Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue5.1996:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1996] 2 5 –3 5 © MCB Unive rsity Pre ss [ISSN 0951-354X]

Application of total quality management in

education: retrospect and prospect

Paula Y.K. Kwan

Se nio r Le c ture r, Divisio n o f Co mme rc e , City Unive rsity o f Ho ng Ko ng, Ho ng Ko ng

Points out that recent discus-sion has centred on the application of total quality management (TQM) in educa-tion. Most writers appear inclined to suggest that TQM is a unique solution for effec-tive school management. Nonetheless, TQM was initi-ated in the manufacturing sector and its successful application in the educational setting should only be justi-fi ed with ample theoretical support and concrete evi-dence. Attempts to trace the literature that discusses the application of TQM in educa-tion. Also addresses the differences between industry and education. Aims to explore the relevance of employing TQM in education.

Development of total quality

management in education

Tot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t (TQM) is a m a n -a gem en t p h ilosop h y t h -a t h -a s t r -a n s for m ed t h e p r od u ct s a n d p r ocess es of lea d in g J a p a n ese com p a n ies d u r in g t h e p a st 40 yea r s[1]. F a ced w it h in cr ea sin g com p et it ion fr om J a p a n ese p r od u ct s, com p a n ies t h r ou gh ou t t h e in d u s t r i-a lized wor ld h i-ave b e gu n t o i-a d op t TQM. T h e t h eor et ica l fou n d a t ion s of TQM ca m e fr om sever a l p eop le, in clu d in g W. E dw a r d s Dem in g, J os e p h M . J u r a n a n d P h ilip Cr os by in t h e USA a n d Gen ich i Ta gu ch i a n d Ka or u

Is h ik aw a in J a p a n . As it s n a m e im p lies, TQM focu s es on q u a lit y. J u r a n d efi n es q u a lit y a s “fi t n es s for u se”[2, p. 58] by t h e cu st om er, Dem in g a dvoca t es t h a t q u a lit y “s h ou ld b e a im ed a t t h e n eed s of t h e cu s t om er, p r es en t a n d fu t u r e”[3, p. 5] a n d Cr os by s u p p or t s t h is: “con for m a n ce t o r eq u ir em en t s set by con -su m er s”[4, p. 2]. Accor d in g t o Ish ik aw a , a q u a lit y p r od u ct is on e w h ich is “m os t eco-n om ica l, m ost u sefu l, a eco-n d a lw ay s s a t is fa ct or y t o t h e con s u m er ”[1, p. 4]. By eit h er of t h es e d efi n it ion s, t h e cu s t om er d ecid es w h et h er a p r od u ct is of h igh q u a lit y, n ot t h e p a r t icip a n t s in t h e p r ocess t h a t cr ea t ed t h e p r od u ct . In fa ct , a ll t h e “gu r u s ” em p h a s ize t h e im p or t a n ce of cu st om er s a t is fa ct ion a s w ell a s con -t in u ou s im p r ovem en -t .

Bes id es it s p op u la r it y in m a n u fa ct u r in g com p a n ies, TQM p h ilos op h y h a s b een a d op t ed in s er v ice in d u st r ies lik e b a n k s a n d h osp it a ls [5-7]. T h e a p p lica b ilit y of TQM t h eo-r ies in t h e ed u ca t ion a l sect oeo-r h a s a ls o a t t r a ct ed t h e in t er es t of m a n y t h eor is t s a n d p r a ct it ion er s s u ch a s DeCos m o et a l.[8], E dw ell[9], Sh er r a n d Lozier [10], Bon ser [11], T r ibu s [12], Br igh a m [13], H ever ly [14] a n d Rh od es [15]. T h ey p oin t ed ou t t h a t

ed u ca t ion a l in s t it u t ion s h ave t u r n ed t o TQM for m a n y of t h e sa m e r ea son s t h a t bu s in ess es h ave in s t it u t ed q u a lit y p r ogr a m m es.

Bon s er [11] a t t r ibu t ed t h e m ove t ow a r d s TQM in h igh er ed u ca t ion t o t h e es ca la t in g n u m b er of s t u d en t s, t h e la ck of con s ist en t lea d er s h ip s t y le, t h e in cr ea sin g a ccou n t a b il-it y t o t h e p u blic a n d ch a n gin g a t t il-it u d es t ow a r d s u n iver s it ies. H e w r ot e:

T h es e p r ess u r es w ill d em a n d p ea k q u a lit y p er for m a n ce fr om u n iver s it ies in a ll a r ea s

of en d eavor. Ap p r oa ch es t h a t w er e con s id er ed a d eq u a t e, s y s t em s t h a t w er e m a in -t a in ed b eca u s e of -t r a d i-t ion , in er -t ia , ign o-r a n ce, oo-r t h e con ven ien ce of in t eo-r n a l p olt ics, w ill n o lon ger b e olt oler a olt ed . M os olt in s olt i-t u i-t ion s in Am er ica n s ociei-t y a r e ch a n gin g i-t o a d a p t t o a n ew wor ld en v ir on m en t . Un iver si-t ies w ill n osi-t b e a n exce p si-t ion [11, p. 506].

DeCosm o et a l.[8] a lso exp la in ed t h a t t h e in t en s ify in g a d a p t a t ion of TQM p h ilosop h y in ed u ca t ion w a s d u e t o r esou r ces con st r a in t s a n d in cr ea s in g p u blic p r ess u r e. In fa ct , E dw ell[9, p. 96] r e p or t ed t h a t : “over 61 p er cen t of colle ge p r es id en t s aver r in g in volvem en t in Tot a l Qu a lit y – t h is com p a r ed w it h a t b est a d ozen or so ca m p u s im p lem en t a t ion effor t s a s r ecen t ly a s t wo yea r s a go.”

Definition of TQM

Va r iou s d efi n it ion s of TQM h ave b een a d op t ed by d iffer en t w r it er s. Accor d in g t o H a r r is[16], t h er e a r e t h r ee gen er ic

a p p r oa ch es t o TQM. T h e fi r s t a p p r oa ch h a s a cu st om er focu s, w h er e t h e id ea of ser v ice t o st u d en t s is fost er ed t h r ou gh st a ff t r a in in g a n d d evelop m en t . T h e s econ d h a s a st a ff focu s, a n d is con cer n ed t o va lu e a n d en h a n ce t h e con t r ibu t ion of a ll m em b er s of st a ff t o t h e effect iven ess of a s ch ool. T h e t h ir d a p p r oa ch t a k es a ser v ice a gr eem en t st a n ce, a n d seek s t o en su r e con for m it y t o sp ecifi ca t ion a t cer -t a in k ey m ea su r a ble p oin -t s of -t h e ed u ca -t ion a l p r ocess. Mu r ga t r oyd a n d Mor ga n [17, p. 47] a dvoca t e t h a t t h er e a r e t h r ee d im en sion s for q u a lit y – q u a lit y a ssu r a n ce, con t r a ct con for -m a n ce a n d cu st o-m er -d r iven . Tay lor a n d H ill[18] d efi n e TQM a s a cu st om er -focu sed p r ocess w h ich seek s for con t in u ou s im p r ove-m en t a n d ove-m eet in g cu st oove-m er s’ p er ce p t ion s. T h ese v iew s a r e ech oed by m a n y a u t h or s su ch a s Sh er r a n d Lozier [10], H ever ly [14], E dw ell[9], DeCosm o et a l.[8], Coa t e[19] a n d Leffel et a l.[20]. H ow ever, Gr een [21, p. 17] ch a llen ges t h is by st a t in g t h a t “d iffer en t in t er est gr ou p s … h ave d iffer en t p r ior it ies a n d t h eir focu s of a t t en t ion m ay b e d iffer en t ”. Bolt on [22, p. 14] t h in k s t h a t “t h e m ea su r e-m en t of p er for e-m a n ce is a n in esca p a ble fea t u r e of TQM .” T h is v iew is s u p p or t ed by Gr een [21] w h o p oin t s ou t t h a t som e The author would like to

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Paula Y.K. Kwan

Applic atio n o f to tal quality manage me nt in e duc atio n: re tro spe c t and pro spe c t

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 5 –3 5

m ea s u r em en t m et h od s a s t o en su r e con for -m a n ce t o cu s t o-m er s’ exp ect a t ion s a r e n eces s a r y. Willia m s[23, p. 374] con clu d es t h a t t h er e a r e t wo d im en sion s of TQM. On t h e on e h a n d “it is a m a n a gem en t t ool t o in cr ea se p r od u ct iv it y, k ee p t h e cu st om er s h a p py, a n d cu t d ow n w a st e”; on t h e ot h er h a n d “it is a m ea n s of m a k in g u s b et t er p eop le, of d evelop -in g ou r p r ofes sion a l good m a n n er s, a n d p r o-v id in g u s w it h a m or a l ed u ca t ion ”.

To s u m u p t h e va r iou s v iew s [8-19,21-23], TQM is a m a n a gem en t t ool t h a t a im s for “t ot a l”, a n d “q u a lit y a s su r a n ce”. F ir s t , TQM im p lies m eet in g t h e exp ect a t ion s of a ll t h e cu s t om er s in t h e ed u ca t ion a l sy s t em . T h e ext er n a l cu st om er s, s u ch a s t h e t a x p ayer s, p a r en t s a n d p ot en t ia l em p loyer s, s h ou ld b e sa t is fi ed w it h t h e st a n d a r d s of t h e gr a d u a t es, w h er ea s t h e in t er n a l cu s t om er s, s u ch a s t ea ch er s a n d s t u d en t s, s h ou ld b e s a t is fi ed w it h t h e t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g p r ocess in sch ool. It t a r get s t h e t ot a l p r ocess a n d ou t p u t of t h e ed u ca t ion s y st em . Secon d , it r eq u ir es q u a lit y a s su r a n ce t o en s u r e con for m it y t o sp ecifi ca t ion of st a n d a r d s s et ou t by t h e cu s-t om er s. T h ir d , is-t is a m a n a gem en s-t s-t ool s-t h a s-t em p h a s izes t h e m ea n s for m ea su r em en t of p er for m a n ce a n d feed b a ck .

Deming’s philosophy

Am on g t h e ext en sive n u m b er of a r t icles w r it -t en on TQM in ed u ca -t ion a l in s -t i-t u -t ion s, Dem in g’s p h ilosop h y is t h e m ost fr eq u en t ly cit ed r efer en ce. H e is w id ely r ecogn ized a s t h e fa t h er of TQM a n d t h u s a closer look a t h is wor k ca n h elp t o u n d er s t a n d t h e sit u a t ion .

Dem in g’s wor k [3, p p. 23-4] b e gin s w it h t h e b elief t h a t a ll p eop le a r e ed u ca ble, t h a t t h ey w a n t t o d o a good job a n d t h ey d eser ve r esp ect . “Wh en t h er e is a p r oblem , 85 p er cen t of t h e t im e it is w it h t h e sy s t em ; 15 p er cen t of t h e t im e it w ill b e w it h t h e wor k er s.” H e a ls o t a k es in t o a ccou n t s t a t is t ica l va r ia t ion a n d ca lls for m a n a gem en t by fa ct , w h ich im p lies collect in g d a t a a n d a n a ly sin g t h em s t a t is t i-ca lly b efor e d ecis ion s a r e m a d e. Dem in g’s 14 p oin t s a r e w id ely r ecogn ized a s t h e fu n d a -m en t a ls of TQM . Accor d in g t o De-m in g, t h ese 14 p oin t s ca n :

a p p ly a n y w h er e, t o sm a ll or ga n isa t ion s a s w ell a s t o la r ge on es, t o t h e ser v ice in d u s t r y a s w ell a s t o m a n u fa ct u r in g.

1 Cr ea t e con st a n cy of p u r p os e t ow a r d im p r ovem en t of p r od u ct a n d ser v ice… 2 Ad op t t h e p h ilos op h y …West er n m a n

-a gem en t m u s t -aw -a k en t o t h e ch -a llen ge, m u s t lea r n t h eir r esp on sib ilit ies, a n d t a k e on lea d er sh ip for ch a n ge. 3 Cea se d e p en d en ce on in s p ect ion t o

a ch ieve q u a lit y. E lim in a t e t h e n eed for in s p ect ion on a m a ss b a s is by bu ild in g

q u a lit y in t o t h e p r od u ct in t h e fi r s t p la ce.

4 E n d t h e p r a ct ice of aw a r d in g bu s in es s on t h e b a sis of p r ice t a g…M ove t ow a r d a sin gle s u p p lier for a n y on e it em , on a lon g-t er m r ela t ion s h ip of loya lt y a n d t r u st .

5 Im p r ove con s t a n t ly a n d for ever t h e sy st em of p r od u ct ion a n d s er v ice,…a n d t h u s con s t a n t ly d ecr ea se cost s. 6 In st it u t e t r a in in g on job.

7 In sist on lea d er s h ip …T h e a im of s u p er -v ision s h ou ld b e t o h elp p eop le…t o d o a b et t er job …

8 Dr ive ou t fea r …

9 Br ea k d ow n b a r r ier s …p eop le m u s t wor k a s a t ea m ...

10 E lim in a t e s loga n s a n d t a r get …a sk in g for zer o d efect s a n d n ew levels of p r o-d u ct iv it y.

11a E lim in a t e wor k s t a n d a r d s (q u ot a )…s u b s t it u t e lea d er s h ip. 11b E lim in a t e m a n a gem en t by

ob ject ive…s u b s t it u t e lea d er s h ip. 12a Rem ove b a r r ier s t h a t r ob p eop le of

t h eir r igh t t o p r id e of wor k m a n s h ip ; 12b Rem ove b a r r ier s t h a t r ob p eop le in

m a n a gem en t a n d in en gin eer in g of t h eir r igh t t o p r id e of wor k m a n s h ip. T h is m ea n s, …a b olis h m en t of t h e a n n u a l or m er it r a t in g…

13 In st it u t e a v igor ou s p r ogr a m of ed u ca -t ion a n d s elf-im p r ovem en -t .

14 P u t ever yon e in t h e com p a n y t o wor k t o a ccom p lis h t h e t r a n s for m a t ion …”

Accor d in g t o Win t er [24], t h ese 14 p r in cip les fa ll in t o t h r ee b r oa d ca t e gor ies :

1 Ph ilosop h y a n d m ission – t h is ca t e gor y in clu d es p r in cip les t h a t s t r ess focu sin g on cu st om er n eed s in a n ever -en d in g sea r ch for q u a lit y.

2 Orga n iz a tion a l en v ir on m en t – t h ese p r in ci-p les es t a blish n or m s a n d va lu es t h a t d ic-t a ic-t e ic-t h e ic-t r ea ic-t m en ic-t of ea ch in d iv id u a l in ic-t h e or ga n iza t ion .

3 Pr ocess – t h is ca t e gor y st r ess es t h e n eed for p r oblem p r even t ion t h r ou gh ou t t h e p r ocess r a t h er t h a n t h e id en t ifi ca t ion of fa ilu r es a t t h e en d of t h e p r ocess.

In a d op t in g TQM, ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t or s a r e t r y in g t o p u r su e t h ese t h r ee ob ject ives.

Successful cases

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Paula Y.K. Kwan

p h a s es. T h e fi r s t w a s t h e im p lem en t a t ion of t ot a l q u a lit y in t h e t op m a n a gem en t of t h e colle ge, a n d w a s follow ed by t h e d evelop m en t of a TQM cu r r icu lu m . T h e la s t p h a se w a s t h e im p lem en t a t ion of TQM t h r ou gh ou t t h e t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g p r ocess. T h ey fou n d t h a t “on e of t h e im p or t a n t b en efi t s of im p le-m en t in g TQM is t h a t colle ge st a ff a r e a ct ively in volv in g on e a n ot h er in a p r ocess of d ocu -m en t in g a n d s t a n d a r d izin g colle ge op er a t in g p r oced u r es…St a ff a r e w illin g t o wor k in t ea m s a n d a cr os s d e p a r t m en t s. T h e colle ge is slow ly r em ov in g b a r r ier s t o t ea m wor k …T h e execu t ive st a ff in DCCC is con v in ced t h a t TQM is wor t h ever y effor t w e h ave m a d e”[8, p. 22].

Coa t e[19] gave a fu ll r e p or t of h is wor k in im p lem en t in g TQM a t t h e Or e gon St a t e Un i-ver s it y (OSU). It com p r ised n in e p h a s es w h ich w er e:

1 exp lor in g t ot a l q u a lit y m a n a gem en t ; 2 es t a blis h in g a p ilot s t u dy t ea m ; 3 d efi n in g cu s t om er n eed s ;

4 a d op t in g t h e b r ea k t h r ou gh p la n n in g p r oces s ;

5 p er for m in g b r ea k t h r ou gh p la n n in g in t h e d iv ision s;

6 for m in g d a ily m a n a gem en t t ea m s ; 7 in it ia t in g cr oss-fu n ct ion a l p ilot p r oject s; 8 im p lem en t in g cr os s-fu n ct ion a l t ot a l q u a

l-it y m a n a gem en t ; a n d

9 set t in g u p r e p or t in g, r ecogn it ion , a n d aw a r d s s y s t em s.

Coa t e a ls o s u gges t ed t h a t t op m a n a gem en t su p p or t a n d t ea m wor k w er e cr it ica l fa ct or s for s u cces sfu l TQM im p lem en t a t ion . In Coa t e’s op in ion , t h e ca s e of OSU p r oved t h a t : “it [TQM ] h a s saved t h e u n iver s it y t im e, r ed u ced cost s, em p ow er ed p eop le a t a ll levels, a n d im p r oved m or a le…TQM a s v it a l n ot on ly for t h e r ea liza t ion of it s v is ion bu t a lso for it s su r v iva l in t h e m a r k et p la ce”[19, p. 37].

Leffel et a l.[20] r e p or t ed t h eir exp er ien ce w it h Vir gin ia Tech a n d r ecom m en d ed t h a t :

TQM m u s t b e gin w it h t h e d evelop m en t of t h e lea d er sh ip t ea m wor k in g t ow a r d a s h a r ed v is ion , sh a r ed va lu es, a n d a r e p er -t oir e of lea d er sh ip sk ills. Ch a n ge w ill n o-t occu r im m ed ia t ely eit h er in p er son n el or in t h e in s t it u t ion a l cu lt u r e. Lea d er sh ip d evel-op m en t m u s t b e a va lu e a n d a p r ocess t h a t evolves w it h in t h e in s t it u t ion over a p er iod of fi ve t o t en yea r s [20, p. 70].

T h ey a ls o a d m it t ed t h a t TQM lea d er s h ip d evelop m en t w a s a p r ocess t h a t evolved w it h in t h e in st it u t ion over a p er iod of fi ve t o t en yea r s a t lea st . T h er efor e, TQM is a ver y t im e- a n d r es ou r ce-con s u m in g t ool.

Ot h er w r it er s com m en t on t h e a d a p t a t ion of TQM in t h e cla s s r oom . Ga r t n er [25]

r e p or t ed h is a p p lica t ion of Dem in g’s m et h od s t o t wo bu sin es s cou r ses. St u d en t s w er e given a 16-p a ge cou r se ou t lin e w h ich sp ecifi ed t h e r eq u ir em en t t o a ch ieve gr a d e A on t h e fi r st d ay of cla ss, so t h a t st u d en t s cou ld m ea su r e t h eir a b ilit y t o m eet t h e q u a n t it y a n d q u a lit y sp ecifi ca t ion s for A wor k . Ga r t n er fou n d t h a t st u d en t s w a n t ed t o d o w ell a n d cou ld p er for m t h ose sp ecifi c ou t p u t s w h en t h ey w er e given sp ecifi c in st r u ct ion s a b ou t w h a t w a s r eq u ir ed . H e con clu d ed :

t h e gen er a l p r in cip les a n d m et h od s of q u a l-it y con t r ol a s ou t lin ed by Dem in g s eem t o wor k . St u d en t s ca n b e t r ea t ed lik e wor k er s, a n d sy st em s ca n b e p u t in p la ce t o en a ble t h em t o gen er a t e h igh levels of ou t p u t s w it h h igh level of q u a lit y. T h e wor k p la ce s eem s t o b e m or e en joya ble for b ot h st u d en t s a n d fa cu lt y. T h e cla s s r oom is les s n eu r ot ic; s t u -d en t s k n ow h ow t o a ct , a n -d t h ey k n ow t h a t t h ese a ct ion s w ill b e r ew a r d ed ”[25, p. 155].

H ow ever, Ga r t n er a ls o r e p or t ed t h a t h e w a s r est r ict ed by h is u n iver sit y fr om giv in g a ll st u d en t s A gr a d es. T h er efor e, h e a dvoca t ed t h a t t o im p lem en t TQM , t op m a n a gem en t su p p or t w a s t h e v it a l fa ct or.

Ch izm a r [26] r ecor d ed h is st r a t e gy of in volv -in g st u d en t s a ct ively -in t h eir ow n lea r n -in g t h r ou gh t h e cr ea t ion of lea r n in g com m u n i-t ies a n d in cr ea sed u s e of colla b or a i-t ion . H is on e-m in u t e p a p er p r oved t o b e su ccessfu l. In t h e fi n a l m in u t e of cla ss, t h e st u d en t s w er e a sk ed t o r es p on d t o t wo q u est ion s:

1 Wh a t w a s t h e m ost im p or t a n t t h in g t h ey lea r n ed in t h e cla ss? An d

2 Wh a t w a s t h e m u d d iest p oin t st ill r em a in -in g a t t h e con clu sion of t h a t cla ss? In Ch izm a r ’s wor d s, “t h e fi r st q u est ion is in t en d ed t o focu s on t h e b ig p ict u r e (w h a t is b ein g lea r n ed ) a n d t h e secon d t o a ssess h ow w ell it is b ein g lea r n ed ”[26, p. 185]. Ch izm a r fou n d t h a t t h e on e-m in u t e p a p er cou ld p r o-v id e b et t er w ay s for con t in u ou s im p r oo-vem en t t h a n t h e en d oft er m eva lu a t ion s. H e con clu d ed t h a t t h e con d it ion s of a TQM t ea ch in g/ lea r n in g m od el w er e t ea m wor k , em p ow -er m en t , feed b a ck , a n d con t in u ou s im p r ove-m en t . “T h e r ea l p ow er of TQM d r ives for ove-m it s t ot a ln ess,…it p r ov id es a fr a m ewor k , or m od el, for com b in in g d isp a r a t e id ea s in t o a u n ifi ed w h ole for t h e p u r p os e of p r ed ict in g a p r ior i w h a t w ill wor k ”[26, p. 188].

Dif ferences between education

and industry

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m a n u fa ct u r in g sect or. E d u ca t ion , h ow ever, is ver y m u ch d iffer en t fr om in d u st r y a n d q u es -t ion s m ay b e r a is ed a s -t o i-t s a p p lica b ili-t y.

In or d er t o exa m in e t h e r eleva n ce of a p p ly -in g TQM -in ed u ca t ion , on e sh ou ld b e a ble t o a n sw er t h r ee q u es t ion s :

1 Wh a t a r e t h e d iffer en ces b et w een ed u ca -t ion a n d in d u s-t r y ? Wou ld -t h es e d iffer en ces h in d er t h e a p p lica t ion of TQM in ed u ca -t ion ?

2 Wh a t a r e t h e u n iq u e con t r ibu t ion s of TQM t ow a r d s ed u ca t ion ? Wh y a n d in w h a t w ay s is it s u p er ior t o ot h er m a n a gem en t t h eo-r ies ?

3 Ar e t h er e a n y con cr et e exa m p les a n d ev i-d en ce t o a scer t a in it s a p p lica t ion ? Ca n t h e exp er ien ce b e t r a n s fer r ed t o ot h er sim ila r or ga n iza t ion s?

E d u ca t ion d iffer s fr om t h e m a n u fa ct u r in g sect or in fou r w ay s: ob ject ives, p r ocess es, in p u t s a n d ou t p u t s. For m a n u fa ct u r in g fi r m s, p r ofi t is t h e com m on ly u sed in d ica t or for m ea s u r in g effect iven es s. How ever, t h e ob ject ives for ed u ca ject ion a r e n oject so s im p le. Accor d -in g t o T r ibu s [12], t h e ob ject ive of ever y sch ool sh ou ld b e t o p r ov id e for ea ch s t u d en t op p or -t u n i-t ies -t o d evelop in fou r ca -t e gor ies ; -t h es e a r e “Kn ow led ge – w h ich en a bles u s t o u n d er -st a n d ; k n ow -h ow – w h ich en a bles u s t o d o; w is d om – w h ich en a bles u s t o set p r ior it ies; a n d ch a r a ct er – w h ich en a bles u s t o coop er -a t e, t o p er s ever e, -a n d t o b ecom e r es p ect ed -a n d t r u s t ed m em b er s of societ y ”[12, p. 39]. T h er e-for e, t h e m is sion of ed u ca t ion is r ela t ively lon g t er m a n d t h er e is n o s in gle in d ica t or, su ch a s p r ofi t , w h ich ca n r efl ect t h e effect ive-n ess of a ch iev iive-n g t h ese ob ject ives. Wit h ou t p r ecis e a n d sp ecifi c ob ject ives, it is d ifficu lt , if n ot im p oss ible, t o m ea s u r e effect iven es s.

Tea ch in g a n d lea r n in g p r ocess es a r e n ot t h e sa m e a s a ssem bly lin es. T h ey a r e in t er a c-t ive p r oces s es b ec-t w een c-t ea ch er s a n d s c-t u d en c-t s, a n d t h er efor e t h e p r oced u r es in t h e p r ocess es ca n n ot b e p r eset in a s t e p -by -s t e p for m a t a s t h os e for a n a ss em bly lin e. M or eover, b ot h of t h e p a r t ies a r e h u m a n b ein gs w h ose b eh av -iou r s a r e s u b ject t o d iffer en t m ot ives a n d ob ject ives, em ot ion a l fl u ct u a t ion s, a s w ell a s in d iv id u a l st y les of in t er p er s on a l s k ills. T h er efor e, t h er e ca n n ot b e a n y s p ecifi ca t ion a s r e ga r d s t h e st a n d a r d ized cod es of p r a ct ice in lea r n in g a n d t ea ch in g. Mor e com p lica t in g, t h e b eh av iou r of on e p a r t y is oft en r es p on d -in g t o t h e a ct of t h e cou n t er p a r t . T h u s, t h er e ca n n ot b e a st e p -w is e in s t r u ct ion for t h e t ea ch in g p r ocess in cla s s r oom s.

As fa r a s in p u t s a r e con cer n ed , t h os e of ed u ca t ion a l set t in gs a r e s u b ject t o en or m ou s va r ia b ilit y. Un lik e fa ct or ies, s ch ools ca n n ot con t r ol t h e q u a lit y of in com in g m a t er ia ls (s t u d en t s ), w h ich a d d s t o t h e d ifficu lt y of

con t r ollin g t h e q u a lit y of ou t p u t s. Alt h ou gh som e sor t of en t r a n ce r eq u ir em en t s ca n b e im p os ed on t h e a p p lica n t s, colle ges a r e con -fr on t ed w it h in cr ea sin g d ifficu lt ies in get t in g t h e d esir ed st u d en t s b eca u se of t h e d r a st ic in cr ea se in t h e n u m b er of colle ge p la ces in r ecen t yea r s. Mor eover, t h e q u a lit y st a n d a r d of st u d en t s is n ot a s p r ecise a s t h ose of m a t er ia ls. T h e p er ea d m is sion a ca d em ic p eer foer -m a n ce in p u blic exa -m in a t ion s a n d t h e d e-m ogr a p h ic ch a r a ct er ist ics a r e t h e on ly in for m a -t ion ava ila ble -t o colle ge a d m is sion officer s w h en t h e a d m is sion d ecision h a s t o b e m a d e. T h er e a r e ot h er fa ct or s, su ch a s t h e a t t it u d es of st u d en t s t ow a r d s lea r n in g, t h eir lea r n in g st r a t e gies a n d in t er p er son a l sk ills, w h ich a r e n ot r ea d ily a ssessa ble. Alt h ou gh a d m ission in t er v iew s a r e w id ely u sed by m a n y colle ges, t h eir effect iven ess is q u est ion a ble[27-29]. St u d en t s a r e h u m a n b ein gs w h ose p er for -m a n ce is exp ect ed t o va r y u n d er d iffer en t sit u a t ion s, a n d t h u s t h e m ea s u r em en t of h u m a n b eh av iou r ca n n ot b e s u b ject ed t o a p r ecise sca le. T h is fa ct or com p lica t es t h e d ifficu lt y of m ea su r in g t h e q u a lit y of in com -in g st u d en t s.

Lik ew ise, it is d ifficu lt t o d efi n e a cer t a in q u a lit y st a n d a r d for t h e ou t p u t . For m a n u fa c-t u r in g fi r m s, q u a lic-t y ou c-t p u c-t s a r e c-t h ose w h ich ca n sa t isfy t h e r eq u ir em en t s of t h e

cu st om er s. In ed u ca t ion , t h er e a r e m a n y cu st om er s: t h e st u d en t s t h em selves, t h e p a r -en t s, t h e t ea ch er s, t h e s ch ool m a n a gem -en t , t h e p ot en t ia l em p loyer s a n d societ y in gen er a l. Wh ose in t er es t sh ou ld b e t h e fi r st p r ior it y if t h er e a r e con fl ict s b et w een t h eir in t er -est s? Ar e st u d en t s, b ein g p a r t icip a n t s a n d “cu st om er s”, in t h e for em ost p osit ion t o d et er m in e w h a t is t h e b est for t h em selves? In fa ct , wou ld t h ey k n ow w h a t is b est in t h e fi r st p la ce? Ca n Dem in g’s “zer o d efect ” p r od u ct s[3] b e p r od u ced in ed u ca t ion ? Ca n a n y ed u ca t or cla im t h a t h is s t u d en t ca n a a ch ieve p er fect st a n d a r d ? T h es e a r e ju s t som e of m a n y q u es-t ion s es-t h a es-t m u ses-t b e a d d r essed b efor e d efi n in g t h e q u a lit y of t h e ou t p u t s. It is ver y d ifficu lt t o d efi n e a n y p er fect st a n d a r d in ed u ca t ion . Sch ool cu r r icu lu m is on ly on e of t h e m a n y fa ct or s t h a t s h a p e t h e p er son a lit y, b eh av iou r a n d a ca d em ic a ch ievem en t of a st u d en t even if t h ese t h r ee d im en sion s a r e a cce p t ed a s t h e cr it er ia for m ea su r in g t h e p er for m a n ce of a st u d en t in gen er a l. F a m ily ed u ca t ion a n d t h e societ a l im p a ct a lso p lay a n im p or t a n t r ole. T h u s, t h e p er for m a n ce of a st u d en t is t h e on ly in d ica t or of t h e t ea ch in g p r oces s.

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st u d en t s w h o m a n a ge t o ju m p fr om Gr a d e F t o Gr a d e C or t h ose w h o a ch ieve Gr a d e A w it h m in im a l effor t ? Reca llin g

Dem in g’s wor d s t h a t “w h en t h er e is a p r ob lem , 85 p er cen t of t h e t im e it is w it h t h e s y s -t em ; 15 p er cen -t of -t h e -t im e i-t w ill b e w i-t h -t h e wor k er s ”[3, p. 23], if on e is t o b elieve in h im , t h en on e is fa ced w it h t h a t fr igh t en in g p r os p ect t h a t a ll s t u d en t s s h ou ld d es er ve Gr a d e A. If it is n ot t h e ca se, t h en on e h a s t o a d m it t h a t it is t h e t ea ch er ’s r es p on s ib ilit y. Given t h e com p lexit y of t h e lea r n in g a n d t ea ch in g en v ir on m en t , t h is a lle ga t ion is n ot fa ir t o t h e t ea ch er s.

Review of related research

A d et a iled st u dy of t h e lit er a t u r e on a p p lica -t ion of TQM in ed u ca -t ion r evea ls -t h a -t m a n y w r it er s ca n n ot ju st ify t h e u s e of TQM a s t h ey fa il t o a d d r es s t h e t h r ee q u es t ion s m en t ion ed ea r lier. Som e a u t h or s d is cu s s TQM w it h ou t exa m in in g t h e fea s ib ilit y a n d s u it a b ilit y of su ch a n a p p lica t ion . Ot h er s give r ea son s w h ich a r e n ot st r on g en ou gh t o su p p or t TQM’s u s e a n d yet ot h er s m en t ion on ly t h e p ot en t ia l b en efi t s of TQM . Few a r t icles a r e su p p or t ed w it h p r a ct ica l ca s e s t u d ies. T h e follow in g is a b r ief r e p or t on t h e lit er a t u r e.

Differentiating education from industry T h e wor k of Siu a n d H ea r t [30] p r es en t s on e of t h e w r it er s m a k in g n o a t t em p t t o d iffer en t i-a t e ed u ci-a t ion fr om bu s in ess set t in gs. T h ey w r ot e, “…ed u ca t ion is d iffer en t fr om in d u s-t r y. Bu s-t m a n a gin g p eop le a n d r es ou r ces is la r gely t h e s a m e for a n y or ga n iza t ion – w h et h er in bu s in ess or ed u ca t ion , t h e p r iva t e sect or or t h e p u blic a r en a ”[30, p. 96]. T h eir op in ion m ay b e q u er ied a s m a n a gem en t w r it er s u s u a lly con sid er t h e m a n a gem en t of n on -p r ofi t m a k in g or ga n iza t ion s d iffer en t fr om t h a t of p r ofi t -m a k in g or ga n iza t ion s.

Sim ila r ly, Sa gor a n d Ba r n et t [31] a n d H a r r is [16] su gges t w ay s for TQM im p lem en -t a -t ion in sch ools w i-t h ou -t d is cu s sin g -t h e d if-fer en ces b et w een ed u ca t ion a n d in d u st r y. Alt h ou gh b ot h Ch izm a r [26] a n d Ga r t n er [25] cla im ed t h a t t h eir wor k h a d b een s u ccess fu l, n eit h er of t h em d iscu ssed t h e a p p r op r ia t en ess of a p p ly in g TQM in ed u ca t ion a l s et t in gs. H ill a n d Tay lor [32] on ly h igh ligh t t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of a ser v ice, i.e. in se p a r a b ilit y of cu s t om er fr om t h e p r od u ct ion , h et er ogen e-it y of s er v ice offer in g a n d in t a n gib ile-it y, bu t fa il t o a d d r es s t h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of ed u ca -t ion .

H er t zier [33] p r es en t s a com p r eh en sive a ccou n t of t h e lit er a t u r e on im p lem en t in g TQM in h igh er ed u ca t ion . Sh e r e p or t ed a n d d is cu ss ed h is t or ica l d evelop m en t in TQM ,

im p lem en t a t ion of TQM in ed u ca t ion a l set -t in gs a n d b a r r ier s -t o im p lem en -t a -t ion . Sh e su ggest ed t h a t t h e on ly b a r r ier s t o TQM w er e la ck of lea d er sh ip in colle ge a n d t h e r elu c-t a n ce of fa cu lc-t y m em b er s c-t o c-t r ea c-t sc-t u d en c-t s a s “cu st om er s”. Aga in , h ow ever, s h e d id n ot a t t em p t t o d iscu s s t h e d iffer en ces b et w een ed u ca t ion a n d in d u s t r y.

H a zza r d [34], in h is a r t icle d iscu ssin g t h e st r en gt h s a n d w ea k n esses of TQM in h igh er ed u ca t ion , p oin t ed ou t on ly t h a t TQM w a s b ot h t im e a n d effor t con su m in g. Ot h er d efi -cien cies of TQM m en t ion ed in clu d ed t h e r eq u ir em en t of t op m a n a gem en t su p p or t a n d t h e d evelop m en t of st a ff t r a in in g p r o-gr a m m es. H e d id n ot , h ow ever, d iscu ss t h e r eleva n ce of a p p ly in g TQM in ed u ca t ion a l in st it u t ion s. T h e wor k r e p or t ed by Bolt on [22], E r ik sen [35] a n d J a r a ied i a n d Rit z[36] a r e a lso fou n d t o h ave t h e s a m e d efi cien cy.

Sim ila r ly, H a r r is[16], Weller J r a n d H a r t ley [37], Sa m u els [38], Solom en [39] a n d Cole[40] on ly r e p or t ed t h a t t h er e a r e u r gen t n eed s t o im p r ove ed u ca t ion . How ever, t h ey a ll fa iled t o exp la in t h e su it a b ilit y of a d op t in g TQM in ed u ca t ion .

Br igh a m a d m it t ed t h a t “ser v ice in d u s t r ies,…gen er a lly h ave m et w it h less su ccess t h a n m a n u fa ct u r in g t h u s fa r … H igh er ed u ca t ion h a s good r ea son t o b e w a r y ”[13, p. 48]. Alt h ou gh h e a ck n ow led ged su ch a d iffer en ce, h e ela b or a t ed n o fu r t h er on t h e r eleva n ce of a d m in ist er in g TQM in ed u -ca t ion , n or d id h e d iscu ss t h e a d ju s t m en t w h ich h a d t o b e m a d e b efor e a p p lica t ion . H e con t in u ed :

T h is is n ot t o s ay in d u s t r y h a s n ot h in g t o t ea ch u s. On t h e con t r a r y, it is h elp fu l t o s ee a cr oss t h e s ect or s t h e im p or t a n ce of bu ild -in g q u a lit y p r -in cip les -in t o st r a t e gic a n d bu sin ess p la n s ; of fi n d in g ch a m p ion s a t ever y level of t h e or ga n is a t ion ; p a r t icu la r ly a t t h e t op ; of focu s in g on r es u lt s a n d p r ocesses; of b r in gin g n ew t ea m s on lin e, on ly a s n eed ed ; of in cor p or a t in g cu s t om er s ea r ly on a n d for ever.

H e p r ov id ed a list of p ot en t ia l b en efi t s of TQM bu t n ot on ly t h e r ea son s t o su p p or t it s a p p lica t ion t o ed u ca t ion .

Alt h ou gh Ir w in [41] h a d a ck n ow led ged t h a t ed u ca t ion a n d in d u s t r y a r e d iffer en t in q u a l-it y d efi n l-it ion a n d t a r get cu s t om er s, h e m a d e n o fu r t h er a t t em p t t o exp la in w h y TQM is a p p lica ble in t h e ed u ca t ion a l s et t in g.

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n ot exp la in w h y TQM ca n h elp t o a ch ieve t h is ob ject ive.

Justifying the unique contributions of TQM T h e a r t icle w r it t en by Sh er r a n d Lozier [10, p. 10] a dvoca t ed t h a t TQM esp ou s ed t h r ee cor e va lu es, w h ich w er e t h e im p or t a n ce of p eop le, n eed t o u s e k n ow led ge a n d con t in u -ou s im p r ovem en t . “We in h igh er ed u ca t ion h old d ea r ly su ch va lu es a s t h e im p or t a n ce of p eop le, k n ow led ge, a n d con t in u in g im p r ove-m en t . Wh y d on ’t w e p r a ct ice w h a t w e p r ea ch ?” T h ey fa iled t o p oin t ou t t h e s u p er i-or it y of TQM a s com p a r ed t o ot h er m a n a ge-m en t t h eor ies.

In r ecom m en d in g TQM a s t h e m os t effec-t ive m a n a gem en effec-t p h ilosop h y, Led d ick [43, p. 60] com m en t ed t h a t ot h er m a n a gem en t m et h od s w er e n ot effect ive a s t h ey la ck ed com p r eh en siven es s:

T h ey h ave n o la n gu a ge for d efi n in g t h e con t ext in w h ich t h e sch ool exist s a n d t h u s it s p u r p os e…t h ey h ave n o la n gu a ge for d escr ib in g t h e s ch ools a s a w h ole or ga n is a -t ion …-t h ey la ck a -t h eor y of k n ow led ge – a w ay t o k n ow if ch a n ges r ea lly lea d t o im p r ovem en t …t h ey la ck a m et h od t o m a k e im p r ovem en t s t o a n y a n d a ll p a r t s of t h e s ch ool…a n d t h ey la ck a m ea n s for en ga gin g a ll t h e p eop le in t h e sch ool in con t in u a lly im p r ov in g it …Qu a lit y m a n a gem en t p r o-v id es t h e com p r eh en sio-ve o-v iew s ch ool r efor m h a s b een la ck in g.

J u d gin g fr om t h es e com m en t s, Led d ick d id n ot m a n a ge t o give con v in cin g r ea son s t o su p p or t t h e p it fa lls of ot h er m a n a gem en t t h eor ies. In fa ct , t h e im p or t a n ce of p eop le h a s b een w ell r ecogn ized by m a n a gem en t t h eo-r ist s. In t h e m os t fa m ilia eo-r d ich ot om y of m a n a gem en t , T h eor y X a n d T h eor y Y, McGr e gor [44] n ot ed t h a t a n effect ive m a n a ger sh ou ld r es p ect a n d t r u s t t h e T h eor y Y t y p e em p loyees w h o m igh t t a k e u p r es p on s ib ilit y volu n t a r ily. Ma slow [45] a lso r ecogn ized t h a t self-es t eem n eed s a n d self-a ct u a liza t ion n eed s a r e t h e t op p r ior it ies in m ot iva t in g em p loy -ees. T h es e t wo n eed s a r e ver y m u ch in lin e w it h t h e m ot iva t in g fa ct or s su gges t ed by H er zb er g’s t wo fa ct or t h eor y [46]. T h e sy st em s a p p r oa ch t o or ga n iza t ion t h eor y ca n p r ov id e a h olis t ic a n d in t e gr a t ive v iew for t h e op er a -t ion s of a n or ga n iza -t ion . T h er efor e, TQM is n ot t h e on ly m ea n s for effect ive m a n a gem en t .

In t h eir b ook , Usin g Dem in g to Im p r ov e Qu a lity in Colleges a n d Un iv ersities,

Cor n es k y et a l.[47] exp la in ed t h e a p p lica t ion of Dem in g’s p h ilosop h y in ed u ca t ion . T h ey a r gu ed t h a t t h e p r iva t e s ect or w a s d efi n ed la r gely by t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een cu s t om er s a n d s u p p lier s, a n d by h ow t h e la t t er cou ld u se a n d im p r ove p r od u ct ion , d is t r ibu t ion a n d ser v ice t o in cr ea se q u a lit y

a n d k ee p cu st om er s s a t isfi ed . Cu st om er p a t r on a ge w a s t h e ob ject of com p et it ion a m on g m a n y fi r m s. E a ch fi r m t r ied t o m a in -t a in or in cr ea se m a r k e-t sh a r e by p lea sin g cu s t om er s, a n d su r v iva l d e p en d ed on r e p ea t bu sin ess. Accor d in g t o t h em , h igh er ed u ca -t ion ’s con ce p -t of cu s -t om er s d iffer ed fr om -t h e p r iva t e sect or ’s b eca u se in h igh er ed u ca t ion t h er e w er e n o “r e p ea t cu st om er s ” in t h e t r a -d it ion a l sen se. St u -d en t s, on ce en r olle-d , t en d ed t o r em a in u n t il t h ey gr a d u a t ed . Alu m n i, on ce gr a d u a t ed , t en d ed n ot t o r et u r n t o t h e sa m e in st it u t ion for a d d it ion a l d e gr ees. It cou ld b e a r gu ed , t h ou gh , t h a t if a lu m n i a n d cu r r en t st u d en t s w er e w ell sa t isfi ed w it h t h eir exp er ien ce, t h ey wou ld r ecom m en d t h e in st it u t ion t o ot h er s. Lik ew ise, em p loyer s w h o w er e w ell sa t isfi ed w it h t h e u n iver sit y ’s gr a d u a t es m igh t b e d is p osed t o h ir e a d d i-t ion a l gr a d u a i-t es fr om i-t h e u n iver sii-t y. T h u s st u d en t s, a lu m n i a n d em p loyer s s h a r e som e ch a r a ct er ist ics of t r a d it ion a l cu st om er s. T h er efor e, a ccor d in g t o Cor n esk y et a l., TQM ca n h elp t h e m a n a gem en t in ed u ca t ion by offer in g t h e cu s t om er -or ien t ed con ce p t a n d cu st om er s ca n b e b ot h in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l. N ever t h eless TQM is n ot t h e on ly p h ilosop h y w h ich em p h a sizes t h e im p or t a n ce of cu s-t om er sa s-t isfa cs-t ion . All m a r k es-t in g w r is-t er s a ck n ow led ge t h e im p or t a n ce of

cu st om er s[48,49]. Mor eover, r ecogn izin g a n d sa t is fy in g t h e n eed s of in t er n a l cu st om er s a r e t op ics in “r ela t ion s h ip m a r k et in g”[50].

Wor k r e p or t ed by Ch izm a r [26] a n d

Ga r t n er [25], w h ich h a s b een d iscu ss ed ea r lier in t h is p a p er seem s t o b e ver y effect ive. H ow -ever, a closer look a t t h eir m et h od r evea ls t h a t t h ey w er e in fa ct u sin g m a n a gem en t by ob ject ives (MBO) ject ech n iq u e r a ject h er ject h a n ject h e h igh sou n d in g TQM. MBO is a m a n a gem en t t ech -n iq u e w h ich p r ov id es s u b or d i-n a t es w it h a sp ecifi c goa ls a n d en cou r a ges t h em t o a ccom -p lish t h em by -p r ov id in g t h em w it h t h e d esir ed r ew a r d s. Ch izm a r a n d Ga r t n er a ct u -a lly en t er ed in t o -a “p er for m -a n ce con t r -a ct ” w it h t h e st u d en t s a n d aw a r d ed t h em a ccor d -in gly. T h er efor e, it is n ot TQM t h a t d oes t h e m a gic.

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Paula Y.K. Kwan

TQM.” T r u m bu ll’s v iew s on TQM a r e n ot con v in cin g. Rem em b er t h a t t h os e com p a n ies t h a t w er e on ce h igh ly p r a is ed by P et er s a n d Wa t er m a n [52] in t h eir b ook In S ea rch of E x cellen ce h ave sin ce fa iled . T h er efor e, TQM m ay ju st b e u sed a s a fa s h ion a ble gim m ick .

Rh od es [15, p. 77] w r ot e:

Ap p a r en t ly Dem in g’s wor d s a n d id ea s r es -on a t e w it h s om et h in g t h a t m a n y p eop le a lr ea dy p er s on a lly b elieve is “r igh t ”. T h e id ea s s eem t o va lid a t e lon g-h eld feelin gs of wor k in g in d iv id u a ls w h o k n ow t h ey w a n t t o b e effect ive in t h eir job s a n d w h o by a n d la r ge h ave given u p on t h eir or ga n iza t ion ever a ct in g a s if t h ey b elieved it .

H e a d d ed :

TQM cou ld h elp a ll t h ose in volved in sch ools t o v iew t h eir a ct ion s fr om a p er sp ect ive t h a t h a d a “cu st om er / s t u d en t ” a t t h e

cen t r e…T h e t ot a l q u a lit y v iew a llow s u s t o s ee w it h a st u d en t ’s eye v iew – t o u n d er -s t a n d w h a t t h e -s ch ool a n d t h e wor ld a r ou n d it look s lik e t o ch ild r en gr ow in g u p t od ay.

T h er efor e, Rh od es ’ a r t icle cou ld n ot ju st ify t h e a p p lica t ion of TQM t h eor ies in ed u ca t ion . H e h a s m er ely d is cu ssed t h e p ot en t ia l b en e-fi t s of s u ch a p p lica t ion . “TQM …con n ect s t h e “w h er e-w e-a r e-n ess ” of d a ily p r a ct ice t o t h e “w h er e-w e-w a n t -t o-go-n ess ” fou n d in t h e or ga n iza t ion ’s goa ls...T h e r es u lt : con t in u a l gr ow t h in t ot a l or ga n iza t ion a n d p er s on a l ca p a cit y t o a ct d iffer en t ly ”[15, p. 78].

Supported with hands-on experiences and real cases

T h e wor d s of Olson q u ot ed by Weaver m ay b es t d es cr ib e t h e p r es en t sit u a t ion : “w h ile TQM h a s gen er a t ed a lot of t a lk in s ch ools, it h a s p r od u ced less a ct ion ”[53]. In fa ct , t h os e ed u ca t ion a l in s t it u t ion s w h ich h ave r e p or t ed t h e u s e of TQM ,

u s u a lly im p lem en t it in a r ea s t h a t m ost clos ely r esem ble TQM in bu s in ess, s u ch a s con t r a ct in g ou t cu s t od ia l s er v ices a n d p r ocess in g p u r ch a se or d er s. An ot h er com m on -p la ce is t o u se TQM m et h od s t o solve a s-p e-cifi c p r oblem , s u ch a s st u d en t a b sen t eeis m , in st ea d of a t t em p t in g t o a p p ly TQM p r in ci-p les t o t h e s ch ool a s a w h ole[53].

On ly t h e wor k of DeCos m o et a l.[8], Coa t e[19] a n d Leffel et a l.[20] a p p ea r t o b e b a s ed on t h e w r it er ’s a ct u a l exp er ien ces in im p lem en t in g TQM in a colle ge a s a w h ole. Ga r t n er [25] a n d Ch izm a r [26] im p lem en t ed TQM a t cla s s r oom level on ly. H ever ly [54] r e p or t ed h er exp er i-en ce of a p p ly in g TQM t o a in s t it u t ion a l r es ea r ch office a t Delaw a r e Cou n t y Com m u -n it y Colle ge o-n ly. Bo-n st i-n g[55] h a s r e p or t ed eigh t ca s es of su ccessfu l im p lem en t a t ion of Dem in g’s 14 p oin t s, bu t a ll a r e on solv in g a s p ecifi c p r oblem s on ly. Ap a r t fr om t h es e w r it er s, ot h er s h ave m er ely d elib er a t ed t h e

p ot en t ia l b a r r ier s a n d b en efi t s b a sed on t h eo-r et ica l in feeo-r en ces a n d a ca d em ic a eo-r gu m en t s.

Wr it er s oft en su ggest t h e u s e of TQM for solv in g p r oblem s in a s p ecifi c a r ea in st ea d of a p p ly in g it t o t h e colle ge a s a w h ole. E dw ell[9] is a n exa m p le. H e s u ggest ed t h e a d op t ion of TQM in a ssessm en t of s t u d en t s. H e w r ot e, “t h r ee t r en d s in p a r t icu la r n ow ch a r a ct er ize em er gin g b est p r a ct ice in a s sess m en t , a n d a ll, I b elieve, a r e con sis t en t w it h t h e t en et s of TQM”[9, p. 42]. How ever, h e fa iled t o d iscu ss t h e u n iq u e con t r ibu t ion s of TQM t h a t ca n n ot b e a ch ieved by ot h er m a n a gem en t

t ech n iq u es.

Also, in h is b ook M a n a gin g Qu a lity in S ch ools, West -Bu r n h a m [56] cit ed on ly a few exa m p les fr om secon d a r y sou r ces a n d n on e fr om h is ow n exp er ien ce. On ly on e of t h e fou r ca ses h e q u ot ed w a s a n ed u ca t ion a l in st it u -t ion a n d -t h is w a s -t h e In for m a -t ion Tech n ology Office a t H a r va r d Un iver sit y.

Willia m s’ wor d s [23] ca n b est illu s t r a t e t h e sit u a t ion of im p lem en t in g TQM in H igh er E d u ca t ion . H e d em on s t r a t ed t h a t

Ch a dw ick [57] a t Sou t h Ba n k Un iver s it y, E llis[58] a t Un iver s it y of Ulst er, Clay t on [59] a t Ast on Un iver sit y, Cow les a n d Gilb r ea t h [60] a t Vir gin ia Com m on w ea lt h Un iver sit y, a n d Doh er t y [61] a t Un iver sit y of Wolver h a m p t on on ly “d escr ib e wor k in p r ogr ess, a n d n on e lay s cla im t o t ot a l a ch ievem en t ”[23, p. 374].

Ta ble I is a b r ief su m m a r y on t h e lit er a t u r e t h a t h a s b een d iscu s sed . It is obv iou s t h a t n on e of t h e cit ed ca ses ca n m eet t h e t h r ee cr it er ia – ju st ify in g t h e u se of a m a n u fa ct u r in gin it ia t ed t ech n iq u e in ed u ca t ion ; ver ify -in g it s u n iq u e con t r ibu t ion s t h a t ca n n ot b e a ch ieved by ot h er m a n a gem en t t ech n iq u es; a n d s u p p or t ed w it h r ea l ca ses. T h u s, t h e u sefu ln ess of TQM in ed u ca t ion is st ill n ot ver ifi ed .

Implications

T h e wor d s of Sch m ok er q u ot ed by Weaver [53] m ay b es t su m u p t h e cu r r en t st a t e of TQM: “[Som e] h a s b een w r it t en a b ou t [it ]; lit t le of it h a s been a bsor bed, believed, a n d im plem en ted in Am er ica n s ch ools or bu sin esses. T h is m igh t b e exp la in ed by t h e fa ct t h a t sy st em a t ic ch a n ge r eq u ir es t im e, bu t it m igh t a lso b e a n in d ica t ion t h e q u a lit y m ovem en t is n ot a ch iev in g it s v ision ”[53, p. 87]. T h u s, TQM is m or e a t er m t h a n a n a ct ion in sch ool m a n -a gem en t :

H ou se[62, p. 35] su ggest ed t h a t

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Paula Y.K. Kwan

Table I

Re se arc h o n the applic atio n o f TQM in e duc atio n

Differentiate Justify/ discuss Supported with

education from TQM ’s unique hands-on experiences

Writer industry contributions in educational institution

Coate[19] No Some benefits of TQM Yes

DeCosmo et al.[8] No Some benefits of TQM Yes

Edwell[9] No Benefits of adopting TQM No

in assessing students’ performanc e only

Leffel[20] No Only on leadership Yes

Hill and Taylor[32] Only disc ussed the Potential benefits No

c harac teristic s of a servic e

Samuels[38] No Potential benefits No

Sherr and Lozier[10] No Yes, but imperfec t No

Winter[24] No Barriers in organizational No

struc ture only

Bonser[11] Disc ussed the c hanges Some benefits No

in environment

Bonsting[55] No Some benefits Quoted eight c ases on

solving spec ific problems

Cornesky et al.[47] Emphasized c ustomer- Potential benefits No

orientation (internal and external)

Heverly[14] No Suggested the proc ess At the researc h offic e

only only

Rhodes[15] No Potential benefits No

Siu and Heart[30] Claimed no differenc es Potential benefits No

Taylor and Hill[18] No Benefits and obstac les No

Brigham[13] Admitted the differenc es, Potential benefits No

but no further disc ussion on its relevanc e

Clayton[59] No No Aston University

Cowles and Gilbreath[60] No No Virginia Commonwealth

University

Doherty[61] No No University of

Wolverhampton

Ellis[58] No No University of Ulster

Gartner[25] No Some Classroom setting

Hazzard[34] No Disc ussed the strengths No

and weaknesses only

Irwin[41] Yes, but failed to justify Potential benefits No

the use of TQM in educ ation

Leddick[43] No Yes, but imperfec t No

Solomen[39] No No Yes

West-Burnham[56] No Suggested the proc ess Only one c ase reported on

the IT offic e at Harvard

Chizmar[26] No Some Classroom setting

Harris[16] No Attributed to the forc es No

in the environment that c alled for c hange

Hertzier[33] No Detailed disc ussion on No

historic al development only

Jaraiedi and Ritz[36] No Only desc ribed TQM No

as a means to solve problems

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Paula Y.K. Kwan

or ga n iza t ion , a n d ch a n ges in a ll of t h e p r ocess es u sed in a t t a in in g t h e or ga n iza -t ion a l p u r p os e. T h e q u es-t ion of in -t er es-t is n ot a b ou t t h e n eed for t r a n sfor m a t ion a n d ch a n ge, bu t r a t h er t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e Dem in g p h ilos op h y a p p lies t o m a n a gem en t in ed u ca t ion ”.

Accor d in g t o Bon ser [11, p. 507], t h er e a r e s t ill r eser va t ion s in a p p ly in g a ll Dem in g’s p h ilos-op h y in ed u ca t ion . H e w r ot e, “Given t h es e d iffer en ces, n ot a ll of t h e Dem in g p r in cip les m ay b e d ir ect ly a p p lica ble, a lt h ou gh h e a r gu es t h a t it is n eces sa r y t o a d op t t h em a ll if t h ey a r e t o b e u sefu l…h is a p p r oa ch ca n b e a v it a l com p on en t in t h e con s t r u ct ion of a n ew p h ilos op h y by w h ich h igh er ed u ca t ion lea d er -sh ip ca n gu id e ou r in st it u t ion s in t o t h e n ext cen t u r y.”

Com m en t in g on t h e con t r ibu t ion of TQM t o ed u ca t ion , H ill[63] a ck n ow led ges t h a t TQM is n ot a n ew con ce p t bu t offer s a n in t e gr a t ive fr a m ewor k for im p r ovem en t . H e w r ot e,

t h er e a r e som e t h in gs in t h e TQM m od el w h ich I p er ceive t o b e good , bu t h a r d ly n ew, m a n y of it s in s igh t s in t o su ch issu es a s p r od u ct a sses sm en t , m a n a gem en t st r u c-t u r es, a n d p a r c-t icip a c-t ive q u a lic-t y con c-t r ol, ca n b e p a ir ed w it h s im ila r cr it iq u es in h a lf a cen t u r y of ed u ca t ion a l w r it in g. Bu t t h eir com in g t oget h er in t h e on e coh er en t a n d p er su a s ive a r gu m en t for im p r ovem en t is s om et h in g w e ca n w elcom e[63, p. 25].

F a ced w it h in cr ea sin g ch a llen ges in t h e en v i-r on m en t , t h ei-r e is n o a i-r gu m en t t h a t ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s a r e obliged t o cop e w it h t h e ch a n ge for s u r v iva l. Dem in g’s p h ilosop h y

p r ov id es a n in sp ir a t ion for d ir ect ion of ch a n ge in ed u ca t ion . H ow ever, t h es e a r e n ot t h e on ly m ea n s. Mor e r esea r ch wor k h a s t o b e d on e t o fi n d b et t er w ay s of a d op t in g t h ese m a n u fa ct u r in g sect or or igin a t ed m et h od s in t o t h e ed u ca t ion a l set t in g. F u n d a m en t a lly, t h e t h r ee p r oblem a t ic a r ea s in a p p ly in g TQM in ed u ca t ion d iscu ssed ea r lier sh ou ld b e a d d r essed . T h ey a r e t h e d iffer en ces b et w een ed u ca t ion a n d in d u s t r y ; ju st ifi ca t ion for t h e u n iq u e con t r ibu t ion of TQM a n d t h e su p p or t of h a n d s -on exp er ien ce t h a t ca n b e t r a n s-fer r ed t o ot h er sim ila r s it u a t ion s.

References

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