[ 1 4 5] Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f
Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 ,4 [1997] 1 4 5 –1 4 8
© MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]
Social class and the ef fective school paradigm
John Leo Doyle
Hughe s Hall, Unive rs ity o f Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
Samantha Wells
Sidne y Sus s e x Co lle ge , Unive rs ity o f Cambridge , Cambridge , UK
The effective school paradigm has dominated educational and political thinking con-cerning the nature of schools for the last two decades. This paradigm asserts that it is the characteristics of schools that are the important factors that infl uence academic achievement. It is a perspec-tive that is the opposite of the view that was widely held in the 1960s and early 1970s; which placed a much greater emphasis on the social con-text. Explores weaknesses in the effective school para-digm, considers how ade-quately the effective school paradigm explains recent developments such as the events at Hackney Downs in the London Borough of Hack-ney, and stimulates a debate on how the social environ-ment affects what happens inside schools.
To a t t em p t t o com p r eh en d s ch ools t h r ou gh t h e “effect ive sch ool” p a r a d igm is r a t h er lik e u sin g Miln e’s d escr ip t ion of t h e H u n d r ed Acr e Wood t o u n d er st a n d t h e ch a r a ct er of a r ea l wood . At fi r st it m ay s eem a n a d eq u a t e d es cr ip t ion , bu t on ce t h e n a t u r e of a r ea l wood is con sid er ed it b ecom es clea r t h a t M iln e’s d es cr ip t ion is ju s t a ver y good id ea l-ized m od el. A p r in cip a l p r oblem w it h t h e effect ive s ch ool p a r a d igm is t h a t it d oes n ot a d eq u a t ely t a k e in t o a ccou n t a sy st em s p er -s p ect ive of h ow or ga n iza t ion -s a r e in fl u en ced by ext er n a l socia l fa ct or s. In p a r t b eca u s e t h e r ea d er is given a Web er ia n a r ch et y p e in w h ich t h e or ga n iza t ion is con s id er ed a s a clois t er ed en t it y.
In r ecen t yea r s t h e id ea of t h e effect ive s ch ool h a s h a d a h igh p r ofi le in t h e t h in k in g of gover n m en t a n d h a s d om in a t ed t h e lit er a -t u r e on s ch ool im p r ovem en -t . I-t h a s b een -t h e d r iv in g for ce b eh in d m u ch of t h e gover n m en t le gis la t ion s in ce 1979. T h e gover n a n ce s ec-t ion of b ook s h op s a r e fu ll of b ook s d es ign ed for m a n a gem en t cou r ses in ed u ca t ion , lis t in g obliga t or y m od u les on t h e effect ive sch ool a lon gs id e t h ose on lea d er sh ip a n d m ot iva t ion for a s p ir in g sch ool m a n a ger s. Recip e lis t s of ch a r a ct er is t ics a r e ou t lin ed , n or m a lly (bu t n ot a lw ay s ) lin k ed t o colla b or a t ive m a n a ge-m en t ge-m od els w h ich if st r ived for w ill d eliver t h e op t im u m lea r n in g en v ir on m en t .
T h e t er m effect ive sch ool h a s n ow en t er ed com m on u sa ge in t h e d eb a t e on ed u ca t ion w it h t h e d om in a n t a gr eed d efi n it ion of t h e t er m b ein g t h a t u s ed by gover n m en t a n d op p osit ion m in is t er s, a n d in sp ect or s. H ow ever, m a n y t ea ch er s a r e in cr ea sin gly con -cer n ed t h a t in s p ect ion t ea m s fa il t o a p p r eci-a t e t h eci-a t t h eir s ch ools eci-a r e effect ive w it h in t h e s it u a t ion t h a t t h ey fu n ct ion , a n d t h a t t h ey h ave a le git im a t e con t r ibu t ion t o m a k e a s t o w h a t con s t it u t es a n effect ive sch ool.
We a r e of t h e v iew t h a t it m ay b e u sefu l t o con sid er b r iefl y t h e or igin s of t h e effect ive s ch ool m ovem en t . It is n ot ou r a im t o r ev iew t h e effect ive sch ool lit er a t u r e a s a n u m b er of excellen t r ev iew s a n d a n a ly ses of t h is h ave b een p u blis h ed (Boss er t , 1988; Br op h y a n d Good , 1986; P u r k ey a n d Sm it h , 1987). H ow -ever, w e feel n on et h eles s t h a t a con s id er a t ion of t h e p r in cip a l id ea s in t h e lit er a t u r e m ay h elp t o exp la in t h e d iscr e p a n cy b et w een t h e
a ssess or s a n d t h e a ssess ed a s t o w h a t con st i-t u i-t es a n effeci-t ive sch ool. Ii-t is ou r b elief i-t h a i-t a w id er v iew of w h a t con st it u t es a n effect ive sch ool is r eq u ir ed if sch ools in d iffer en t socia l econ om ic a r ea s a r e t o b e com p a r ed a d eq u a t ely a n d eq u it a b ly.
T h e effect ive sch ool m ovem en t w a s b or n ou t of a r ea ct ion t o t h e p ost w a r w r it in gs of sociologist s su ch a s J en ck (1972), w h o p u b -lish ed r esea r ch t h a t in d ica t ed sch ools w er e n e glect in g t h e socia l con t ext in w h ich t h ey op er a t ed t o t h e d et r im en t of m a n y p u p ils. In gen er a l t h e u n d er lin in g id eology of t h e effec-t ive sch ool lieffec-t er a effec-t u r e su ch a s Ru effec-t effec-t er eeffec-t a l. (1979) is t o a r gu e t h a t sch ools d o m a k e a d if-fer en ce, a n d t h a t t h e va r ia bles of r a ce, socia l cla ss a n d h om e en v ir on m en t h ave on ly a lim it ed im p a ct on sch ool a ch ievem en t .
T h e effect ive sch ool lit er a t u r e r e p r esen t ed a sign ifi ca n t ch a n ge in t h e m et h od ology in h ow s ch ools w er e st u d ied w it h a m ove aw ay fr om la r ge sca le st a t ist ica l r e p or t s su ch a s N ew s om (1963) t o ca se s t u d ies b a sed on su c-cessfu l sch ools. T h e a dva n t a ge of ca se st u d ies is t h a t t h ey ca n b e u sed t o illu st r a t e b r oa d st a t is t ica l p a t t er n s, e.g. a p over t y s u r vey w it h d escr ip t ion s of t y p ica l on e p a r en t fa m ilies.
H ow ever, t h er e a r e r ea l con cer n s a b ou t d a t a p r od u ced by ca se st u d ies. T h e s a m p les t en d t o b e sm a ll a n d t h er efor e m a k e gen er a liza t ion s d ifficu lt , a n d t h e t ech n iq u es in volved t en d t o b e id iosy n cr a t ic a n d of low r elia b ilit y. T h e em p h a sis on t h e u se of ca se st u d ies in t h e effect ive sch ool lit er a t u r e in ev it a bly r esu lt s in a lim it ed a n a ly sis of t h e sit u a t ion b ein g s t u d ied . Sim p ly b eca u s e ca s e s t u d ies d o n ot t a k e in t o a ccou n t t h a t b eca u s e t wo ob ser ved p h en om en a occu r a t t h e sa m e t im e d oes n ot a llow you t o in fer w h a t r ela t ion sh ip, ca su a l or ot h er w is e, t h er e m igh t exis t b et w een t h em .
[ 1 4 6]
Jo hn Le o Do yle and Samantha We lls
So c ial c lass and the e ffe c tive sc ho o l paradigm
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 5 –1 4 8
T h is is p a r t of t h e r ea son w h y US com p a -n ies i-n t h e 1960s a -n d 1970s co-n t i-n u ed t o u n d er p er for m in com p a r is on w it h t h eir J a p a n es e cou n t er p a r t s. T h is lit er a t u r e con -s i-s t en t ly ign or ed t h e fa ct t h a t t h e US m ilit a r y w h ich h a d b een a u t h or ized w it h t h e t a s k of r e-es t a blis h in g J a p a n ese m a n u fa ct u r in g in d u s t r y, m a d e gr ea t u s e of t h e et h os fou n d in feu d a l J a p a n ese societ y in or d er t o m ot iva t e t h e wor k for ce. P er h a p s m or e im p or t a n t ly, t h e lit er a t u r e fa ils t o con s id er t h e en or m ou s fi n a n cia l a dva n t a ges given t o J a p a n by it r eceiv in g “favou r ed n a t ion s t a t u s ” fr om t h e en d of t h e w a r t o 1966 by t h e US Sen a t e.
T h e p oin t is sim p le, t h e cu lt u r e a n d h ist or y of a cou n t r y s h a p e or ga n iza t ion s. In Br it a in a n a n a ly s is of s u ccessfu l or ga n iza t ion s wou ld n eed t o t a k e in t o a ccou n t t h e con fl ict b et w een d iffer en t s ocia l gr ou p s w h ich h a s b een a d efi n in g ch a r a ct er is t ic of Br it ish societ y s in ce t h e in d u s t r ia l r evolu t ion . T h e or igin of s t a t e ed u ca t ion in Br it a in , t h e Fos t er E d u ca -t ion Ac-t 1870, w a s a r esp on s e -t o cla s s con fl ic-t , a n d m id d le-cla s s fea r s of a n exp a n d in g in d u s-t r ia l u r b a n wor k in g cla s s. T h e E d u ca s-t ion Refor m Act 1988 h a s r ein t r od u ced m a n y of t h e k ey p r ece p t s of t h e 1870 le gisla t ion .
A cen t r a lized cu r r icu lu m is a ss es sed t h r ou gh t h e u se of s t a n d a r d ized a t t a in m en t t est s, a n d r igor ou s a s sess m en t of s ch ools a n d t ea ch er s by a n in sp ect or a t e. It is t h is h ist or i-ca l, s ocia l a n d le ga l a s p ect of s ch ools t h a t p r ov id es t h e con t ext for a n a n a ly sis of w h et h er s ch ools a r e s u ccess fu l or n ot . To a n a ly s e s ch ools a s or ga n iza t ion s w it h ou t r e ga r d t o t h e is s u e of socia l cla s s, a n d v iew -in g gover n m en t le gisla t ion t o b e “cla s s bl-in d ” ca n on ly r es u lt in a n in a d eq u a t e a n a ly sis. In t h e 1960s t h er e w a s a w ea lt h of d a t a p r od u ced by sociologist s w h ich in d ica t ed h ow t h e p os i-t ion of d iffer en i-t socia l gr ou p s in fl u en ced ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion a l ch a n ces. As a r es u lt of Dou gla s (1964) a n d h is con t em p or a r ies, p oli-cies su ch a s “ed u ca t ion p r ior it y a r ea s” w er e in t r od u ced t o cou n t er t h e n e ga t ive effect s of s ocia l ev ils su ch a s p oor h ou sin g a n d u n em -p loy m en t .
H ow ever, a st r ik in g ch a r a ct er is t ic of t h e effect ive s ch ool p a r a d igm a n d t h e d eb a t e on ed u ca t ion in t h e 1990s is h ow lit t le con s id er a -t ion is given -t o -t h e in fl u en ce of s ocia l cla s s on ch ild r en ’s p er for m a n ce a t sch ool. T h e Office for St a n d a r d s in E d u ca t ion (OfSTE D) s t a t ed t h a t H a ck n ey Dow n s in t h e Lon d on Bor ou gh of H a ck n ey w a s a fa ilin g s ch ool a n d sh ou ld b e closed . It w a s a d ecision w h ich w a s ju st ifi ed in t er m s of t h e sch ool’s a p p a r en t ly fa ilin g exa m in a t ion r esu lt s a n d p oor d is cip lin e. At n o t im e w a s t h er e a n y m en t ion of s u p p or t in g a sch ool w h ich is in a n a r ea d efi n ed by t h e E u r op ea n E con om ic Com m u n it y a s b ein g in t h e p oor es t a r ea in E u r op e. H a ck n ey Dow n s’
a ch ievem en t s a n d fa ilu r es w er e n ever d is-cu ssed in r ela t ion t o t h e s ocia l con t ext in w h ich t h e st a ff a n d p u p ils h a d t o wor k a n d lea r n .
Sin ce t h e 1980s t h e d eb a t e on t h e effect ive sch ool h a s b een in fl u en ced by p olit ica l a gen -d a s a n -d a fl oo-d of le gisla t ion , w it h t h e a im of get t in g sch ools t o v iew excellen ce w it h in t h e con t ext of id ea s t a k en fr om com m en t a t or s on t h e cu lt u r e of or ga n iza t ion s su ch a s Ch a r les H a n dy (1991). T h is a p p r oa ch in ev it a b ly su p -p or t s a st a n d a r d ized a -p -p r oa ch in -p ed a gogy, w it h ch ild r en v iew ed a s u n ifor m p r od u ct s t o b e m ea su r ed by st a n d a r d ized a t t a in m en t t est s, w it h lit t le r e ga r d for t h e in fl u en ce of socia l fa ct or s on sch ools.
We r ecen t ly su r veyed sch ools in on e Lon -d on loca l e-d u ca t ion a u t h or it y w h er e in som e sch ools over 60 p er cen t of t h e p u p ils d o n ot sp ea k E n glish a s t h eir fi r st la n gu a ge, a n d over 80 p er cen t of p u p ils w er e r eceiv in g fr ee sch ool m ea ls. An em p h a sis on u n d er st a n d in g a n d a ssessin g sch ools u sin g con ce p t s d er ived fr om t h e cu lt u r e of or ga n iza t ion s sim p ly d oes n ot a d d r ess t h e iss u es w it h w h ich t ea ch er s wor k in g in t h ese sch ools h ave t o cop e.
T h e effect ive sch ool lit er a t u r e’s r elia n ce on t h is cu lt u r a l p a r a d igm h a s r esu lt ed in t h e a ssu m p t ion t h a t sch ools ca n b e ju d ged in t er m s of ou t p u t , w it h ch ild r en v iew ed a s “w id get s” t o b e exa m in ed by a t t a in m en t t est s. H ow ever, ch ild r en ’s a ch ievem en t is n ot r ed u cible t o t est scor es. It is h a r d t o r econ cile a d evelop m en t a l v iew of ch ild r en ’s ed u ca t ion w it h OfSTE D’s in sp ect ion p r oced u r es t h a t p r esen t t h e cu r r icu lu m a s fa ct s t o b e a b sor b ed , a s op p osed t o k n ow led ge t o b e m a st er ed .
T h is h a s r esu lt ed in a n em p h a sis on t h e u se of t r a d it ion a l st a n d a r d ized a t t a in m en t t est s, a n d ca lls for “t r a d it ion a l” t ea ch in g m et h od s. In ou r v iew, t h e r esu lt w ill b e t h a t fa ilu r es in t h e sch ool s et t in g a r e lik ely t o b ecom e m or e sa lien t . In t h is con t ext p er for m a n ce goa ls w ill p r ob a bly b ecom e h igh ligh t ed , a s w a s t h e ca se w it h t h e E leven P lu s exa m in a t ion . T h er e a r e essen t ia lly t wo p r oblem s w it h p er for -m a n ce goa ls ; fi r s t t h ey d o n ot t a k e in t o a ccou n t t h e in d iv id u a l d ifficu lt ies t h a t m a n y ch ild r en fa ce; a n d secon d , t h ey d o n ot t a k e in t o a ccou n t t h e socia l d ifficu lt ies w it h w h ich m a n y sch ools, su ch a s t h e la t e H a ck n ey Dow n s, h ave t o con t en d .
[ 1 4 7] Jo hn Le o Do yle and
Samantha We lls
So c ial c lass and the e ffe c tive sc ho o l paradigm
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 5 –1 4 8
r esea r ch in t h e a r ea of “lea r n ed h elp les s n es s” or a t t r ibu t ion t h eor y. T h e w r it in gs in t h e effect ive s ch ool lit er a t u r e a r e a t t h e m a cr o-scop ic level, t h e is s u es t h a t con cer n p sych olo-gist s in or ga n iza t ion s r a r ely over la p, a n d w h en t h ey d o a r e n ot a d eq u a t ely exp lor ed . T h e ev id en ce fr om r ecen t r es ea r ch a t t h e Un iver s it y of Ca m b r id ge in t o a t t r ibu t ion t h eor y (Doy le,1995) h a s r a is ed d ou b t s a b ou t t h e va lid it y a n d a ccu r a cy of s t a n d a r d ized a t t a in m en t t est s u sed in sch ools ; a n d in d i-ca t es t h a t p er for m a n ce is a ffect ed by socia l d et er m in a n t s.
T h e fi n d in gs fr om m y r es ea r ch su p p or t t h e sociologica l r es ea r ch of Dou gla s (1964) a n d h is con t em p or a r ies w h ich in d ica t es t h a t ch ild r en ’s p r ogr ess is h eav ily in fl u en ced by fa ct or s ou t sid e t h e s ch ool. Yet in fl u en t ia l in d u s t r ia lis t s su ch a s E ver a r d a n d M or r is (1994) a n d H a n dy (1991) w r it in g on t h e m a n -a gem en t of sch ools -a r e n ot -a ble t o p r ov id e m ea n in gfu l solu t ion s t o t h e ever yd ay p r ob -lem s t h a t in n er cit y t ea ch er s h ave t o con t en d w it h ; t h a t w a s h igh ligh t ed by t h e s ociologica l st u d ies of t h e 1960s a n d ea r ly 1970s.
Wh ile t h er e a r e m a n y m et a p h or s t h a t ca n b e u s ed t o d es cr ib e a n or ga n iza t ion t h e effect ive sch ools lit er a t u r e gen er a lly u ses t h e m od el fou n d in t h e cla s sica l m a n a gem en t lit er a t u r e; w h ich is b a sed on Goffm a n ’s (1961) m od el of a n or ga n iza t ion a s a “t ot a l in s t it u t ion ” fr om h is exa m in a t ion of a sy lu m s. It is cer t a in ly q u es t ion a ble if Goffm a n ’s m od el is a p p lica ble t o m a n y of t h e com m er cia l con cer n s w h ich a d op t ed it ; h ow ever, it is cer t a in ly n ot a p p r o-p r ia t e t o s ch ools.
T h er e a r e t h r ee im p or t a n t fea t u r es of sch ools t h a t a r e n ot sh a r ed w it h m a n y ot h er or ga n iza t ion s, esp ecia lly in d u st r ia l a n d bu s i-n ess or ga i-n iza t ioi-n s. Sch ools a r e of m a jor im p or t a n ce t o t h e n a t ion a l w ellb ein g of t h e cou n t r y, eq u a l t o t h e r ole of t h e N a t ion a l H ea lt h Ser v ice a n d t h e M in is t r y of Defen ce. As s u ch s ch ools w ill a lw ay s fa ce a d e gr ee of p olit ica l in t er es t , t h ey w ill b e su b ject t o p r es -su r e a n d le gisla t ion t h a t is n ot com p a r a ble in in d u st r y or bu sin ess.
Secon d , in d u s t r y a n d bu s in ess h ave t h e m a xim iza t ion of p r ofi t s a s on e of t h eir k ey goa ls. T h is is oft en p u r su ed r e ga r d les s of t h e effect s on em p loyees, a n d in m a n y ca ses w it h a d is r e ga r d for t h e con s eq u en ces on t h e w id er en v ir on m en t . T h is m or a l b a n k r u p t cy is a
d efi n in g d iffer en ce fr om sch ools w it h t h eir r esp on sib ilit y for you n g ch ild r en a n d a d oles-cen t s.
F in a lly, t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een a sch ool a n d it s en v ir on m en t , a n d esp ecia lly t h e in t er -p er son a l r ela t ion s h i-p s w it h in a s ch ool, a r e ver y d iffer en t fr om com m er cia l en t er p r ises. Wh ile com p a n ies n eed t o t a k e in t o con sid er a -t ion -t h e ava ila b ili-t y of a sk illed wor k for ce, r oa d a n d r a il n et wor k s, a n d a ccess t o t h eir r aw m a t er ia ls, t h es e a r e clea r ly n ot t h e sa m e t y p es of con cer n s w h ich con fr on t s ch ools. A p r im a r y sch ool ca n n ot d ecid e t o ch a n ge it s t a r get ed m a r k et a n d b ecom e a secon d a r y sch ool, or ch a n ge it s p r od u ct .
In a d d it ion , r esea r ch t h a t w e con d u ct ed in Lon d on (Doy le a n d Wells, 1996), h a s in d ica t ed t h a t t h e in t r od u ct ion of com m er cia l st r u c-t u r es in c-t o s ch ools h a s h a d a ver y n e ga c-t ive effect on t h e in t er p er son a l r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een t ea ch er s. T h er efor e, ca u t ion is r eq u ir ed w h en in d u st r ia list s a n d bu sin ess con su lt a n t s w r it e on m a t t er s con cer n in g ed u ca t ion , a n d esp ecia lly w it h a p a r a d igm t h a t su gges t s u s in g com m er cia l or ga n iza -t ion a l s-t r u c-t u r es in sch ools.
P et er s a n d Wa t er m a n in t h eir sea r ch for excellen ce p r od u ced a p ow er fu l st u dy b a sed on ca se st u d ies t o id en t ify su cces sfu l or ga n i-za t ion s, w h ich set t h e st y le for la t er a u t h or s t o follow. Wh ile ca s e s t u d ies h ave a p la ce in ed u ca t ion a l r esea r ch , a p a r a d igm b a sed on t h is a p p r oa ch , r ecom m en d in g r ecip e list s for sch ools t o b ecom e s u ccess fu l w it h ou t r e ga r d for t h e p sych ologica l a n d sociologica l issu es t h a t con cer n t h e lea r n in g en v ir on m en t , m u st b e su sp ect .
Bot h P et er s a n d Wa t er m a n h ave p u blish ed m a n y b ook s over t h e yea r s (for exa m p le see P et er s, 1985, 1988; Wa t er m a n , 1988). Yet m a n y of t h e fi r m s t h ey id en t ifi ed a s excellen t h ave n ot s u r v ived , a n d b ot h w r it er s h ave r e gu la r ly ch a n ged t h eir a r gu m en t s a s t o w h y or ga n iza -t ion s a r e su ccessfu l. For exa m p le, cor p or a -t e cu lt u r e w a s t h e k ey t o s u ccess, n ow b ot h see it a s a p osit ive t h r ea t t o in n ova t ion . Wr it er s in t h is a r ea h ave fou n d p u blish er s ea ger t o p r ov id e for t h e m u sh r oom gr ow t h in m a n a ge-m en t cou r ses. H en ce, t h ey t en d t o b e r a sh in t h eir r ecom m en d a t ion s, w h ich is r efl ect ed in t h e a lm ost sea son a l ch a n ge on h ow H a n dy a n d ot h er s v iew or ga n iza t ion s.
It is a fa ct of life in Br it a in t h a t p over t y con t in u es t o exist . Ma n y p a r en t s a n d ch il-d r en live in h a r il-d sh ip a n il-d , in a il-d il-d it ion , m a n y h ave t h e ext r a d ifficu lt y of liv in g in a r ea s of socia l d e p r iva t ion . Tea ch er s a n d sch ools ca n p lay a n im p or t a n t r ole in im p r ov in g t h e life ch a n ces of ch ild r en . How ever, ch ild r en in wor k in g cla ss fa m ilies w ill n ot b e h elp ed if w e con t in u e t o u se t h e effect ive sch ool p a r a d igm ‘… In B r ita in p ov er ty con tin u es to ex ist. M a n y p a ren ts a n d
[ 1 4 8]
Jo hn Le o Do yle and Samantha We lls
So c ial c lass and the e ffe c tive sc ho o l paradigm
Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 1 / 4 [1 9 9 7 ] 1 4 5 –1 4 8
w h ich p lay s d ow n t h e s ign ifi ca n ce of socia l cla s s in ed u ca t ion .
If sch ools, tea ch er s a n d pu pils a r e to be ju dged equ ita bly we n eed to u se a differ en t pa r a digm ; on e th a t h a s som e a n a lysis of gov-er n m en t in tgov-er ven tion in to th e econ om y a n d welfa r e system , wh ich ta k es in to con sider a -tion h ow th e gover n m en t pr ior itizes th e of u se m a r k et pr in ciples a s a n a gen t of socia l ch a n ge; in stea d of im pr ovin g edu ca tion a l excellen ce. It is su r ely r a th er su per fi cia l to con sider th a t sch ools w ill be im pr oved by a pa r a digm wh ich fa iled m a n u fa ctu r in g in du str y, th e a r ea for wh ich it w a s or igin a lly design ed.
Sin ce 1979 it seem s t o t h es e w r it er s t h a t t h e gover n m en t a n d t h e ed u ca t ion s y st em h ave fa iled t o r esp on d t o t h e b igges t ch a llen ge of a ll; t h e in eq u a lit y of t h e m od er n m a t er ia list ic s ociet y, w it h , a m on g ot h er t h in gs, it s socia l cla s s “m ela n ch oly m a d ele p h a n t ” (Dick en s 1854) t h r ea t en in g t o w r eck u r b a n s ociet y. We h ave d elib er a t ely q u ot ed fr om Dick en s for h is
H a rd T im es (For T h ese T im es w a s t h e s u b t
it le) seem s it o u s a sin gu la r ly a p p os iit e com -m en t a r y on ou r ow n . H e fea r ed u n ifor -m it y, a n d t h os e im p er son a l a n d s t a t is t ica l m ea -su r es w h ich p a s s for ed u ca t ion , a n d so s h ou ld w e. H e fea r ed a b ove a ll t h e con seq u en ces for societ y if it ign or ed cla s s in eq u a lit y, a n d s o sh ou ld w e.
T h e m od els a n d la n gu a ge of econ om ic exp e-d ien cy n ow p er m ea t e t h e ee-d u ca t ion s y st em ; sin ce 1979 w e h ave let t od ay ’s p a p er m on ey p r es cr ib e t h e st a n d a r d s of t om or r ow ’s ch il-d r en . An eil-d u ca t ion s y st em w h ich a t t em p t s t o con fr on t t h e in eq u a lit ies of socia l cla s s is n ot on e t h a t ca n b e va lid a t ed econ om ica lly. Yet it is es s en t ia l if w e a r e t o m eet t h e socia l ch a l-len ges w e n ow fa ce.
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