Le o Do yle

Class, c o nsume rism and e duc atio n

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 4 [1 9 9 8 ] 1 8 3 –1 8 7

As w it h t h e s it u a t ion in w h ich w e fi n d ou r -s elve-s t od ay, -sch ool-s a n d u n iver -s it ie-s w er e bu s in ess con cer n s, t h eir cu r r icu lu m d et er -m in ed by t h e r eq u ir e-m en t s of a s -m a ll elit e s ocia l gr ou p. T h is ed u ca t ion w a s ess en t ia lly con cer n ed w it h ch a r a ct er bu ild in g, a n d p r e p a r in g a sm a ll elit e for s u b seq u en t a d m in -ist r a t ive a n d lea d er sh ip r oles. Or, a s w e in ou r ow n t im e m igh t s ay, p r ov id in g a s t r u ct u r e in w h ich s ch ools ca n sp ecia lize. As s u ch , ed u ca -t ion w a s a d es ir a ble com m od i-t y -t o -t h ose w i-t h s u fficien t w ea lt h w h o cou ld ch oose t h e t y p e of s ch ool a n d ed u ca t ion t h ey r eq u ir ed ; or a s w e m igh t s ay t o t h os e w h o a r e “ow n er

-occu p ier s ”, a ble t o m ove h om e t o secu r e a favou r a ble s ch ool p la cem en t .

H ow ever, a n essen t ia l p r oblem w it h u s in g t h is con s u m er p a r a d igm is t h a t it r eq u ir es t h e a cce p t a n ce t h a t t h e logic of ch a n ge d e p en d s on Ad a m Sm it h ’s “in v isible h a n d ”, w h er eby t h e a ch ievem en t of in d iv id u a l in t er -est is in t h e in t er -est of a ll societ y, a n d ch a n ge in s ociet a l in s t it u t ion s is t o b e a t t a in ed by in d iv id u a ls com p et in g a ga in st on e a n ot h er. It is on e of t h e gr ea t m y t h s of u t ilit a r ia n p h ilos-op h y t h a t a n in d iv id u a l ca n a lt er societ y.

It is t h is con ce p t w h ich gives ju s t ifi ca t ion t o t h e va r iou s k in d s of socia l Da r w in is m w h ich r a t ion a lizes p r a ct ices s u ch a s t h e r a t ion in g of h ea lt h ca r e by m a n y h os p it a ls op er a t in g s y s t em s of “b ed block in g”, a n d com p et it ion b et w een in d iv id u a l sch ools. Wh ile La dy T h a t ch er m ay b e h a p py t o a ss er t t h a t t h er e is “n o su ch t h in g a s s ociet y ” (1989), a n t h r op olo-gis t s h ave lon g s in ce est a blis h ed t h a t societ a l d evelop m en t a n d t h er efor e s u ccess fu l ch a n ge is on ly p os sible w h en p eop le com b in e t h eir a ct iv it ies in or d er t o a s sis t ea ch ot h er.

T h er e a r e a n u m b er of ob st a cles for t h ose a s p ir in g t o ext en d t h e “en t er p r ise cu lt u r e” in t o t h e st a t e w elfa r e sy s t em v ia in d iv id u a ls com p et in g a ga in st ea ch ot h er. F ir s t , t h er e is t h e a t t it u d e a m on g p ot en t ia l con s u m er s w h o h ave b een socia lized t o r e ga r d h ea lt h , ed u ca -t ion a n d s o for -t h a s p a r -t of a collec-t ive good , a n d m ay n ot b e in clin ed t o a cce p t “cos t -b en efi t a n a ly sis”’ -b ein g p r ior it ized over s ocia l n eed in t h e a sses sm en t of ser v ice p r o-v ision . T h e fa ilu r e of con s u m er s t o d is p lay t h e b eh av iou r p a t t er n s p r ed ict ed by m a r k et a n a ly s t s h a s a lw ay s p la ced lim it s on n eo-cla ss ica l econ om ics.

A fu r t h er ob s t a cle cen t r es on t h e p r ofes -s ion a l cu lt u r e of t h o-s e w h o w er e -socia lized a -s h ea lt h wor k er s, t ea ch er s, a n d s ocia l wor k er s; t o v iew t h e a r ea s in w h ich t h ey wor k a s a collect ive good . T h e u n ion s, w h ich r e p r es en t t h ese gr ou p s of wor k er s, h ave con t in u a lly exp r es s ed con cer n a b ou t m a r k et p r in cip les, w h ich em p h a sise in d iv id u a l r a t h er t h a n collect ive b en efi t .

F in a lly, t h ose a dvoca t in g t h e “en t er p r ise cu lt u r e” a ss u m e t h a t s ociet y is b a sed on a con sen su s m od el of va lu es in w h ich a ll in d i-v id u a ls w ill b eliei-ve t h a t cer t a in goa ls a r e d es ir a ble, a n d t h er efor e com p et e a ga in st ea ch ot h er t o a t t a in t h em . T h e b a sis of t h is

a p p r oa ch is t o gen er a t e a n id ea l fr om w h ich r ea lit y is in fer r ed , r a t h er t h a n s t a r t in g w it h r ea lit y a n d in fer r in g a n id ea l. T h is v iew fa ils t o con fr on t t h e is su e t h a t m od er n societ y is m or e a p p r op r ia t ely d efi n ed by t h e fa ct t h a t it com p r ises of com p et in g in t er est gr ou p s. H en ce t h ey ign or e t h e d iffer en ces in cla ss va lu e sy st em s, a n d t h e im p lica t ion s of t h ese d iffer en t sy st em s on t h e n a t u r e of s ociet y a n d in p a r t icu la r or ga n iza t ion s.

It is ver y ea s y t o m a k e a ca s e for t h e fa ct t h a t or ga n iza t ion s a r e cla s s b ou n d (Doy le, 1995). T h e fi r st st r u ct u r ed or ga n iza t ion s a r ose in feu d a l societ ies w h er e on e elit e gr ou p im p os ed it self on a n ot h er, m or e oft en t h a n n ot t h r ou gh con q u est . T h ese societ ies b eca m e fu r t h er st r a t ifi ed a s d iffer en t gr ou p s w er e for m ed t o p r ov id e va r iou s ser v ices t o t h e r u lin g elit e a s p r iest s, m er ch a n t s a n d so on . Ra d ica l or ga n iza t ion a l t h eor is t s a r gu e t h a t t h e sa m e sy st em is r e p r od u ced in m od -er n or ga n iza t ion s w it h t h e d ist in ct ion s b et w een ow n er s, m a n a ger s a n d wor k er s, a n d t h a t fa ilu r e t o r ecogn ize t h is is t o ign or e t h e st r u ct u r e of d om in a t ion in w h ich p ow er is exer cised .

Cla s s con fl ict h a s cer t a in ly b een t h e d efi n -in g ch a r a ct er ist ic of Br it is h or ga n iza t ion s sin ce t h e la t t er p a r t of t h e n in et een t h cen t u r y. T h e con su m er a p p r oa ch t o u n d er s t a n d in g sch ools sim p ly fa ils t o give con sid er a t ion t o t h e cu lt u r a l a n d h ist or ica l con d it ion s, w h ich h ave in fl u en ced sch ools. T h e p oin t is sim p le: t h e cu lt u r e a n d h ist or y of a cou n t r y sh a p e or ga n iza t ion s. Con fl ict b et w een d iffer en t socia l gr ou p s h a s b een a d efi n in g ch a r a ct er is-t ic of Br iis-t ish socieis-t y sin ce is-t h e in d u sis-t r ia l r evolu t ion .

Th e com m en cem en t of sta te edu ca tion in Br ita in th e Foster E du ca tion Act (1870) w a s a r espon se to cla ss con fl ict a n d m iddle-cla ss fea r s of a n expa n din g in du str ia l u r ba n wor k -in g-cla ss. Th e r ecor d of Foster ’s speech es -in Ha n sa r d leave n o dou bt th a t th e E du ca tion Act (1870) w a s a m ea su r e of cla ss con tr ol, wh ich w a s to be a ch ieved by con tr ol of th e cu r r icu -lu m a n d peda gogy. It is n ot h a r d to dr aw a cor r ela tion between th e E du ca tion Act (1870) a n d th e over a ll str u ctu r e of th e N a tion a l Cu r r icu lu m , w ith its tr a dition a l su bject bou n d -a r ies; cer t-a in ly -a t th e ver y le-a st it c-a n be qu es-tion ed for its con ser va tive cu ltu r e a n d its con son a n ce w ith dom in a n t ideology.

(3)

Jo hn Le o Do yle

blin d ” ca n on ly r esu lt in a n in a d eq u a t e a n a ly -sis. In t h e 1960s a n d 1970s t h er e w a s a w ea lt h of d a t a p r od u ced by sociologist s (Colem a n et a l., 1966; J en ck s, 1972) w h ich in d ica t ed t h a t d iffer en ces in a ch ievem en t s a r e la r gely cor r e-la t ed w it h s ocio-econ om ic b a ck gr ou n d , a n d t h a t sch oolin g h a d lit t le effect on ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ces. It is n ot m y a im t o r ev iew t h is lit er a t u r e a n d d eb a t e on socia l cla s s a n d ed u ca t ion , a s t h e r ea d er s of t h is jou r n a l w ill b e fa m ilia r w it h t h e p r in cip le id ea s in t h is lit er a t u r e; a n d a n u m b er of excellen t r ev iew s of t h is lit er a t u r e a r e ava il-a ble (Coh en , 1988; Gr eer t z, 1983; Ros e, 1991).

T h e p oin t t h a t I w ish t o m a k e is w h ile t h e w ea lt h of r esea r ch t h a t exis t s on t h is a r ea , a lt h ou gh n ot illu st r a t in g a d efi n it e ca u sa l r ela t ion s h ip b et w een a ch ievem en t a n d ot h er fa ct or s, cer t a in ly d oes p r ov id e ev id en ce t o su p p or t cer t a in lin k s b et w een wor k in g-cla s s p u p ils a n d low a ch ievem en t r ela t ive t o t h eir m id d le-cla s s cou n t er p a r t s. T h ese lin k s in clu d e p over t y, h om e va lu es, t ea ch er a t t i-t u d es a n d lin gu isi-t ic p r oblem s; r es ea r ch er s (M or t im or e a n d Bla ck st on e, 1981; Bu r ges s, 1986) con t in u e t o fi n d en or m ou s m a t er ia l d iffer en ces b et w een s ocia l cla s s es.

T h e a b ove r es ea r ch ca n b e ca t e gor ized a s b elon gin g t o a “socia l p a t h ology ” p er sp ect ive. Wh er eby t h e em p h a sis is on n a t u r a l, in d iv id -u a l, fa m ilia l a n d c-u lt -u r a lly d efi cien t a sp ect s of wor k in gcla s s life. T h ese cu lt u r a l exp la n a -t ion s of wor k in g-cla s s u n d er -a ch ievem en -t in v a r ia b ly in clu d e a v iew of wor k in g-cla ss cu lt u r e a s b ein g d efi cien t in com p a r is on t o ot h er s ocia l cla ss es. T h e w id esp r ea d u s e of t h e con s u m er p a r a d igm in r ecen t yea r s h a s given a n ew t w ist t o t h e “socia l p a t h ology ” exp la n a t ion . In t h a t it h a s ext en d ed t h e v iew t h a t wor k in g-cla ss cu lt u r e is in a d eq u a t e a s it s m em b er s d o n ot h ave t h e s k ills a n d va lu es t h a t en a ble t h em t o b e su cces s fu l con s u m er s.

P r om in en t a m on g t h e socia l scien t is t s a dvoca t in g t h is v iew is Ca h ill (1994) w h o a r gu es t h a t a lin k b et w een t h e w elfa r e s t a t e a n d a m a r k et econ om y is in ev it a ble, a n d t h a t it is on ly t h e a t t it u d es b eh in d in t er ven t ion w h ich a lt er a s a r es u lt of ch a n gin g socia l clim a t es. H e p ow er fu lly in d ica t es h ow t h ose w h o a r e n ot a ble t o p a r t icip a t e fu lly in a con -su m er s ociet y b ecom e m a r gin a lized , a n d exclu d ed fr om im p or t a n t a r ea s s u ch a s u s in g in for m a t ion t ech n ology, a n d p a r t icip a t ion in t h e p olit ica l p r ocess. T h e p r oblem t h a t I fi n d w it h t h is a p p r oa ch is t h a t it ju s t ifi es t h e law s of t h e m a r k et in d ecid in g t h e com m on good : t h e d efi n it ion of eq u a lit y is n o lon ger d em oc-r a t ic, bu t com m eoc-r cia l.

However, m y m a jor con cer n w it h t h e “socia l p a t h ology ” p er sp ect ive is t h a t it fa ils t o a ck n ow led ge t h e effect s of p olit ica l id eologies a n d p u r p oses on socia l p olicy a n d p r ov ision .

A t r u e u n d er st a n d in g of t h e p osit ion of sch ools a n d wor k in g-cla ss p u p ils w ill n ot b e p ossible u n less we wor k on t h e p r em iss t h a t a ll p r ogr a m m es of le gisla t ion , n ot ju st in ed u ca t ion , bu t a lso in a r ea s su ch a s h ou sin g a n d socia l ser v ices, a r e fu n d ed for sp ecifi c p u r p oses by cen t r a l gover n m en t . If we con -t in u e -t o r e ga r d -t h is p olicy a s b ein g “cla ss blin d ” t h en it w ill follow t h a t t h e t wo n a t ion s of t h e n in et een t h cen t u r y, in t er m s of ed u ca -t ion a l op p or -t u n i-t ies, w ill con -t in u e.

T h er e is s om e ev id en ce t h a t p a r en t a l ch oice con solid a t es socia l cla ss se gr e ga t ion (Willm s a n d E ch ols, 1992). Willm s a n d E ch ols con -clu d ed t h a t is su es a b ou t t h e effect of t h e socia l ca t ch m en t a r ea d o n ot seem t o h ave b een a d d r essed in t h e d eb a t e on p a r en t a l ch oice. Res ea r ch con d u ct ed in Lon d on (Doy le a n d Wells, 1996) fou n d t h a t p a r en t a l ch oice is m ost lik ely t o b e exer cised by m id d le-cla ss p a r en t s, t h er eby en h a n cin g t h e exist in g t en -d en cy for t h er e t o b e a h ier a r ch y of sch ools, in fl u en ced by geogr a p h ica l loca t ion .

In a d d it ion , ev id en ce fr om a r ecen t r esea r ch st u dy a t Br u n el Un iver s it y (Rob in -son a n d Wh it e, 1997), t o b e p u blish ed in a u t u m n 1998 sh ow s a b ia s in t h e ed u ca t ion sy st em in favou r of st u d en t s in socia l cla sses I a n d II w h ich is est a blish ed w h en ch ild r en a r e a t a ge s even . T h is r e p or t fou n d t h a t in 1960, 55 p er cen t of u n d er gr a d u a t es w er e fr om socia l cla sses I a n d II. By 1995 t h e fi gu r e h a d r is en t o m or e t h a n 60 p er cen t a n d d u r in g t h e sa m e p er iod t h e p r op or t ion of st u d en t s fr om m a n u a l b a ck gr ou n d s fell fr om 28 p er cen t t o 27 p er cen t .

If w e a r e t o avoid t h e t wo-n a t ion scen a r io, a p a r t fr om r ecogn izin g t h e cla s s n a t u r e of le gisla t ion , w e m u st a lso a ck n ow led ge t h a t or ga n iza t ion a l t h eor y is a lso n ot “cla ss blin d ”. Or ga n iza t ion a l t h eor y, esp ecia lly w h en it is a p p lied t o sch ools, a t t em p t s t o b e id eologica lly n eu t r a l. Differ en t t h eor ies focu s on h ow t o im p r ove lea d er sh ip sk ills, or m ot iva t ion , or ot h er w ise cr ea t e a n excellen t or ga -n iza t io-n .

H ow ever, t h e con ce p t of d om in a t ion is in t r in sic t o t h e w ay in w h ich w e or ga n ize a n d n ot ju s t a n u n in t en d ed sid e effect . If w e a r e t o avoid in eq u a lit y in w elfa r e p r ov ision , esp e-cia lly in ed u ca t ion , t h en w e m u st d evelop a p a r a d igm t h a t a llow s u s t o com e t o gr ip s w it h t h e b a sic for ces sh a p in g societ y a n d or ga n iza t ion s. At p r esen t t h e lit er a t u r e on t h e m a n -a gem en t of ch -a n ge f-a ils t o d o t h is.

(4)

Jo hn Le o Do yle

a n a ly t ica l a n d a t t em p t s t o ca t e gor ize ch a n ge in t er m s of a b st r a ct con ce p t s, for exa m p le by t h e d e gr ee of it s u n cer t a in t y.

H ow ever, t h e p r oblem w it h t h ese t wo a p p r oa ch es is t h a t t h ey d o n ot in d ica t e h ow or ga n iza t ion s ca n in fl u en ce t h e n a t u r e of t h e ch a n ge t h a t t h ey en cou n t er. In or d er t o d o t h is w e r eq u ir e a p a r a d igm t h a t w ill en a ble u s t o exa m in e t h e a ct u a l logic in volved in t h e ch a n ge p r ocess. M a r x’s d ia lect ica l a n a ly sis in d ica t es t h a t t h e m a n a gem en t of ch a n ge in or ga n iza t ion s in volves t h e m a n a gem en t of con t r a d ict ion s. It is n ot m y a im h er e t o p r e-s en t t h e cla e-s e-sic v iew of d ia lect ica l m a t er ia l-ism ou t lin ed in Ma r x’s wor k a s t h is w ill b e fa m ilia r t o t h e r ea d er s of t h is jou r n a l. I sim -p ly w is h t o -p oin t ou t t h a t d ia lect ica l a n a ly sis h a s m a jor im p lica t ion s for t h e p r a ct ice of s ocia l a n d or ga n iza t ion a l ch a n ge, h en ce w e d o n ot h ave t o a cce p t a p a s sive st a n ce t o s ocia l r ea lit y.

Dia lect ica l a n a ly sis in v it es u s t o con sid er t h a t t h e op p os in g in t er es t s of d isp a r a t e gr ou p s ca n b e u s ed n ot on ly t o d efi n e r ea lit y, bu t a ls o b e a m ech a n is m of eq u it a ble ch a n ge. If w e a d op t t h is m ea n s of a n a ly sis t h en it ca n h ave im p or t a n t im p lica t ion s for t h e m a n n er in w h ich w e or ga n ize. For it im p lies t h a t on t h e p er ip h er y of a n or ga n iza t ion a r e m a r -s h a llin g p oin t -s for d i-sor ga n iza t ion . T h i-s a p p r oa ch r eq u ir es u s t o com e t o t er m s w it h t h e b a s ic econ om ic for ces sh a p in g societ y a n d or ga n iza t ion s.

A d ia lect ica l u n d er s t a n d in g of t h e logic of ch a n ge r eq u ir es m a n a ger s t o con fr on t t h e con t r a d ict ion s t h a t fa ce or ga n iza t ion s. It t h er efor e follow s t h a t in t h e a gen cies t h a t p r ov id e w elfa r e s er v ices ; ed u ca t ion , h ea lt h a n d s o on , m a n a ger s w ill h ave t o b e aw a r e of a n d p r ior it ize t h e d iffer en t cla s s va lu es t h a t com p et e for d om in a n ce.

T h e d ia lect ica l a p p r oa ch wou ld r eq u ir e m a n a ger s a t a ll t im es t o h igh ligh t in a n y a n a ly s is t h e r es ou r ces m a d e ava ila ble by cen t r a l gover n m en t . Mor e im p or t a n t ly t h is a p p r oa ch w ill m a in t a in a t t h e for efr on t of a ll d is cu s s ion s t h e econ om ic ch oices a n d p r ior i-t ies of cen i-t r a l gover n m en i-t , i-t h er efor e m a k in g it m or e d ifficu lt for a gover n m en t t o t a lk in t er m s of “efficien cy s av in g”, or w elfa r e a gen -cies h av in g t o d ecid e on t h e p r ior it ies t o b e m et fr om t h e r esou r ces ava ila ble. T h is a p p r oa ch focu ses t h e elect or a t e’s a t t en t ion on t h e ch oices m a d e by gover n m en t , r a t h er t h a n on t h e ch oices m a d e by t h e loca l ed u ca t ion a u t h or it y or h osp it a l t r u s t . For exa m p le, h ow “good s ch ools ” a r e t o exp a n d , given t h e la r ge ca p it a l cos t iss u es t h a t n eed t o b e over com e, wou ld b e a n iss u e t h a t gover n m en t cou ld n o lon ger ign or e.

In r ecogn izin g t h is, we a r e a ble t o see t h a t socia l cla ss is n ot a n eu t r a l issu e in ed u ca t ion ,

a n d it wou ld h igh ligh t t h e im p or t a n ce of eco-n om ic fa ct or s ieco-n sh a p ieco-n g p olicy coeco-n st r u ct ioeco-n a n d im p lem en t a t ion . Wh ile a d ia lect ica l v iew wou ld im p ly t h ese t en sion s w ill a lw ay s exist given t h a t econ om ic for ces a r e t h e b a sic for ce in ou r societ y, it n on e t h e less in d ica t es t h a t in d iv id u a ls a n d societ y h ave a ch oice in h ow eq u it a ble societ a l in st it u t ion s a r e.

In t h e la t e 1940s t h e su ffer in g of t h e w a r yea r s r esu lt ed in a d em a n d for “welfa r e ca p i-t a lism ”, i-t h e econ om ic a n d socia l i-t en sion s gen er a t ed by t h e m a r k et wer e t o b e r esolved by in t er ven t ion , t h e ed u ca t ion a n d h ea lt h ser v ice in p a r t icu la r h a d a n im p or t a n t p a r t t o p lay. T h is is t h e m od a lit y of p ower, wh ich ca n b e r efer r ed t o a s “socia l d em ocr a cy ”. La dy T h a t ch er d ist u r b ed t h e b a la n ce of socia l d em ocr a cy by con cen t r a t in g on on e sid e of t h e con sen su s eq u a t ion , n a m ely m a r k et for ces. T h is r esu lt ed in a b r ea k d ow n of t h e con sen su s t h a t ch a r a ct er ised p ost -w a r welfa r ism .

T h e 1980s w it n essed t h e r e-em er gen ce of t h e la issez -fa ire econ om ic p a r a d igm d evelop ed in t h e la st cen t u r y. A p a r a d igm t h a t is d e p en -d en t on p olicies t h a t em p h a s ise com p et it ion , m a r k et for ces, a n d sh or t t er m fi n a n cia l p la n -n i-n g. Clea r ly t h is a p p r oa ch w ill -n ot r esu lt i-n a n eq u it a ble sy st em of w elfa r e p r ov ision . Un d ou b t ed ly if t h e or igin a l a im of t h e w elfa r e st a t e a s en v is a ged by Bever id ge is t o b e r e-est a blish ed t h en it is im p or t a n t t o u se a d ia lect ica l a n a ly sis of h ow gover n m en t s in t er ven e in t h e econ om y a n d w elfa r e sy st em . As t h is a p p r oa ch w ill en a ble a cr it iq u e t o b e con st r u ct ed of h ow m a r k et p r in cip les a r e u sed t o con t r ol socia l ch a n ge, a n d m ay p ossbly r es u lt in a n in t e gr a t ive id eology, m a n i-fes t ed in con sen s u s p olit ics a n d “socia l d em ocr a cy ”.

References

Bever id ge, W. (1942), S ocia l In su ra n ce a n d A llied S er v ices, H MSO, Lon d on .

Bu r ges s, R. (1986), S ociolog y, E d u ca tion a n d S ch ools, Ba t sfor d , Lon d on .

Ca h ill, M . (1994), T h e N ew S ocia l Policy, Bla ck w ell, Oxfor d .

Colem a n , J . et a l. (1966), E qu a lity of E d u ca tion a l Op p or tu n ity, US Gover n m en t P r in t in g Office, Wa s h in gt on , DC.

Coh en , K. (1988), R estru ctu r in g th e E d u ca tion S ystem : A gen d a for th e 1990s, Lon gm a n , N ew Yor k , N Y.

Cox, B. a n d Boy son , R. (E d s) (1975), B la ck Pa p er 1975, Den t , Lon d on .

Cox, B. a n d Boy son , R. (E d s) (1977), B la ck Pa p er 1977, Den t , Lon d on .

Cox, B. a n d Dy s on , A. (E d s) (1969a ), Figh t for E d u ca tion : A B la ck Pa p er, Cr it ica l Qu a r t er ly Societ y, Lon d on .

(5)

Jo hn Le o Do yle

Cox, B. a n d Dy son , A. (E d s ) (1970), B la ck Pa p er T h ree, Cr it ica l Qu a r t er ly Societ y, Lon d on . Doy le, J .L. (1995), S ocia l Ch a n ge a n d E d u ca tion a l

E x p a n sion 1066-1300, Ca m b r id ge Un iver s it y P r ess, Ca m b r id ge.

Doy le, J .L. a n d Wells, J . (1996), “LM S: t h e m a n a ger ia l clim a t e a n d it s effect s on t h e in t eger p eger -son a l clim a t e of t h e sch ool”, T h e In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 10 N o. 6, p p 32-41.

Gr eer t z, J . (1983), “T h e in t er p r et a t ion of cu lt u r es”, McGr aw -H ill, N ew Yor k , N Y. J en ck s, C. (1972), In equ a lity: A R ea ssessm en t of

th e E ffects of Fa m ily a n d S ch ool in A m er ica , Ba sic Book s, N ew Yor k , N Y.

M or t im or e, J . a n d Bla ck st on e, T. (1981), Disa d v a n ta ge in E d u ca tion , H ein em a n n , Lon d on .

Rob in s on , R. a n d Wh it e, P. (1997), Pa r ticip a tion in Post-Com p u lsor y E d u ca tion , Cen t r e for E d u ca t ion a n d E m p loy m en t Resea r ch , Br u n el Un iver s it y, q u ot ed fr om r e p or t p u blis h ed in t h e a u t u m n 1997.

Ros e, W. (1991), Politica l E lites, Bla ck w ell, Oxfor d . T h a t ch er, M . (1989), In t er v iew ed on “Wor ld in

Act ion ”, Gr a n a d a TV, 21 Oct ob er.