Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
The Unive rsity o f We ste rn Australia, Australia
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
sch ool p r ogr a m m es. T h ey cla im t h a t it is d ifficu lt t o est a blish a n y ca u sa l r ela t ion sh ip b et w een ed u ca t ion a l st a n d a r d s a n d t h e u se of ext er n a l sy st em -w id e t est s. T h ey a lso su ggest t h a t ext er n a l exa m in a t ion s a lon e d o n ot give a va lid p ict u r e of st u d en t a ch ievem en t a t sch ool. T h ey go on t o a r gu e t h a t ext er n a l exa m in a t ion s a lon e a r e n ot su fficien t for d isch a r gin g a ccou n t a b ilit y r esp on sib ilit ies. T h e sa m e a r gu m en t h a s b een a dva n ced in Au st r a lia [4], in t h e UK[5] a n d in Ca n a d a [6].
Ma n y of t h e a for em en t ion ed cr it icism s a n d con cer n s w it h r esp ect t o sch ool a ccou n t a b il-it y seem t o a r ise b eca u se a t t en t ion h a s b een focu sed on m a k in g sch ools m or e a ccou n t a ble t o sy st em cen t r es r a t h er t h a n on for gin g closer sch oolp a r en t a ccou n t a b ilit y r ela t ion -sh ip s a t t h e sa m e t im e. T h e fa ct t h a t in m ost societ ies t h er e is a lon g st a n d in g t r a d it ion of sch ools r e p or t in g t o p a r en t s on t h eir ch il-d r en ’s p r ogr ess m ay exp la in w h y sy st em a u t h or it ies h ave t en d ed t o focu s on n ew er for m s of a ccou n t a b ilit y b et w een cen t r e a n d sch ool, w h er e few exist ed p r ev iou sly. Recen t d evelop m en t s, h ow ever, in m a n y sy st em -level cu r r icu la r p olicies em p h a size st u d en t lea r n -in g ou t com es a n d st u d en t lea r n -in g a ch ieve-m en t s, ieve-m ea su r ed in t er ieve-m s of b en ch ieve-m a r k s, levels or st a ges of lea r n in g, a ga in st w h ich in d iv id u a l st u d en t a t t a in m en t ca n b e p r ofi led a n d r ecor d ed w it h gr ea t er sp ecifi cit y t h a n in t h e p a st . In a d d it ion , m a n y sch ools a n d cen -t r a l offices a r e, in -t h e la -t -t er h a lf of -t h e 1990s, p r om ot in g a n ew ser v ice-focu sed im a ge, p la c-in g t h e st u d en t a n d p a r en t a t t h e cen t r e of t h eir m ission . T h is clien t -[st u d en t -] d r iven a p p r oa ch a ccor d s w it h sy st em p olicies em p ow er in g p a r en t s t o exer cise t h eir p r er og-a t ive t o ch oose m or e cog-a r efu lly t h e sch ool t o w h ich t h ey sen d t h eir ch ild r en . In t h is m a r -k et -d r iven , ou t com es-or ien t ed en v ir on m en t , p a r en t s, st u d en t s, t ea ch er s a n d a d m in ist r a -t or s a ll h ave a p r essin g n eed for va lid a n d r elia ble in for m a t ion on w h ich t o m a k e d ecision s a n d ch oices. Sch ool r e p or t in g t o p a r -en t s is a k ey sou r ce of in for m a t ion of t h is k in d .
Wh ile t h e ca se for im p r ov in g sch ool r e p or t -in g t o p a r en t s a p p ea r s r obu st , w e m u st n ot lose sigh t of t h e fa ct t h a t t h is for m of a ccou n t -a b ilit y is n ot w it h ou t it s p r oblem s. On t h is m a t t er, cogn isa n ce n eed s t o b e t a k en of t h e a r gu m en t s a dva n ced [2, 7, 8], t h a t d esp it e t h er e b ein g a lon g t r a d it ion of sch ool r e p or t -in g t o p a r en t s, t h e m od e of r e p or t -in g h a s b een , a n d oft en is, p r oblem a t ic. P a r t of t h e p r oblem cen t r es on t h e a m b iva len ce r e ga r d in g t h e p u r p ose a n d d efi n it ion of sch oolp a r -en t r e p or t in g. T h e wor k of Gr iffin a n d N ix[8, p. 5] is h elp fu l in t h is r e ga r d . T h ey st a t e t h a t t h e t er m “r e p or t in g” u su a lly d escr ib es t h e for m a l p r oced u r es w it h in sch ools w h er eby
t ea ch er s p r e p a r e w r it t en st a t em en t s for p a r -en t s a b ou t st u d -en t a ch ievem -en t s. T h ey a sser t t h a t t h is con ce p t sh ou ld b e b r oa d en ed , a r gu in g t h a t r e p or t in g is t h e p r ocess of t r a n sm it -t in g in for m a -t ion -t o s-t a k eh old er s -t o cr ea -t e a n aw a r en ess of, a n d in t er est in , t h e p olicies, goa ls, op er a t ion a n d a ch ievem en t s of t h e sch ool, t h e st u d en t s, t h e t ea ch er s a n d t h e sch ool com m u n it y in gen er a l. T h ey go on t o p r ov id e t h e follow in g d efi n it ion : “Re p or t in g is t h e p u r p osefu l p r ocess of ga t h er in g, in t er -p r et in g, r ecor d in g a n d com m u n ica t in g t o st a k eh old er s, in for m a t ion on st u d en t p r ogr ess t h a t is r ela t ed t o t h e ou t com es of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g”.
Managerial imperatives in
reporting to parents
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
In a d d r essin g som e of t h ese issu es, t h is p a p er is or ga n ized in t o t h e follow in g sec-t ion s: p a r en sec-t a l exp ecsec-t a sec-t ion s; sec-t h e r e p or sec-t in sec-t h e con t ext of ot h er sch ool r ecor d s; con t en t ; for -m a t ; t i-m in g a n d or ga n izin g of r e p or t in g p r o-ced u r es; in -ser v ice t r a in in g of t ea ch er s w it h r esp ect t o r e p or t in g; t h e r esp on ses t o r e p or t -in g fr om p a r en t s, st u d en t s a n d t ea ch er s; a n d t h e k ey m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza t ion a l r esp on sib ilit ies of sch ool lea d er s t o en su r e a n im p r oved sy st em of r e p or t in g is im p lem en t ed a n d m a in t a in ed . T h e st r u ct u r e of ea ch sec-t ion is b a sed on r eleva n sec-t lisec-t er a sec-t u r e, fr om w h ich im p lica t ion s for a d m in ist r a t or s a r e d r aw n in t h e fi n a l sect ion of t h e p a p er, w h er e it is a r gu ed t h a t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza -t ion a l con sid er a -t ion s a r e im p er a -t ive for im p r oved r e p or t in g p r ocesses gea r ed t o m eet in g cu r r en t d evelop m en t s, n eed s a n d exp ect a -t ion s of m u l-t ip le s-t a k eh old er s.
What parents expect from school
reporting
Ta k in g cogn isa n ce of p a r en t a l exp ect a t ion s is clea r ly im p or t a n t in r et h in k in g t h e sch ool r e p or t in g p r ocess. Br iggs[9], Br oa d foot [2] a n d Weir [10] h ave in vest iga t ed w h a t p a r en t s w a n t fr om sch ool r e p or t s. Accor d in g t o t h ese r esea r ch er s, p a r en t s wou ld lik e:
• m or e in for m a t ion t h a n p r esen t , p r ov id ed in a w r it t en r e p or t for m a t ;
• d ia gn ost ic a ssessm en t w it h p r oblem s id en -t ifi ed ea r ly a n d con s-t r u c-t ive su gges-t ion s for fu t u r e a ct ion ;
• in for m a t ion a b ou t a w h ole r a n ge of d iffer -en t a sp ect s of a ch ievem -en t ;
• som e gr a sp of h ow t h e in for m a t ion is a r r ived a t a n d w h a t cr it er ia a r e u sed in or d er t o k n ow w h et h er t h eir ch ild r en a r e m a k in g sa t isfa ct or y p r ogr ess for t h eir a ge; • t o k n ow w h et h er t h eir ch ild r en a r e r ea ch
-in g t h eir p ot en t ia l; a n d
• in for m a t ion a b ou t a t t it u d es, va lu es a n d socia l a d ju st m en t .
H a ll’s[11] st u dy of t h e p a r en t s of p r im a r y sch ool ch ild r en in d ica t ed t h a t p a r en t s a n d t ea ch er s p r efer r ed n a r r a t ive r e p or t s t o gr a d es b eca u se t h ey w er e seen a s m or e p er -son a l, less com p et it ive a n d con veyed m or e in for m a t ion a b ou t t h eir ch ild ’s p r ogr ess. Lik ew ise, Kin g[12] in a st u dy in t h e USA fou n d t h a t p a r en t s of ch ild r en a t t h e ea r ly st a ges of p r im a r y sch ool w elcom ed a p or t folio a p p r oa ch . T h is in clu d ed sa m p les of st u d en t s’ wor k , t ea ch er s’ ob ser va t ion s, a u d io t a p es a n d p h ot os w h ich gave p a r en t s a t a n gible a n d v isu a l p r oof of t h eir ch ild r en ’s a ch ievem en t s; a n exp er ien ce t h a t fa r su r p a ssed t h a t of see-in g a let t er gr a d e on t h e r e p or t ca r d .
The report in the context of other
school records
Rei d [13] h a s r a i s ed t h e q u es t i on of t h e ex t en t t o w h i ch t h e p a r en t a l r e p or t a n d i n t er n a l r ecor d s com p lem en t ea ch ot h er, t h e ex t en t t o w h i ch on e d u p li ca t es t h e ot h er a n d , m os t i m p or t a n t , w h a t i n for m a t i on i s con t a i n ed on s ch ool r ecor d s w h i ch i s n ot m a d e av a i la b le t o p a r en t s a n d w h y. Dock i n g[14] a r gu ed t h a t w e s h ou ld n ot for get t h e “s econ d a u d i en ce” of a r e p or t , n a m ely, ot h er t ea ch er s. Re p or t s a r e u s ed t o com m u n i ca t e u s efu l i n for m a t i on t o t ea ch er s for w h om t h e i n for m a t i on i s h elp fu l i n m a k i n g p r es en t a n d fu t u r e d eci -s i on -s. T h i -s a -s -s u m e-s gr ea t er i m p or t a n ce t h e les s fa m i li a r a t ea ch er i s w i t h a s t u d en t . A fu r t h er i s s u e con cer n s i n for m a t i on on i n d i -v i d u a l s t u d en t s w h i ch i s k e p t i n s ch ool fi les b u t w h i ch i s n ot m a d e av a i la b le t o p a r en t s i n t h e r e p or t . T h e r ea s on s for s u ch m a y b e m a n i fold . On e p os s i b i li t y i s t h a t i n for m a t i on m a y b e w i t h h eld fr om p a r en t s b eca u s e t h e s ch ool con s i d er s t h a t t h e ch i ld ’s i n t er es t s a r e b es t s er ved by s o d oi n g. T h er e m a y w ell b e ex t en t u a t i n g ci r cu m s t a n ces t o ju s t i fy s u ch p oli ci es. H ow ever, w i t h fr eed om of i n for m a t i on le gi s la t i on , p a r en t s i n m a n y s oci et i es n ow h ave t h e r i gh t t o s ee s ch ool r ecor d s.
The content of the report
M a n y a r gu m en t s con cer n i n g t h e con t en t of s ch ool r e p or t s d es er ve a lot m or e d eb a t e t h a n t h ey oft en a t t r a ct . Sh ed li n [15], for ex a m p le, h a s s t r es s ed t h e n eed t o cou n t er -b a la n ce t h e q u a n t i t a t ive t r en d i n r e p or t i n g w i t h m or e q u a li t a t ive a p p r oa ch es. Ach i eve-m en t t es t s cor es, i t i s cla i eve-m ed , t en d n ot t o r eflect cr ea t iv i t y, cu r i os i t y, p er s ever a n ce, flex i b i li t y or t r u e t h i n k i n g a b i li t y. T h er e i s a s t r on g ca s e for m or e r es ea r ch on w h a t t h e con t en t of r e p or t s s h ou ld b e. Am on g t h e v a r i et y of m a t t er s w or t h i n ves t i ga t i n g fu r -t h er a r e -t h e follow i n g:
• T r a d it ion a lly, it h a s b een com m on p la ce for sch ool r e p or t s t o in clu d e t h e ch ild ’s p osi-t ion in ea ch su b jecosi-t a s w ell a s a n over a ll p osit ion in t h e cla ss; t h a t is, a n or m a t ive a p p r oa ch is u sed . How ever, t h e t r en d is for cr it er ion -r efer en ced r e p or t in g t o r e p la ce n or m a t ive a p p r oa ch es.
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
for m in w h ich su ch a dv ice sh ou ld b e given , p a r t icu la r ly a s t o t h e a p p r op r ia t e for m of la n gu a ge.
• T h er e is t h e q u est ion of h ow sch ool r e p or t -in g ca n b e u sed -in h elp -in g p a r en t s a n d st u d en t s m a k e voca t ion a l d ecision s. • Li t t le a t t e n t i on h a s b e e n give n t o t h e r ole
of s ch ool r e p or t i n g i n p r e d i ct i n g fu t u r e p e r for m a n ce. In p a r t i cu la r, s h ou ld r e p or t -i n g b e con ce r n e d w -i t h g-iv -i n g -i n for m a t -i on r e ga r d i n g a p u p i l’s fu t u r e p ot e n t i a l p e r for -m a n ce ? T h e ca s e for u s i n g r e p or t i n g -m or e p r oa ct ive ly i n s e t t i n g fu t u r e le a r n i n g goa ls r a t h e r t h a n u s i n g i t s ole ly r e t r os p e c-t ive ly c-t o r e cor d p a s c-t p e r for m a n ce, i s r ob u s t .
In t h e r e p or t in g p r oced u r es u sed in t h e Cer t ifi ca t e of E d u ca t ion in Vict or ia , Au s-t r a lia , Cook [16, p. 4] id en s-t ifi ed q u ess-t ion s focu sed on t h e con t en t of r e p or t in g r ela t ed t o st u d en t a ch ievem en t . H e a sk ed :
• Is it p ossible t o d escr ib e st u d en t s’ a ch ieve-m en t a d eq u a t ely a n d a t t h e sa ieve-m e t iieve-m e t o p r ov id e u sefu l in for m a t ion t o m a k e selec-t ion , p la cem en selec-t or r ea d in ess d ecision s a b ou t t h em ?
• Is it p ossible for t h e r e p or t in g of st u d en t s’ a ch ievem en t s t o b e b ot h com p r eh en sive a n d com p r eh en sible?
• Is t h e con su m er d em a n d for sim p licit y in r e p or t in g st u d en t s’ a ch ievem en t p ossible if a ccu r a cy of in for m a t ion is r eq u ir ed ? • Is it p ossible t o h ave fu ll a n d a ccu r a t e in for
-m a t ion a b ou t a ll st u d en t s w h ile st ill h av in g r e ga r d for t h e self-est eem of t h e low ly r a n k ed st u d en t ?
Choice of format
On e a sp ect of r e p or t in g w h ich h a s a t t r a ct ed a con sid er a ble a m ou n t of a t t en t ion is t h e for m a t of sch ool r e p or t s. T h e m a in for m a t s com -m on ly u sed a r e:
• sin gle sh eet ; • r e p or t b ook ; • slip r e p or t ; • let t er r e p or t ; • gr a d e ca r d .
A b r ief su m m a r y of t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of ea ch follow s.
S in gle sh eet– s u b ject t ea ch er s a r e r eq u i r ed t o a s s i gn a gr a d e or m a r k a n d t o w r i t e t h ei r com m en t s i n t h e b oxes p r ov i d ed . To cop e w i t h t h e v a r i et y of s u b ject s d u e t o op t i on ch oi ces, t h e r e p or t s for s om e yea r s oft en leave t h e s u b ject s p a ces u n la b elled . A s ect i on a t t h e b ot t om of t h e s h eet i s com p let ed by t h e for m t u t or a n d fr eq u en t ly i n clu d es t ot a ls of a b s en ces a n d la t en es s. A s m a ll s p a ce i s u s u a lly a llow ed for a b r i ef com m en t a n d
s i gn a t u r e by t h e h ea d t ea ch er a n d h ea d of a la r ger p a s t or a l u n i t s u ch a s a h ou s e or yea r. On m a n y of t h e r e p or t s a s m a ll k ey t o t h e gr a d i n g i s a ls o p r ov i d ed .
R ep or t b ook– a t it s sim p lest t h e r e p or t b ook con sist s of a ser ies of sin gle sh eet r e p or t s b ou n d u n d er a cover.
S lip rep or t– t h is sh ow s a m a r k ed d e p a r t u r e fr om t h e p r ev iou s t wo. It con sist s of a ser ies of p a ges, on e or m or e of w h ich m igh t b e com -p let ed by ea ch t ea ch er, t h e w h ole ser ies t h en b ein g st a p led t oget h er w it h in a t h in ca r d cover.
L etter rep or t– t h is r esem bles t h e sin gle sh eet r e p or t bu t gen er a lly con t a in s n o su b d i-v ision s, con sist in g of a h ea d ed p a ge on w h ich t ea ch er s ca n w r it e a t len gt h .
Gra d e ca rd– t h is con sist s of a sin gle p iece of p a p er or ligh t ca r d p r ov id in g a list of su b -ject s t oget h er w it h b oxes in w h ich t o en t er a ssessm en t s. T h ey con t a in n o sp a ce for t ea ch er com m en t . H en ce, t h ey a r e ca lled “gr a d e ca r d s” a n d a r e oft en u sed t o p r ov id e in t er im r e p or t s t o p a r en t s.
Br iggs[9, p. 47] st a t es t h a t t h e t r a d it ion a l r e p or t oft en la ck s r eleva n t in for m a t ion . H e st a t es t h a t “in for m a t ion a lly p oor r e p or t s a r e d a m a gin g w h en t h e ed u ca t ion of ch ild r en is t h e issu e, a n d d en y in g p a r en t s t h e m ea n s of h elp in g in t h is essen t ia lly coop er a t ive en t er -p r ise is self-d efea t in g”.
Br oa d foot [2, p. 101] su m s u p t h e sit u a t ion a s follow s: “T r a d it ion a l r e p or t s a r e t y p ica lly t oo b r ief, t oo in fr eq u en t , t oo gen er a l, t oo in a ccu -r a t e, a n d m a k e in su fficien t -r efe-r en ce t o a st a n d a r d . In p a r t icu la r, it is t h e ca se t h a t ver y m a n y of t h em a r e cou ch ed in la n gu a ge w h ich h a s a h igh ‘fog r a t in g’”.
T h er e is a lso t h e issu e of t h e r ela t ive m er it s a n d d em er it s of or a l r e p or t in g a s op p osed t o w r it t en r e p or t in g, a n d t h e ext en t t o w h ich or a l r e p or t in g m igh t su p p lem en t or su p p la n t t h e w r it t en r e p or t . Br iggs[9] a n d Weir [10] in se p a r a t e st u d ies r e p or t ed t h a t 85 p er cen t of p a r en t s sh ow ed a p r efer en ce for w r it t en for -m a t s. In Weir ’s st u dy, p a r en t s p r efer r ed a com b in ed w r it t en a n d ver b a l for m a t . Weir goes on t o st a t e t h a t t r a d it ion a l r e p or t ca r d s a r e m a d e u p of a ll t oo fa m ilia r on elin e com -m en t s w h ich say n ot h in g a n d oft en cr ea t e n eed less a n xiet y a n d d isa p p oin t m en t for m a n y ch ild r en a n d p a r en t s. F a ir ch ild [17] fou n d t h a t for st u d en t s w it h a ca d em ic or b eh av iou r p r oblem s t ea ch er s ca n su ccess-fu lly fost er op en com m u n ica t ion a n d p a r en t a l in volvem en t t h r ou gh t h e u se of a d a ily r e p or t ca r d sy st em in a ssocia t ion w it h st u d en t con fer en ces.
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
sp ecifi c p u r p oses. Am on g t h e va r iet y of sp e-cifi c p u r p oses a r e t h e follow in g:
• “set t lin g-in r e p or t s” for n ew ly en r olled st u d en t s a t a n y level;
• “sp on t a n eou s” r e p or t s for t h ose w h ose p er for m a n ces sh ow d r a m a t ic im p r ovem en t or d et er ior a t ion ;
• sch ool leaver r e p or t s, gea r ed m or e t o t h e n eed s of p r osp ect ive em p loyer s or colle ge en t r a n ce r eq u ir em en t s.
Given t h e r a n ge of p u r p oses of sch ool r e p or t -in g, Affler b a ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] -in a st u dy in t h e USA, con clu d e som ew h a t p essim ist i-ca lly t h a t it m ay b e d ifficu lt or im p ossible t o cr ea t e t h e id ea l r e p or t ca r d w it h in or a cr oss sch ools or d ist r ict s.
M or e op t i m i s t i ca lly, Br oa d foot [2] s t a t es t h a t p a r en t a l i n volvem en t m a y w ell i m p r ove con fi d en ce i n s ch ool a ch i evem en t . H ow ever, s u ch i n volvem en t s h ou ld b e b a s ed on i n for m ed d i a logu e. Su ch d i a logu e ca n on ly t a k e p la ce i f p a r en t s a r e given t h e n eces s a r y i n for m a t i on t h r ou gh r e p or t s. Cou p led w i t h t h i s i s Wei r ’s [10] a r gu m en t t h a t t h e b es t s y s t em of r e p or t i n g i s on e w h i ch i s d evel-op ed w i t h t h e p u r p os e of com m u n i ca t i on i n m i n d , t a k i n g i n t o a ccou n t t h e ch a r a ct er i s -t i cs of -t h e loca l com m u n i -t y. Gr i ffi n a n d N i x [8] a dvoca t e t h a t s ch ools a n d p a r en t s n eed t o ex a m i n e w r i t t en r e p or t for m a t s clos ely t o en s u r e t h a t t h e s t y le of r e p or t i n op er a t i on i s r elev a n t t o t h em b ot h . As Br oa d -foot [2, p. 103] s t a t es : “We w a n t t o es t a b li s h a n d com m u n i ca t e t o p a r en t s t h e n ot i on t h a t w e a r e look i n g for a p a r t n er s h i p b et w een u s a n d t h em i n t h e cu r r i cu lu m a n d m or e a n d m or e fr eq u en t ly i n r e p or t i n g”.
On e w ay for w a r d is su ggest ed by Miles[19], w h o d ocu m en t ed t h e p r ocess a sch ool com -m u n it y t ook w h en it b eca -m e obv iou s t h a t t h e sch ool r e p or t in g sy st em w a s n ot va lu ed by p a r en t s. T h ey h eld m eet in gs a t w h ich t h ey p r esen t ed p a r en t s w it h a va r iet y of r e p or t in g sy st em s. P a r en t s a n d t ea ch er s t h en d evelop ed t h e r e p or t in g for m a t t h a t b est su it ed t h eir n eed s.
M or e r e ce n t ly, Dav i e s a n d Sk i n n e r [20, p. 123] h ave a r gu e d t h a t “ t h e w a y for w a r d li e s i n s ch ools d ev i s i n g t h e i r ow n for m s of w r i t -t e n r e p or -t s -t o p a r e n -t s w h i ch s -t e e r a m i d d le li n e b e t w e e n p r e s e n t i n g s o m u ch i n for m a t i on t h a t p a r e n t s a r e ove r w h e lm e d , m i s i n -t e r p r e -t i -t or d o n o-t g r a s p i -t s s i gn i fi ca n ce, a n d giv i n g s o li t t le i n for m a t i on t h a t t h e r e p or t d oe s n ot a d d t o w h a t t h e y k n ow a lr e a d y. If t h i s for m a t ive r e p or t i n g ca n op e n t h e w a y t o p a r e n t s b e i n g a b le t o p la y a m or e m e a n i n gfu l r ole i n t h e i r ch i ld r e n ’s s ch ool-b a s e d e d u ca t i on , t h e n p r o g r e s s w i ll h ave b e e n m a d e ” .
The timing and organization of the
reporting procedure
Issu es r ela t ed t o t im in g a n d or ga n iza t ion of r e p or t in g closely over la p w it h m a t t er s con -cer n in g con t en t a n d p u r p ose d iscu ssed in t h e p r ev iou s sect ion . Som e of t h e m or e im p or t a n t issu es a r e ca p t u r ed by t h e follow in g q u es-t ion s.
Im p or t a n t d ecision p oin t s: in w h a t w ay s ca n r e p or t in g su p p or t im p r oved d ecision m a k in g a ffect in g cr u cia l st a ges in a ch ild ’s sch oolin g? T h e Wich it a Un ifi ed Sch ool Dis-t r icDis-t SDis-t u dy [21] sDis-t r essed Dis-t h e im p or Dis-t a n ce of p a r en t s b ein g in for m ed by t h e fi ft h w eek of t h e fi r st q u a r t er if t h eir ch ild r en a r e clea r ly fa ilin g in cla ss.
T h e t im in g of r e p or t s:t o w h a t ext en t d oes t h e en d -of-yea r r e p or t st a n d on it s ow n ? Sh ou ld it b e su p p lem en t ed by r e p or t s a t ot h er t im es of t h e yea r ? Wh en a r e t h e m ost a p p r o-p r ia t e “ot h er t im es” for va r iou s a ge gr ou o-p s a n d p u r p oses? Wh y sh ou ld r e p or t s oft en b e lim it ed t o t h e en d of t er m a n d sen t h om e on t h e la st d ay ? Wh a t a r e t h e p r os a n d con s of t h is con ven t ion a l p r a ct ice? Tea ch er s in Ta i-w a n sen d d a ily r e p or t s h om e t o p a r en t s ( is t h is im p ossible for West er n sch ools?) Is t h er e a ca se for st a gger in g r e p or t s t h r ou gh ou t t h e yea r, so t h a t d iffer en t st u d en t s r eceive r e p or t s a t d iffer en t t im es of t h e yea r, p er h a p s a ccor d -in g t o t h eir lea r n -in g a ch ievem en t s, or la ck t h er eof ?
H ow t im e-con su m in g is r e p or t w r it in g for t ea ch er s? Reid [13, p. 8] h igh ligh t s t h e fa ct t h a t t h e t r a d it ion a l for m of r e p or t in g gives r ise t o con sid er a ble p r essu r e on t ea ch er s a t p a r t icu -la r t im es in t h e a ca d em ic yea r. Sh e con clu d ed t h a t t h e m or e r e p or t s t ea ch er s h a d t o com -p let e, t h e less t im e t h ey s-p en t on ea ch .
Teacher in-service needs related to
reporting
Wh olesa le r et h in k in g of r e p or t in g p r oce-d u r es wou loce-d r eq u ir e t h e sk illin g of t ea ch er s. In d eed , som e ev id en ce su ggest s t h a t m ost t ea ch er s h ave r eceived lit t le or n o t r a in in g in d eliver in g p r esen t m od es of r e p or t in g. A st u dy by Affler b a ch a n d Sa m m on s[18] in t h e USA, for exa m p le, in d ica t ed t h a t :
• few t ea ch er s r e p or t ed r eceiv in g a n y t r a in -in g t o h elp t h em w r it e r e p or t ca r d s; • few t ea ch er s w er e in volved in t h e d evelop
-m en t of t h e r e p or t ca r d s w h ich t h ey w er e r eq u ir ed t o u se;
• t ea ch er s r e p or t ed w r it in g r e p or t ca r d s for a w id e va r iet y of p u r p oses a n d a u d ien ces; • t h e m or e t h e r e p or t ca r d a ccom m od a t ed
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
Am on g t h e n ew d evelop m en t s in r e p or t in g for w h ich t ea ch er s a p p ea r t o r eq u ir e gr ea t er sk illin g t h r ou gh t h e p r ov ision of in -ser v ice t r a in in g, a r e t h e follow in g:
• in cor p or a t ion of ou t com e st a t em en t s a n d a ssessm en t p r ofi les in r e p or t in g;
• a ssessm en t t ech n iq u es a n d st r a t e gies – for m a t ive, su m m a t ive a n d d ia gn ost ic; • set t in g of lea r n in g goa ls a s a m ea n s of im p r ov in g fu t u r e p er for m a n ce b a sed on p a st a n d p r esen t p er for m a n ce;
• t ea ch er -p a r en t in t er v iew in g sk ills; • t ea ch er s’ d iscu ssion of r e p or t s w it h p a r
-en t s;
• t ea ch er s’ d iscu ssion of r e p or t s w it h p u p ils. T h er e a lso seem s t o b e a ca se for a dvoca t in g m or e p a r en t ed u ca t ion w it h r esp ect t o r e p or t -in g. Dock -in g[14, p. 336], for exa m p le, h a s a r gu ed t h a t w h ile t h er e is gen er a l a cce p t a n ce by p a r en t s of t h e u se of t h e “aver a ge” a s a st a n d a r d , su ch a cce p t a n ce is t oo oft en u n in -for m ed a n d r efl ect s p r efer en ce -for t h e k n ow n a n d fa m ilia r t r a d it ion a l r e p or t in g p r a ct ices. An y ch a n ge fr om t h is t r a d it ion w ill r eq u ir e p a r en t ed u ca t ion a n d a gen er a l p u blic r ela -t ion s exer cise -t o in for m o-t h er in -t er es-t ed p a r t ies, su ch a s em p loyer s.
Responses and reactions to the
school report
Aft er t h e com p let ion of t h e r e p or t a n d it s d eliver y h om e t o t h e p a r en t , t h er e is t h e m a t -t er of su b seq u en -t r ea c-t ion -t o i-t on -t h e p a r -t of t h e p a r en t , st u d en t a n d t ea ch er. Som e r esp on ses a r e ca p t u r ed in t h e follow in g st u d ies.
Parent reaction
Dav ies a n d Sk in n er [20] fou n d t h a t p a r en t s a t t a ch gr ea t im p or t a n ce t o h av in g good r ela -t ion sh ip s w i-t h sch ools a n d -t h a -t w r i-t -t en for m s of r e p or t in g a r e seen a s on ly p a r t of t h e r ela -t ion sh ip. Con seq u en -t ly, if r e p or -t in g is -t o con t r ibu t e t o t h e r ela t ion sh ip m or e gen er a lly, it m u st p r ov id e a d d it ion a l a n d d ist in ct ive in for m a t ion . Seein g r e p or t in g a s a t h r ee-w ay r ela t ion sh ip b et w een p a r en t , p u p il a n d t ea ch er, a ll of w h om sh ou ld t oget h er d iscu ss t h e sch ool r e p or t a n d p la n fu t u r e ob ject ives, is con sid er ed cr u cia l. T h e p r ocess sh ou ld in clu d e p r oblem -solv in g sk ills, cr ea t ive t h in k in g, cr it ica l t h in k in g, a n d t h e a b ilit y t o get a lon g w ell w it h ot h er s a s w ell a s u n d er -st a n d in g of su b ject m a t t er.
Ku er st en [22] fou n d t h a t p a r en t s’ r ea ct ion s t o r e p or t ca r d s ca n b e sever e, em ot ion a l a n d occa sion a lly, even a bu sive. H e a r gu es for ca m p a ign s t o give p a r en t s a dv ice a s t o h ow t o r esp on d p osit ively t o p oor r e p or t s. N e ga t ive r esp on ses fr om p a r en t s t o b a d r e p or t s ca n d o
con sid er a ble d a m a ge t o a ch ild ’s self-est eem . T h ey ca n a lso ca u se con sid er a ble st r ess t o ch ild r en a n d lea d t o t h eir a ssocia t in g sch ool-in g w it h feelool-in gs of fa ilu r e.
Reid [13] h a s d em on st r a t ed t h a t in elicit in g r esp on ses fr om p a r en t s, t h e w r it t en slip h a s a d isa p p oin t in gly low t a k e-u p by p a r en t s a lt h ou gh it w a s fou n d t h a t t h is m et h od h a d con sid er a ble p ot en t ia l a s a m ea n s of h om e-sch ool d ia logu e w h er e st e p s w er e t a k en t o en cou r a ge p a r en t s t o u se it . Sh e con clu d ed t h a t b ot h t h e p h r a sin g u sed in in v it in g p a r -en t s t o r e p ly a n d t h e a m ou n t of sp a ce a llo-ca t ed for t h eir com m en t s m igh t in fl u en ce w h et h er p a r en t s d ecid ed t o r esp on d .
Ot h er issu es r ela t ed t o p a r en t r esp on ses a n d w h ich a r e wor t h y of n ot e a r e r a ised by t h e follow in g q u est ion s.
• P a r en t s’ even in gs follow in g r e p or t s. Wh a t a r e t h e p u r p oses of p a r en t -t ea ch er even in gs? To w h a t ext en t sh ou ld t h ey b e con cer n ed w it h follow in g-u p t h e con t en t s of t h e sch ool r e p or t ? H ow soon a ft er t h e issu -in g of t h e r e p or t sh ou ld t h ey t a k e p la ce? • Or ga n iza t ion of p a r en t s’ even in gs. H ow
sh ou ld t h e p a r en t t ea ch er even in gs b e or ga n ized ? Wh a t is t h e im p or t a n ce of con sid er -in g su ch m a t t er s a s sea t -in g, t im e p er fa m ily, p r iva cy ?
• Ca p it a lizin g on p a r en t s’ p osit ive r ea ct ion s. Ma n y p a r en t s b ecom e p osit ively d isp osed t ow a r d s b ein g in volved in t h eir ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion a s a r esu lt of r eceiv in g t h e sch ool r e p or t . H ow ever, w h a t gu id elin es ca n b e d evelop ed t o ca p it a lize on t h is? Wh a t a dv ice ca n b e given t o p a r en t s? H ow ca n t ea ch er s wor k w it h p a r en t s t o fu r t h er t h e in t er est s of t h eir ch ild r en ?
Student reaction
Sin ce t h e sch ool r e p or t cen t r es on st u d en t p er for m a n ce, it is su r p r isin g t h a t so lit t le r esea r ch h a s b een con d u ct ed on h ow st u d en t s p er ceive t h e r e p or t in g p r ocess. Im p or t a n t q u est ion s a r isin g in t h is r esp ect a r e: • Do r e p or t s m a t t er t o st u d en t s? • Wh a t is t h e effect of good r e p or t s? • Wh a t is t h e effect of b a d r e p or t s?
• H ow ca n sch ools ca p it a lize on good a n d b a d r e p or t s?
• H ow im p or t a n t is it for st u d en t s t o d iscu ss t h e r e p or t w it h p a r en t s a n d t o d iscu ss t h e r e p or t w it h t ea ch er s?
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
p a r en t s”. In a fu r t h er en cou r a gin g con clu -sion w it h r e ga r d t o st u d en t r ea ct ion , Reid [13 p. 7] st a t es: “in t h e sh or t t er m a t lea st , t h e r e p or t st im u la t ed t h e in t en t ion t o ch a n ge b eh av iou r. Bot h good a n d b a d r e p or t s w er e effect ive in p r od u cin g a r esolu t ion t o wor k h a r d er, w it h b a d r e p or t s t h e seem in gly st r on ger st im u lu s (bu t w it h t h e d a n ger a lso of in d u cin g d esp a ir )”.
In a n in sigh t fu l st u dy, Ah m a n n a n d Glock [23, p. 418] in d ica t e t h a t t h e va lu e of t h e r e p or t in cr ea ses a s t h e st u d en t is h elp ed t o u n d er st a n d w h a t it m ea n s. T h ey st a t e t h a t st u d en t s a r e n ot u su a lly a ble m ea n in gfu lly a n d va lid ly t o a ssess t h em selves, bu t t h a t t h is n eed n ot b e a p er m a n en t in a b ilit y. St u d en t s a r e n ot t a u gh t by t ea ch er s t o a ssess t h em -selves, a n d t en d t o r ely in st ea d on t h e ju d ge-m en t s of ot h er s. Ah ge-m a n n a n d Glock con v in c-in gly a r gu e t h a t st u d en t s a r e r a r ely c-in volved in set t in g goa ls, m on it or in g t h eir ow n p r ogr ess, m a k in g d ecision s, d r aw in g con clu -sion s a n d r e p or t in g on t h eir ow n
p er for m a n ce.
Teachers’ reactions
T h e r ole of t ea ch er s on ce t h e r e p or t h a s b een com p let ed is oft en su r p r isin gly lim it ed . Reid [13, p. 87], for exa m p le, h a s con clu d ed : “T h e fi n d in gs of t h is st u dy p oin t t o t h e som e-w h a t b iza r r e sit u a t ion e-w h er e st u d en t s d is-cu ss t h eir r e p or t w id ely w it h t h eir fr ien d s, a lm ost u n iver sa lly w it h p a r en t s or
gu a r d ia n s, bu t in m a n y ca ses n ot a t a ll w it h t h eir t ea ch er s”. Ra r ely d o t ea ch er s a p p ea r t o u se st u d en t r e p or t s t o set fu t u r e lea r n in g goa ls, a p oin t a lr ea dy m a d e.Tea ch er s a r e m or e lik ely t o d iscu ss t h e r e p or t w it h p a r en t s on a su b seq u en t occa sion , a lt h ou gh t h e a t t en -d a n ce of p a r en t s a t su ch m eet in gs ca n b e ext r em ely va r ia ble. In t h is r esp ect , Br oa d -foot [2, p. 486] a r gu es for “in t er im su m m a r y d ocu m en t s” for p u p ils a n d p a r en t s w h ich m ay b e p r ov id ed a t cer t a in t im es in t h e st u -d en t s’ sch ool ca r eer t o h elp t o -d ocu m en t b ot h w h a t t h e p u p il h a s a ch ieved in a w id e r a n ge of a ct iv it ies a n d t h e in d iv id u a l t a r get s w h ich h ave b een a gr eed b et w een p u p il a n d t ea ch er for t h e fu t u r e.
Managerial responsibilities in
improving school reporting
E v id en ce fr om t h e for e goin g lit er a t u r e a t t est s t o t h e n eed t o r et h in k sch ool r e p or t in g p r oce-d u r es t o p a r en t s. On e p r oblem is t h a t n ot a ll of t h e ev id en ce is con sist en t in r evea lin g clea r d ir ect ion s for im p r ovem en t . Som e p a r -en t s, for exa m p le, exp r ess a v iew t h a t t h ey wou ld lik e t o k n ow t h eir ch ild ’s p osit ion in cla ss, a fea t u r e of sch ool r e p or t in g w h ich h a s b ecom e less com m on of la t e. Ot h er s d isa gr ee,
cit in g t h e n e ga t ive effect s of su ch a p r a ct ice in low er in g t h e m or a le of st u d en t s w h o a r e low ly p la ced . Differ en ces of v iew a r e oft en u sed a s excu ses for in a ct ion , w h en a m or e a p p r op r ia t e r esp on se t o va r y in g p a r en t a l a n d st a k eh old er exp ect a t ion s of t h e r e p or t in g p r ocess a n d it s ou t com es wou ld b e t o a t t en d t o t h em in m or e fl exible a n d r esp on sive w ay s.
E v id en ce fr om t h e lit er a t u r e r ev iew ed a lso lea d s t o t h e con clu sion t h a t im p r ovem en t s in r e p or t in g a r e u n lik ely u n less t h ey a r e seen w it h in a m a n a ger ia l con t ext . T h er e m ay b e a m iscon ce p t ion t h a t r e p or t in g is essen t ia lly a t ea ch er -p a r en t p r oblem w h en , in fa ct , it is a w h olesch ool issu e w it h sign ifi ca n t m a n a ger ia l a n d or ga n iza t ion a l im p lica t ion s. Acce p -t a n ce of r esp on sib ili-t y for m a n a gin g -t h e r e p or t in g sy st em a n d im p r ovem en t s a n d ch a n ges m a d e t o it a r e im p er a t ives for sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s. Sp ecifi ca lly, t h is st u dy su g-gest s six w ay s in w h ich a d m in ist r a t or s ca n p r om ot e im p r ovem en t in sch ool r e p or t in g p r oced u r es t o p a r en t s.
F ir st , sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on -sib ilit y for b r in gin g t oget h er m em b er s of t h e sch ool com m u n it y in or d er t o p r om ot e d is-cu ssion on sch ool r e p or t in g a n d w ay s in w h ich it ca n b est m eet t h eir exp ect a t ion s. T h is sp r in gs fr om a r ea liza t ion t h a t r e p or t in g ser ves t h e r esp ect ive in t er est s of st u d en t s, p a r en t s a n d t ea ch er s. P r esen t r e p or t in g p r oced u r es m ay n ot b e sa t isfy in g t h e exp ect a -t ion s of a n y on e or a ll of -t h ese -t h r ee gr ou p s. It is a lso lik ely t h a t n o sin gle blu e p r in t for r e p or t in g w ill b e a p p r op r ia t e for a ll com m u -n it ies. Sch ools sit u a t ed i-n socio-eco-n om ic a r ea s w h er e t h e occu p a t ion a l st r u ct u r e d em a n d s sh ift wor k , for exa m p le, m ay fi n d lit t le p a r en t a l in t er est in p a r en t even in gs. Lik ew ise, w h er e t h e cu st om s of a p a r t icu la r socia l gr ou p exp r ess a d islik e for, or p la ce a low p r ior it y on , eit h er t h e w r it t en wor d , or fa ce t o fa ce m eet in gs, t h en a sch ool m ay n eed t o a d ju st it s r e p or t in g sch em e a ccor d in gly.
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
p er for m a n ce a t cer t a in p oin t s in t im e. T h is con ven t ion a l v iew d im in ish es t h e r ea l im p or -t a n ce of r e p or -t in g. A n ew m od el is r eq u ir ed w h ich sees r e p or t in g a s a n in t e gr a l st a ge in t h e cu r r icu lu m -t ea ch in lea r n in t est in g-feed b a ck cycle. Resea r ch on effect ive in st r u ct ion [24] r evea ls ct h e p osict ive effecct s of feed b a ck a n d r ein for cem en t on lea r n in g. Re p or t in g sh ou ld m or e a ccu r a t ely b e seen a s a n on -goin g, con t in u ou s p r ocess ca p it a lizin g on t h e feed b a ck -r ein for cem en t b en efi t s of t h is cycle. Recen t d evelop m en t s in cu r r icu lu m or ga n i-za t ion a n d d esign in m a n y p u blic sch ool sy s-t em s len d su p p or s-t s-t o a n ew in s-t e gr a s-t ed m od el of r e p or t in g a s p a r t of a cu r r icu lu m -t ea ch in g-lea r n in g cycle. In t h ese p u blic sch ool sy st em s, st h e st r a d ist ion a l st ea ch in g sy lla bu s d ocu -m en t s sp ellin g ou t t h e su b ject con t en t w h ich t ea ch er s a r e exp ect ed t o t ea ch a r e b ein g r e p la ced by m or e d et a iled lea r n in g ou t com e d ocu m en t s sp ecify in g t h e k n ow led ge, sk ills a n d a t t it u d es w h ich st u d en t s a r e exp ect ed t o lea r n . T h er e is a sw it ch of em p h a sis fr om cu r r icu la fr a m ed in t ea ch in g t er m s t o lea r n -in g p r ocesses a n d ou t com es. Mor eover, t h e lea r n in g ou t com es for ea ch a r ea of lea r n in g a r e oft en exp r essed in levels or st a ges a ccor d -in g t o exp ect ed a t t a -in m en t s for st u d en t s a t d iffer en t a ges a n d st a ges of d evelop m en t . For ea ch level or st a ge, p r ofi les of a t t a in m en t a r e u su a lly d evelop ed , a llow in g t h e p r ogr ess of in d iv id u a l st u d en t s t o b e t r a ced a n d m on i-t or ed in con sid er a ble d ei-t a il over i-t im e. T h ese d evelop m en t s in cu r r icu lu m d esign a r e con -d u cive t o a m o-d el of r e p or t in g w h ich in t e-gr a t es it w it h cu r r icu lu m , t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g a n d w h ich r ea lizes it s p ot en t ia l a s a n essen t ia l p r a ct ice in p r om ot in g lea r n in g r a t h er t h a n a s a fi n a l d iscr et e sn a p sh ot r ecor d of a st u d en t ’s a t t a in m en t .
A n ew p er sp ect ive on r e p or t in g w h ich sees it a s a n in t e gr a l p a r t of a cu r r icu lu m -t ea ch in g-lea r n in g cycle is r ein for ced fu r t h er by ev i-d en ce fr om t h e lit er a t u r e r ev iew ei-d a n i-d by cu r r en t t h in k in g on effect ive lea r n in g, b ot h of w h ich t est ify t o it s p ot en t ia l for p r om ot in g lea r n in g r a t h er t h a n m er ely a ct in g a s a r ecor d of p a st a ch ievem en t . T h e lit er a t u r e, for exa m p le, d em on st r a t es t h a t r e p or t in g is p r esen t ly gea r ed t o su m m a t ive a ssessm en t , som ew h a t t o for m a t ive a ssessm en t a n d m u ch less t o d ia gn ost ic a ssessm en t . It s p ot en t ia l a s a n a id t o lea r n in g t h u s r em a in s r ela t ively u n d er d evelop ed . Ca p it a lizin g on t h e d ia gn os-t ic ca p a cios-t y of r e p or os-t in g wou ld a lso en a ble ios-t
t o lock in t o goa l set t in g, a w ell su p p or t ed a sp ect of cu r r en t lea r n in g t h eor y. A con sid er -a ble b ody of r ese-a r ch n ow su p p or t s t h e effi-ca cy of set t in g lea r n in g goa ls for in d iv id u a l st u d en t s. If r e p or t in g b eca m e m or e d ia gn os-t ic, ios-t cou ld a os-t os-t h e sa m e os-t im e b e u sed in a m or e fu t u r ist ic a n d p r oa ct ive ca p a cit y. In st ea d of ju st r ecor d in g st u d en t s’ p a st p er -for m a n ce, r e p or t in g cou ld b ecom e m or e d ia g-n ost ic a s a b a sis for it s m or e effect ive u se ig-n set t in g fu t u r e lea r n in g goa ls. Used a s a n in st r u m en t of goa l set t in g in t h is w ay, r e p or t -in g wou ld r eq u ir e ca r efu l a n d w ell con sid er ed d ia gn oses of st u d en t lea r n in g a b ilit ies, t h eir r a t es of p r ogr ess a n d fu t u r e lea r n in g p ot en -t ia l. T h e in -t e gr a -t ive m od el of r e p or -t in g b ein g a dvoca t ed , t oget h er w it h t r en d s t ow a r d s cu r r icu la d efi n ed in t er m s of lea r n in g ou t -com es a n d p r ofi les, st r on gly su p p or t s a m or e fu t u r ist ic, p r oa ct ive, goa l set t in g or ien t a t ion . Sch ool a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a cr u cia l r ole in p r e p a r in g t h e cu lt u r e for, a n d su b seq u en t ly im p lem en t in g, t h is n ew a p p r oa ch t o r e p or t -in g -in t h eir sch ool com m u n it ies.
T h ir d , a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib ilit y for en su r in g t h a t a ll p a r t ies in volved h ave su fficien t t im e for t h e d eliver y of a q u a lit y r e p or t in g p r ocess. St u d ies on r e p or t in g t y p i-ca lly r evea l t h a t t ea ch er s’ com p la in t s cen t r e on a la ck of t im e a s t h e m a in ob st a cle t o op er -a t in g -a n im p r oved r e p or t in g sy st em . T h e in t e gr a l m od el of r e p or t in g a dvoca t ed h er e d em a n d s a m p le t im e for k ee p in g d et a iled in for m a t ion a n d lea r n in g p r ofi les on ea ch st u d en t , a s w ell a s for p r e p a r in g m or e d ia g-n ost ic r e p or t s. T h ese, ig-n t u r g-n , for m t h e b a sis for set t in g in d iv id u a l lea r n in g goa ls for st u -d en t s t o a p p ly over t h e n ext t er m or sem est er, a t a sk w h ich r eq u ir es m or e t im e for con su lt a -t ion a n d com m u n ica -t ion w i-t h b o-t h p a r en -t s a n d st u d en t s. Ad m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib ilit y for cr ea t in g t h e t im e n eed ed for t ea ch -er s t o fu lfi l t h ese t a sk s in a p r ofession a l w ay.
Fou r t h , a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib il-it y for en su r in g t h a t a n a p p r op r ia t e com p u t er t ech n ology sy st em is p r ov id ed t o fa cilit a t e a q u a lit y r e p or t in g p r oced u r e in sch ool. T h e p r ess for m or e d et a iled r ecor d s of a ssessm en t a n d q u ick er a n d m or e fl exible r ecor d in g, r et r ieva l a n d d issem in a t ion of in for m a t ion , a ll d em a n d t h e u se of com p u t er t ech n ology. Ap p r op r ia t e u se of com p u t er t ech n ology is on e w ay a d m in ist r a t or s ca n cr ea t e t h e t im e n eed ed by t ea ch er s t o op er a t ion a lize a good r e p or t in g sy st em . Tea ch er s’ p r esen t u se of com p u t er s for r e p or t in g is of q u est ion a ble va lu e. Ma n y t ea ch er s cr it icize t h e d a t a b a n k of st a n d a r d it em r esp on ses w h ich , t h ey feel, st r a igh t ja ck et s t h eir com m en t s. P a r en t s fi n d t h ese com m en t s t oo im p er son a l. Som e t ea ch -er s a lso cu r r en t ly la ck wor d p r ocessin g a n d “… T h e in teg ra tiv e m od el of rep or tin g b ein g a d v oca ted , togeth er
Clive A.J. Dimmo c k and Tho mas A. O’ Do no ghue Manage rial impe rative s fo r the impro ve me nt o f sc ho o l re po rting to pare nts Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 9 –1 5 8
ot h er com p u t er sk ills t o m a k e fu ll u se of t ech -n ology i-n r e p or t i-n g.
F ift h , a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib ilit y t o en su r e t h a t t ea ch er s h ave t h e n ecessa r y in -ser v ice t r a in in g t o op er a t ion a lize t h e t y p e of r e p or t in g sy st em a dvoca t ed in t h is p a p er. Sk ill a r ea s in p a r t icu la r n eed of a cq u isit ion cen t r e on for m a t ive a n d d ia gn ost ic a ssess-m en t , op er a t ion a lizin g lea r n in g p r ofi les, goa l set t in g, a n d t h e r ecor d in g, r et r ieva l a n d d is-sem in a t ion of st u d en t d a t a u sin g com p u t er t ech n ology. Tea ch er s a lso n eed in -ser v ice t r a in in g in bu ild in g r ela t ion sh ip s w h ile d iscu ssin g r e p or t s a n d goa l set t in g w it h st u -d en t s a n -d p a r en t s in fa ce-t o-fa ce in t er a ct ion .
Sixt h , a d m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib ilit y t o va lu e t h e im p or t a n ce of p a r en t r e p or t in g a n d t o con t ext u a lize it in r ela t ion t o ot h er for m s of sch ool a ccou n t a b ilit y. In cr ea sin g p r essu r e for m or e a ccou n t a b ilit y is cu r r en t ly p la ced on sch ools by cen t r a l bu r ea u cr a cies a n d sch ool b oa r d s a n d cou n cils, a ll of w h ich r eq u ir e t h e sch ool, a n d t ea ch er s in p a r t icu la r, t o collect m or e in for m a t ion . It is com m on -p la ce for t ea ch er s t o com -p la in t h a t t h ey sp en d m or e t im e collect in g in for m a t ion for a ccou n t a b ilit y t o t h ese b od ies a n d con se-q u en t ly d evot e less t im e r e p or t in g t o p a r en t s. Ad m in ist r a t or s h ave a r esp on sib ilit y t o r ecogn ize a n d sa fe gu a r d t h e p r im or d ia l im p or -t a n ce of p a r en -t r e p or -t in g. P ossib ili-t ies of a lign in g d a t a collect ion for m eet in g d iffer en t for m s of a ccou n t a b ilit y a t on e a n d t h e sa m e t im e sh ou ld b e exp lor ed . For exa m p le, d a t a collect ed for in d iv id u a l st u d en t r e p or t s m igh t b e a ggr e ga t ed for sch ool a ccou n t a b ilit y t o cen t r a l bu r ea u cr a cy a n d sch ool cou n cil. For t h is t o h a p p en , com p u t er p r ogr a m m es a r e n eed ed w h ich d e p en d on t h e sa m e b a selin e in for m a t ion for gen er a t in g sch ool a ccou n t -a b ilit y t o d iffer en t con st it u en cies, -a n d t h e d iffer en t con st it u en cies t h em selves n eed t o co-op er a t e t o exp lor e t h e p ossib ilit y of b r in g-in g t h is a b ou t .
Conclusions
In t h e cla m ou r for p u blic sch ools t o m eet n ew for m s of a ccou n t a b ilit y t o cen t r a l offices a n d sch ool cou n cils, a t r a d it ion a l for m of sch ool a ccou n t a b ilit y, n a m ely, sch ool r e p or t in g t o p a r en t s on t h eir ch ild r en ’s p r ogr ess, is t en d -in g t o r eceive less a t t en t ion . Re p or t -in g focu ses on t h e m ost fu n d a m en t a l r ela t ion sh ip in ed u ca t ion , n a m ely, t h a t b et w een t ea ch er, st u d en t a n d p a r en t . T h e p a r en t a l voice for m or e m ea n in gfu l a ccou n t a b ilit y t en d s t o b e less p r essin g a n d less vocifer ou s t h a n t h e sy st em ic d em a n d for sch ools t o b e m or e a ccou n t a ble t o bu r ea u cr a t s a n d p olicy m a k -er s. Sch ool lea d -er s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s, p
osi-t ion ed a s osi-t h ey a r e a osi-t osi-t h e cen osi-t r e of a com p lex n et wor k of in t er r ela t ion sh ip s, h ave t h e op p or t u n it y t o en su r e t h a t t h e sch ool-p a r en t a ccou n t a b ilit y r ela t ion sh ip is m oved b a ck t o, or a t lea st r et a in s, cen t r e st a ge.
Ma n y of t h e ch a n ges in r e p or t in g for esh a d -ow ed in t h is p a p er sign a l a fu n d a m en t a l sh ift in it s sign ifi ca n ce. T h ey r eq u ir e t h e a d op t ion of a n ew p a r a d igm w h ich sees r e p or t in g a s a n in t e gr a l st a ge in t h e cu r r icu lu m , t ea ch in g, lea r n in g cycle; on e w h ich m a p s ch ild r en ’s p r ogr ess in m or e d et a iled p r ofi les, r ecor d s a ch ievem en t in m or e d et a il a n d ca p it a lizes on t h e effect ive p r a ct ices of r ein for cem en t , feed -b a ck a n d goa l set t in g. In a d d it ion , gr ea t er fl exib ilit y in r e p or t in g for m a t s, t im es a n d p r oced u r es is d em a n d ed t o m eet t h e d iver se a n d gr ow in g exp ect a t ion s of d iffer en t st a k e-h old er s. Con seq u en t ly, cu st om a r y n ot ion s of r e p or t in g a s a fi n a l, d iscr et e st a ge in t h e ed u ca t ive p r ocess, w h er e t ea ch er s d isch a r ge t h eir r esp on sib ilit y for t h e ed u ca t ion of ch il-d r en in a n ot h er w ise lin ea r p r ocess, h ave t o b e d isca r d ed .
It is a cen t r a l a r gu m en t of t h is p a p er t h a t a n ew in t e gr a t ed m od el of r e p or t in g d e p en d s on sou n d sch ool m a n a gem en t a n d or ga n iza t ion for it s im p lem en t a t ion . T h er efor e, su b -st a n t ive issu es of sch ool r e p or t in g a n d a ssoci-a t ed ssoci-a sp ect s of ssoci-a ccou n t ssoci-a b ilit y n eed t o b e seen w it h in a con t ext of sch ool lea d er sh ip a n d a d m in ist r a t ion .
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