Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue5.1996:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1996] 1 9 –2 4 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0951-354X]

Incorporating action research in school senior

management training

Carol Cardno

He ad o f the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre

Eileen Piggot-Irvine

Le c ture r in the Educ atio n Manage me nt Ce ntre at UNITEC Ins titute o f Te c hno lo gy, Auc kland, Ne w Z e aland

Outlines how an action research approach can be used for management train-ing and education. The emphasis on developing competence in problem-solving processes, using action research, is supported by the literature and this is illustrated by several exam-ples of institutional projects and award-bearing

programmes. Details how the authors’ interpretation of action research, in the school management training con-text, can both challenge and develop educational leaders.

What training do school managers

need?

Parallels with the business arena In t h e cu r r en t p ost -ed u ca t ion -r efor m er a in N ew Zea la n d , s ch ool m a n a ger s (p r in cip a ls, a n d ot h er s en ior a d m in ist r a t or s ) a r e in cr ea s-in gly r eq u ir ed t o fu lfi l exp a n d ed a n d ch a l-len gin g r oles a s s ocia t ed w it h t h e self-m a n a ge-m en t of s ch ools. T h e r ole of a s ch ool p r in cip a l is on er ou s a n d a m b igu ou s a n d in volves sim u lt a n eou s ly a d m in ist er in g sch ool op er a -t ion s in clu d in g fi n a n cia l m a n a gem en -t , a p p oin t in g st a ff, a p p r a is in g a n d d evelop in g t ea ch er s, s u p er v isin g in st r u ct ion , b ein g a ccess ible t o a n d lia isin g w it h a ll s t a k eh old er s, d ele ga t in g r es p on s ib ilit y, s t r a t e gic p la n -n i-n g a -n d p olicy d evelop m e-n t , m a r k et i-n g, v is ion in g, a n d s o on . Ma n y of t h ese r oles n ow clos ely p a r a llel t h ose of m a n a ger s in t h e w id er bu s in ess a r en a a n d r eq u ir e lea d er s h ip t o in fl u en ce ch a n ge. Ma n a gem en t , in t h e sen se w h ich w e u s e it , en com p a s ses lea d er -sh ip a s a cen t r a l fea t u r e of effect ive m a n a ge-m en t . It is ou r con t en t ion , t h er efor e, t h a t t h e ch a n ges r eq u est ed in gen er a l m a n a gem en t t r a in in g n ow a p p ly eq u a lly t o ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is t r a t or s.

Traditional training

T r a d it ion a lly s om e t r a in in g for ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is t r a t or s h a s b een ava ila ble t h r ou gh u n iver s it y -led , t h eor et ica lly -or ien t ed cou r s es t h a t t ea ch a n u m b er of w ell-k n ow n t h eor ies a n d en cou r a ge d iscu s sion of h ow t h ese id ea s m igh t a p p ly t o t h e p r a ct it ion er ’s ow n con t ext . Rob in s on [1] h a s exa m in ed t h e t r en d aw ay fr om t h is t y p ica l t r a in in g t o a m or e colle gia l a n d p r a ct ica l in ser v ice m od el w h ich is cu r -r en t ly favou -r ed by p -r a ct it ion e-r s. Sh e a -r gu es, h ow ever, t h a t “t o s u gges t a fa ls e d ich ot om y b et w een t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice s ever ely lim it s b ot h t y p es of p r ov ision ”[1, p. 25].

In t h e p a s t , exp licit ly t h eor et ica l, con t en t b a sed p r ogr a m m es h ave p r im a r ily b een con -cer n ed w it h t h e t r a n sm iss ion of k n ow led ge a n d s k ills fr om t h e exp er t t o t h e n ov ice, w it h lit t le a t t en t ion p a id t o t h e a p p lica t ion of t h is k n ow led ge in t h e wor k con t ext of t h es e m a n -a ger s. Con s eq u en t ly, gr -a d u -a t es fr om t h es e p r ogr a m m es h a d con s id er a ble t h eor et ica l k n ow led ge bu t few d em on st r a ble a p p lied

sk ills w h ich p r e p a r ed t h em for t h e r a p id ly ch a n gin g m a n a ger ia l wor k p la ce.

Future management training

In r ecen t yea r s t h er e h ave b een in cr ea sin g ca lls for ch a n ges in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g a p p r oa ch es b ot h in gen er a l m a n a gem en t fi eld s a n d for ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t or s [1-11].

F u t u r e m a n a gem en t t r a in in g, w e a r e in for m ed , s h ou ld in clu d e a ll or som e of t h e follow in g ch a r a ct er ist ics :

• u s e of wor k p la ce-b a sed p r oblem solv in g, w it h st u d en t s wor k in g on r ea l p r oblem s or issu es;

• d evelop m en t of com p et en ces for d ea lin g w it h r a p id a n d con t in u ou s ch a n ge; • colla b or a t ive t ea m wor k p r a ct ices;

• d evelop m en t of in t er p er s on a l, p eop le m a n -a gem en t sk ills – esp eci-a lly t h ose n eed ed t o r esolve com p lex p r oblem s;

• op p or t u n it y for self-d evelop m en t ; • t r a in in g w h ich h a s a n a ca d em ic a n d

a p p lied lea r n in g m ix a n d r ed u ces t h e ga p b et w een t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice;

• a focu s on t h e p r ocess of m a n a gem en t r a t h er t h a n t h e con t en t ;

• cr it ica l r efl ect ion on p r a ct ice; a n d

• p r a ct ice w h ich r esu lt s in d a t a -b a sed ch a n ge im p lem en t a t ion .

Rob in son [1] a d d s t o t h is t h a t if lea d er s of t h ese p r ogr a m m es h op e t o in fl u en ce t h e t h in k in g of p a r t icip a n t s, let a lon e t h eir p r a c-t ice, c-t h ey n eed c-t o:

…exa m in e cr it ica lly t h e u t ilit y, a p p lica b ilit y a n d et h ics of t h e im p licit t h eor ies of cou r s e p a r t icip a n t s a s w ell a s in v it e s im ila r exa m i-n a t ioi-n of t h e t h eor ies t h ey t h em selves a dvo-ca t e. Given t h a t cou r se m em b er ’s t h eor ies a r e la r gely im p licit , t h eir exa m in a t ion m u st p r oceed by p r ogr es s ive u n cover in g of t h e a ssu m p t ion s t h a t in for m t h eir d is cu s sion a n d cr it iq u e of t h e m a t er ia l of t h e cou r se [1, p. 26].

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Caro l Cardno

and Eile e n Piggo t-Irvine Inc o rpo rating ac tio n re se arc h in sc ho o l se nio r manage me nt training

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 5 [1 9 9 6 ] 1 9 –2 4

Act ion r esea r ch is a n a p p r oa ch w h ich ca n b e in cor p or a t ed in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g t o in t e gr a t e t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice. It m ay p ot en -t ia lly in clu d e a ll of -t h e ch a r a c-t er is -t ics d es cr ib ed a b ove.

Action research: relationship to

action learning and experiential

learning

Act ion r esea r ch , a t er m coin ed by Ku r t Lew in in t h e 1940s, is va r iou sly d efi n ed a n d

d es cr ib ed . T h e sh or t es t a n d m os t st r a igh t for -w a r d d efi n it ion of a ct ion r es ea r ch is given by E lliot t [12, p. 69] a s “t h e st u dy of a s ocia l s it u a -t ion w i-t h a v iew -t o im p r ov in g -t h e q u a li-t y of a ct ion w it h in it ”.

T h e r ea d er is r efer r ed t o Ab r a h a m [13] for a n ext en s ive su m m a r y of con fl ict in g in t er p r e-t a e-t ion s of a ce-t ion r es ea r ch . Ab r a h a m con fi r m s t h a t id ea s a b ou t w h a t con s t it u t es a ct ion r esea r ch a r e m a n y a n d va r ied bu t con clu d es t h a t it is a m et h od “in w h ich m em b er s of a n or ga n is a t ion wor k colla b or a t ively w it h a fa cilit a t or (t h e r es ea r ch er ) t o a d d r es s p r ob -lem s t h a t a r e of con cer n t o t h e gr ou p ”[13, p. 23].

P et er s a n d Rob in s on [14] id en t ify t h r ee m in im a l r eq u ir em en t s for a ct ion r es ea r ch com m on t o a select ion of t h e con t em p or a r y lit er a t u r e. T h ese a r e:

1 a p r oblem -focu sed ch a n ge or ien t a t ion ; 2 it er a t ive st a ges of p la n n in g, a ct ion , fa ct

-fi n d in g a n d r efl ect ion ; a n d 3 t h e colla b or a t ive ch a r a ct er is t ic.

Wh ile t h es e t h r ee con d it ion s w er e sh a r ed by a ll t h e w r it er s s u r veyed , P et er s a n d Rob in s on d is t in gu is h b et w een m os t com m en t a t or s w h o su b s cr ib e t o a “w ea k ver s ion ” of a ct ion r esea r ch (a s a r es ea r ch st r a t e gy ), a n d a t r io of r esea r ch er s w h o h ave sou gh t t o d evelop a “s t r on g ver s ion ” t h a t em p h a sizes t h e em a n ci-p a t or y ci-p ot en t ia l of t h e m et h od .

In t h e m a n a gem en t con t ext , P er r y a n d Zu b er -Sk er r it t [6, p. 18] s u m m a r ize a ct ion r esea r ch a s in volv in g gr ou p s of m a n a ger s wor k in g on r ea l p r oblem s in com p lex a n d dy n a m ic s it u a t ion s w h er e t h e socia l p r ocess es of lea r n in g a b ou t t h ese sit u a t ion s is in ext r ica bly lin k ed w it h t h e a ct s of ch a n g-in g t h os e s it u a t ion s.

Action learning

Act ion lea r n in g is a n ot ion a k in t o a ct ion r esea r ch . It s d evelop m en t is a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e wor k of Re g Reva n s s in ce t h e 1930s. It h a s m a n y sim ila r it ies t o a ct ion r es ea r ch a t a p h ilosop h ica l level bu t d iffer s fr om it in t h a t t h er e is n o obliga t ion t o m a k e fi n d in gs p u blic. In a ct ion lea r n in g t h er e is gr ea t er em p h a s is p la ced on lea r n in g t h a n a ct ion p er se, a n d t h e

st a n d a r d s of d a t a collect ion a n d va lid a t ion a r e less r igor ou s t h a n in a ct ion r esea r ch . T h e over a ll goa l of a ct ion lea r n in g is t h e d evelop -m en t of q u est ion in g in sigh t .

Bot h a ct ion r esea r ch a n d a ct ion lea r n in g a r e a p p r oa ch es w h ich a im t o n a r r ow t h e ga p b et w een t h eor y a n d p r a ct ice. T h ey a d h er e t o t h e p r in cip les of a n on p osit iv ist , or a lt er n a -t ive, in -t er p r e-t a -t ive r esea r ch p a r a d igm , in w h ich p r a ct it ion er u n d er st a n d in g of p r ob -lem s is given p r om in en ce. In t h ese

a p p r oa ch es, t h e p r a ct it ion er -r esea r ch er col-la b or a t ively p a r t icip a t es in t h e even t s b ein g st u d ied a n d exp licit ly a ck n ow led ges t h e w ay in w h ich t h ey a r e im p lica t ed in t h es e even t s. T h e p r ed om in a n t ly (bu t n ot a lw ay s ) q u a lit a -t ive d a -t a collec-t ed a r e in -t er p r e-t ed , a n a ly sed a n d r efl ect ed on t oget h er by r esea r ch er a n d p a r t icip a n t s, w h o com p r ise a colla b or a t ive gr ou p. Su ch a n a p p r oa ch , t h er efor e, r eject s t h e p osit iv ist s u b ject -r esea r ch er d ist in ct ion a n d va lu e-fr ee esp ou sa ls.

Experiential learning theory underpinning action research and action learning Un lik e t r a d it ion a l lea r n in g, w h ich in volves in d iv id u a ls r eceiv in g in for m a t ion , a n d t h en a p p ly in g t h is t h eor y t o a s it u a t ion or p r ob -lem , a ct ion r esea r ch a n d a ct ion lea r n in g in volve exp er ien t ia l lea r n in g cycles [15]. In t h is t y p e of lea r n in g k n ow led ge is ga in ed fr om ob ser va t ion s, q u est ion in g a n d r efl ect ion r ela t ed t o con cr et e exp er ien ce or a ct ion . T h is lea d s t o gen er a liza t ion s or t h e for m u la t ion of a b st r a ct con ce p t s, t h e im p lica t ion s of w h ich a r e t est ed in n ew sit u a t ion s. A n ew con cr et e exp er ien ce t h en occu r s, follow ed by a n ot h er cycle of lea r n in g. Un d er st a n d in g, im p r ovem en t , a n d t r a n sfor ovem a t ion of t h e sp ecifi c sit u -a t ion in w h ich t h e gr ou p -a r e wor k in g is t h e u lt im a t e ou t com e of t h ese lea r n in g cycles.

Our interpretation of action

research

In ou r p r a ct ice w e d efi n e a ct ion r es ea r ch a s a n a p p lied a p p r oa ch for r es olv in g or ga n iza -t ion a l p r oblem s colla b or a -t ively. In -t h e m od el w e u se (F igu r e 1) it in volves t h r ee m a jor p h a ses or cycles of a ct iv it y. E a ch cyclic p h a se in cor p or a t es s t e p s of p la n n in g, a ct in g, ob ser v in g a n d r efl ect in g:

• Cycle on e: exa m in in g a n exist in g p r oblem ; • Cycle t wo: in t er ven in g t o im p r ove p r a ct ice; • Cycle t h r ee: eva lu a t in g t h e effect iven ess of

ch a n ge.

Act ion r es ea r ch is a n ed u ca t ive a n d d evelop -m en t a l p r ocess. We b elieve it is effect ive w h en :

• r efl ect ive p r a ct ice is d a t a -b a s ed ;

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• cr it iq u e is b a s ed on exp licit n or m s a n d t h eor ies of a ct ion .

P a r t icip a n t r es ea r ch er s a r e r eq u ir ed t o p la n a n d p r es en t a for m a l p r op os a l a n d t o r e p or t for m a lly on t h e p r oject d em on s t r a t in g a p p li-ca t ion of t h eir k n ow led ge a n d s k ills a s a ct ion r esea r ch er s. F igu r e 1 illu st r a t es t h e

sp ir a llin g a p p r oa ch t o ch a n ge a n d im p r ove-m en t a d op t ed in t h is ove-m od el.

Support – in theory and practice –

for action research incorporated in

management training

Support evidence

T h e va lu e of eit h er a ct ion r es ea r ch , or t h e closely a ffilia t ed a ct ion lea r n in g p r ocess, in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g h a s su p p or t fr om s ev -er a l w r it -er s.

Cu n n in gt on a n d T r evor Rob er t s, for exa m -p le, s t a t e t h a t :

…t h e Act ion Lea r n in g p r oces s … p r ov id es t h e on ly fea sible veh icle for lea r n in g com p e-t en cies a s socia e-t ed w ie-t h gen er a l m a n a ge-m en t a n d ge-m u s t t h er efor e for ge-m p a r t of t h e d evelop m en t of t h e lea d er s of t om or r ow [16, p. 46].

Sor oh a n ’s[10] r ecen t a r t icle in d ica t es t h a t t h is sh ift is a lr ea dy occu r r in g, w h en sh e r e p or t s t h a t a ct ion lea r n in g is p r ob a b ly t h e favou r ed st r a t e gy for execu t ive ed u ca t ion t h ese d ay s. F u r t h er su p p or t for t h e im p le-m en t a t ion of a ct ion lea r n in g a n d a ct ion r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g com es fr om Ca la b r ese a n d Ba r t z[17], P er r y a n d Zu b er -Sk er r it t [6,18] a n d Zu b er -Sk er r it t [19].

T h er e a r e con fl ict in g a ccou n t s of t h e d e gr ee of in cor p or a t ion of a ct ion r esea r ch in m a n a gem en t t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es. Zu b er Sk er r it t [19] r e p or t s t h a t t h e on ly aw a r d b ea r -in g, p ost gr a d u a t e m a n a gem en t t r a -in -in g p r o-gr a m m es s h e is aw a r e of, w h ich a r e

gen u in ely b a sed on t h e a ct ion lea r n in g p h i-los op h y, a r e t h e MBA a n d P h D p r ogr a m m es offer ed by t h e In t er n a t ion a l Ma n a gem en t Cen t r es wor ldw id e. T h is d iffer s fr om a n ecd o-t a l ev id en ce, b oo-t h in N ew Zea la n d a n d Au s-t r a lia , w h ich in d ica s-t es s-t h a s-t sever a l gr a d u a s-t e m a n a gem en t t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es in cor p r a t e a ct ion lea r n in g or a ct ion r esea r ch p r o-ject s. T h ese con fl ict in g a ccou n t s su ggest t h a t in cr ea sed n et wor k in g a n d colla b or a t ion is r eq u ir ed b et w een p r ogr a m m e lea d er s w h o w ish t o b e b et t er in for m ed a b ou t su ccessfu l in it ia t ives in cu r r en t p r ov ision . In N ew Zea la n d , t h e Act ion Resea r ch N et wor k (est a b -lish ed by P iggot -Ir v in e in 1993) p r op oses t o fa cilit a t e su ch d ia logu e, a n d t o est a blish a r e gist er of m a n a gem en t p r ogr a m m es in cor -p or a t in g a ct ion r esea r ch .

Institutionally-based management training projects in Australasia

T h er e a r e n ow s ever a l exa m p les of m a n a ge-m en t t r a in in g p r ogr a ge-m ge-m es in Au s t r a lia in cor p or a t in g a ct ion r esea r ch . At t h e Un iver -sit y of Qu een sla n d a ser ies of a ct ion lea r n in g p r oject s h a s b een im p lem en t ed w h ich h ave t h e goa l of im p r ov in g m a n a gem en t

p r a ct ices [11]. J a m es Cook Un iver sit y, Sou t h Au s t r a lia Un iver sit y, Sw in bu r n e Un iver sit y of Tech n ology a n d t h e Roya l Melb ou r n e In st it u it e of Tech n ology (RM IT) a r e fu r it h er exa m -p les of Au st r a lia n u n iver sit ies w h ich h ave im p lem en t ed m a n a gem en t t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es b a sed on a ct ion lea r n in g or a ct ion r esea r ch . T h e su p p or t for t h es e la t t er p r ogr a m m es a r ose fr om t h e Au st r a lia n Vice Ch a n cellor s’ Com m it t ee (AVCC) in it ia t ive w h ich est a blish ed a st a ff d evelop m en t a n d t r a in in g p r ogr a m m e[20] t o im p r ove m a n a ge-m en t t r a in in g t h r ou gh t h e p oolin g of r esou r ces, in t er -u n iver sit y n et wor k in g, a n d en h a n ced d eliver y. Cou r ses for execu t ives con d u ct ed a t t h e Br is b a n e-b a sed Cen t r e for St r a t e gic Lea d er s[21], a n d t h e N ew Sou t h Wa les N a t ion a l P a r k s a n d Wild life Ser v ice[22] a r e fu r t h er exa m p les of p r ogr a m m es w h ich Evaluatio n o f inte rve ntio n

Obse rve

Obs e rve

Obse rve R efle_{c t}

R

efle ct

R efle_ct

Plan Ac t

Inte rve ntio n

Re c o nnais s anc e o f the pro ble m s ituatio n Re fle c t

Re fle c t Re fle c t

De fine is s ue

Cyc le thre e

Cyc le two

Cyc le o ne Re po rt

Figure 1

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Caro l Cardno

con t a in a ct ion r es ea r ch com p on en t s. H ow ever, a ll of t h es e p r ogr a m m es h ave a n in t er -n a l i-n s t it u t io-n a l focu s, a -n d -n o-n e of t h em is aw a r d b ea r in g.

Award-bearing programmes in Australasia J oh n son [3] ou t lin es t h e Un iver s it y of N ew Sou t h Wa les aw a r d -b ea r in g p r ogr a m m e for sen ior a d m in ist r a t or s of s ch ools – t h e Cer t ifi -ca t e in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t . H e d es cr ib es t h is a s em p h a s izin g p r a ct ica l p r e p a r a t ion for sch ool m a n a gem en t t h r ou gh t h e in cor p or a -t ion of ca s e s -t u d ies, s im u la -t ion s a n d r ole p lay s. As s ign m en t s focu s on t h e a d m in is t r a -t or s ’ ow n s ch ools. P r ogr a m m e goa ls in clu d e fos t er in g a n a ly sis, r efl ect ion , cr it ica l r ea c-t ion s a n d s k ills. J oh n s on s c-t a c-t es c-t h a c-t c-t h e p r o-gr a m m e h a s m u ch in com m on w it h t h e a ct ion lea r n in g m od el[3, p. 13].

Rob in s on , a t t h e Un iver s it y of Au ck la n d , d ir ect s a M a st er ’s p r ogr a m m e w h ich h a s a n a ct ion r es ea r ch p a p er. T h e Un iver s it y Cer t ifi ca t e in Sch ool Lea d er s h ip offer ed by t h e con -t in u in g ed u ca -t ion d e p a r -t m en -t a -t Au ck la n d Un iver s it y is a n ot h er exa m p le of a

p r ogr a m m e w h ich in clu d es a n a ct ion r esea r ch com p on en t .

In ou r p r a ct ice a s ed u ca t ion a l m a n a gem en t d evelop er s a t UN ITE C In s t it u t e of Tech n ol-ogy, a ct ion r es ea r ch is in cor p or a t ed a s a m a jor com p on en t of a p a r t -t im e, t wo-yea r aw a r d -b ea r in g cou r se, Dip lom a in Sch ool Ma n a gem en t , for sen ior m a n a ger s of s ch ools.

Management development through

action research

T h e d ip lom a p r ogr a m m e is in t en d ed t o in cr ea s e t h e k n ow led ge a n d s k ills of s ch ool p r in cip a ls a n d t h os e a sp ir in g t o p r in cip a l-sh ip. Tow a r d s t h e en d of t h e fi r s t yea r of st u dy, p a r t icip a n t s a r e in t r od u ced t o t h e n ot ion of a ct ion r es ea r ch a s a t ool for t h e sim u lt a n eou s r es olu t ion of or ga n iza t ion a l p r oblem s a n d for m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t . T h ey s u b s eq u en t ly p la n a n a ct ion r es ea r ch p r oject t o im p lem en t in t h eir sch ools over t h e cou r s e of t h e follow in g yea r. Re p or t in g on t h e a ct ion r es ea r ch st u dy is t h e fi n a l for m a l r eq u ir em en t of t h e Dip lom a in Sch ool Ma n -a gem en t p r ogr -a m m e.

The rationale for teaching action research A r esea r ch com p on en t es t a blis h es t h e st a t u s of t h e p r ogr a m m e a s a h igh er ed u ca t ion , p r ofes s ion a l q u a lifi ca t ion for p r a ct it ion er s. Un d er t a k in g a ct ion r es ea r ch sh ou ld m a k e it p oss ible for a p a r t icip a n t t o r es olve a r ea l m a n a gem en t p r oblem in t h e s ch ool. To d o t h is, or even t o a t t em p t t o d o t h is, b ot h r esea r ch s k ills a n d cr it ica l r efl ect ion sk ills,

w h ich ca n b e p r a ct ised in t h e p r ogr a m m e set t in g w it h t h e h elp of a s u p er v isin g lec-t u r er, m u slec-t b e d evelop ed . We h op e lec-t h a lec-t lec-t h e b en efi t s of t h es e s k ills r em a in lon g a ft er t h e for m a l st u dy p r ogr a m m e is com p let ed . T h e cycles of r es ea r ch a ct iv it y con d u ct ed in t h e st u dy u n it a r e in t en d ed t o fl ow on in t o fu r -t h er cycles. As Kin g a n d Lon n q u is-t s -t a -t e:

T h e r efl ect ion of on e cycle b ecom es t h e p r oblem fr a m in g of t h e n ext cycle, s o t h a t , on ce in it ia t ed , a ct ion r es ea r ch is t ech n ica lly a n on goin g p r oces s, d is t in gu is h ed fr om eva lu a t ion p r oces s es t h a t en d a ft er a ccom -p lish in g a given t a s k [23, -p. 5].

Id ea lly, t h e les son s lea r n ed in ca r r y in g ou t a n a ct ion r es ea r ch p r oject w ill n ot on ly lea d on t o fu r t h er cycles of r esea r ch in t h e s a m e p r ob -lem a r ea bu t cou ld a lso b e t r a n sfer a ble t o ot h er p r oblem a t ic m a n a gem en t sit u a t ion s w h ich ca ll for a sy st em a t ic a n d su st a in ed a p p r oa ch t o r esolv in g s ign ifi ca n t issu es.

Emphasis on management topics Beca u se t h e d ip lom a is a q u a lifi ca t ion for sch ool m a n a ger s, p a r t icip a n t s a r e r eq u ir ed t o ch oose a t op ic w it h a m a n a gem en t focu s, r a t h er t h a n a t ea ch in g focu s. Act ion r esea r ch is p r esen t ed a s a p r oblem -b a sed r esea r ch m et h od ology w h ich focu ses on a r ea l p r oblem a n d a im s t o gen er a t e r esu lt s t h a t lea d t o r ele-va n t a n d colla b or a t ive ch a n ge t h a t h a s a d ir ect im p a ct on t h e m a n a gem en t of ed u ca -t ion . In -t h e fi r s -t yea r of d ip lom a s-t u dy -t h e p a r t icip a n t s a r e exa m in in g a n d id en t ify in g r eleva n t t h eor y a n d d is cover in g t h eir ow n t h eor ies of p r a ct ice.

An u n d er ly in g t h em e in t h e UN ITE C a p p r oa ch is t h e em p h a sis on d evelop in g n or m s of or ga n iza t ion a l lea r n in g w h ich cou ld lea d t o er r or d et ect ion a n d cor r ect ion t h r ou gh cr it ica l a n d colla b or a t ive r efl ect ion . T h e d ip lom a cu r r icu lu m offer s op p or t u n it y t o lea r n a p r oblem -solv in g a p p r oa ch w h ich d ea ls w it h d ifficu lt issu es fr om a t h eor y of a ct ion p er sp ect ive[23]. Su ch lea r n in g en a bles p a r t icip a n t s t o d iscover h ow t h ey a n d ot h er s m igh t in a dver t en t ly b e im p lica t ed in p r oblem m a in t en a n ce w h ile avow in g t h eir gen u in e com m it m en t t o p r oblem r esolu t ion .

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p r oblem a t ic m a n a gem en t p r a ct ice in t h e sch ool ca n b e a ver y t h r ea t en in g n ot ion for a ll con cer n ed .

Organizing action research

In t ea ch in g a ct ion r esea r ch ou r a im is t o d em y s t ify t h e m et h od s a n d p r ocess es, a n d p r om ot e t h e va lu es a n d t h e a s p ir a t ion s of a ct ion r esea r ch a s a m ea n s for or ga n iza t ion a l lea r n in g w h ich ca n b e m a n a ged in a for m a l-ized w ay. Act ion r es ea r ch in t o m a n a gem en t p r oblem s s h ou ld b e a t ool t h a t is u n d er s t ood by a n d is a ccessible t o m a n a ger s a t a ll levels in t h e or ga n iza t ion .

A formal process

We m a k e n o a p ology for t h e fa ct t h a t t h e p r oces s d es cr ib ed in ou r t ea ch in g m od el is for m a lly or ga n ized a n d n eed s t o b e ca r efu lly m a n a ged by t h e st u d en t . Beca u se t h e s t u d en t -r esea -r ch e-r s h old s en io-r p osit ion s in s ch ools, it is in ev it a ble t h a t im p lem en t a t ion of t h is m od el (s ee F igu r e 1) t en d s t o b e h ier a r ch ica l. T h e for m a lit y a n d or ga n ized a p p r oa ch of t h is fr a m ewor k is ju st ifi a ble in ou r op in ion b eca u s e it is n ecessa r y t o m a k e ou r exp ect a -t ion s a n d -t h e r es ea r ch p oss ib ili-t ies exp lici-t -t o p a r t icip a n t s. Wit h in t h is s t r u ct u r ed fr a m e-wor k , s t u d en t s a r e en cou r a ged t o a d op t a n a p p r op r ia t e a n d w id e r a n ge of d a t a ga t h er in g a n d r efl ect ive t ech n iq u es w it h a colla b or a t ive gr ou p. T h ey a r e a lso en cou r a ged t o b e fl exible a n d r es p on s ive t o t h e u n iq u en es s of ea ch r esea r ch con t ext , a n d t o r ecogn ize a n d a r t icu -la t e lim it a t ion s of t h e p r ocess a n d t h eir ow n p r a ct ice a s t h ey en cou n t er a n d su r m ou n t d ifficu lt ies.

It is ev id en t t h a t a n or ga n ized , d ir ect ive a p p r oa ch is a t od d s w it h a s ect ion of t h e a ct ion r esea r ch lit er a t u r e t h a t su p p or t s a m or e fl u id , or ga n ic v iew of t h e m et h od ology : a v iew con sist en t w it h n ot ion s of gr ou p s p a r t icip a t in g in lib er a t in g d iscou r se t o r esolve m u t u a l p r oblem s a n d t o a ch ieve a n em a n cip a t or y ou t com e. T h e t r a n s for m a t ive (t h a t is, ch a n ged t h in k in g; ch a n ged a ct ion ) im p er a t ive t h a t u n d er p in s ou r r es ea r ch m od el is con cer n ed less w it h a cr it iq u e a n d a lt er a t ion of s ocia l or p olit ica l or d er a n d p ow er r ela t ion s a n d m or e w it h a colla b or a -t ive cr i-t iq u e of p er son a l a n d or ga n iza -t ion a l t h eor ies of a ct ion t h a t gu id e p r a ct ice[24].

Collaborative challenges

Wh et h er t h e st u d en t is a r es ea r ch er -p a r t ici-p a n t w it h in a n a ct ion r es ea r ch t ea m or a ct s t o fa cilit a t e a t ea m r es ea r ch effor t , ou r exp e-r ien ce s h ow s t h a t sevee-r a l d ifficu lt ies h ave t o b e over com e in r ela t ion t o t h e d em a n d in g t ea m a p p r oa ch r eq u ir em en t . In sp it e of

esp ou s a ls of colle gia lit y a n d colla b or a t ion on p r oject s, ou r st u d en t r esea r ch er s fi n d t h a t in p r a ct ice t h eir collea gu es a r e ext r em ely bu sy w h en it com es t o fi n d in g t im e t o p a r t icip a t e in a n a ct ion r esea r ch gr ou p. E ven w h en exist -in g colla b or a t ive ch a n n els – su ch a s m eet -in gs sch ed u les a n d est a blish ed t a sk t ea m s – a r e u sed , t h ey u su a lly fi n d t h em selves h av in g t o p lay a con sid er a ble m ot iva t in g r ole. T h ey fi n d t h a t t h ey h ave t o m ove t h e it er a t ive p r ocess for w a r d v igor ou sly if t h ey w ish t o sh ow ev i-d en ce of a ct ion a n i-d ch a n ge b eca u se

collea gu es n eed a d e gr ee of p r essu r e t o b e exer t ed t o en su r e t h a t t h in gs h a p p en w h en t h er e is a p r oblem t o b e solved .

The action research project requirements To q u a lify a s a ct ion r esea r ch , ou r st u d en t s’ p r oject s m u st m eet t h e cr it er ia for a ct ion r esea r ch im p licit in t h e m od el t h a t fr a m es t h e a p p r oa ch u s ed a t UN ITE C. An effect ive a ct ion r esea r ch p r oject is con d u ct ed a ccor d in g t o a n a gr eed p r op osa l. It is su p er v ised a n d r e p or t ed on in a m a n n er w h ich d em on st r a t es t h a t : • t h e p r oblem sit u a t ion in volves a m a n a

ge-m en t issu e;

• t h e p r oject h a s clea r a im s a n d w ellfor m u -la t ed r esea r ch q u est ion s;

• a colla b or a t ive a p p r oa ch is u sed , a n d issu es of et h ics a n d va lid a t ion h ave b een a t t en d ed t o;

• t h e p r oblem sit u a t ion h a s b een exa m in ed a n d a n a ly sed , en com p a s sin g a r ev iew of t h e r eleva n t lit er a t u r e;

• a n in t er ven t ion st r a t e gy h a s b een im p le-m en t ed ;

• t h e effect iven ess of t h e in t er ven t ion is eva l-u a t ed ;

• d iscu ssion of im p lica t ion s of t h e fi n d in gs h a s led t o t h e d r aw in g of con clu sion s a n d t h e for m u la t ion of r ecom m en d a t ion s; • t h e m et h od ology is u n d er s t ood a n d a p p lied

a p p r op r ia t ely.

Participant outcomes

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en cou r a ge colla b or a t ive, d a t a -b a s ed in q u ir y t o b ecom e a cu lt u r a l n or m in t h eir sch ools.

Conclusion

E ffect ive ed u ca t ion a l lea d er s s h ou ld b e eq u ip p ed w it h m a n a gem en t com p et en ces w h ich w ill en a ble t h em t o s olve n ew a n d ch a llen gin g p r oblem s a n d p r ov id e lea d er s h ip in a fr a m ewor k of or ga n iza t ion a l lea r n in g. By a s s is t in g m a n a ger s t o r efl ect on cu r r en t is su es a n d p r a ct ice, a n d t o a lt er t h ese on t h e b a s is of t h eor y t h a t gu id es “b est p r a ct ice”, a ct ion r es ea r ch p r ocess es en cou r a ge t h em t o d evelop a s m a n a ger s a n d t o m a k e u se of a sy s t em a t ic, p r oblem -b a s ed a p p r oa ch for im p r ovem en t .

T h is p a p er h a s d is cu s s ed h ow on e h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion in cor p or a t es a ct ion r esea r ch t o fost er m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t in a n aw a r d -b ea r in g p r ogr a m m e. T h e w r it er s a r e in t er est ed in t h e com m en t s a n d con jec-t u r e of ojec-t h er s in volved in jec-t r a in in g m a n a ger s, a n d h op e t h a t d iscu s sion a n d d eb a t e on t h e ch a llen ges a n d su cces ses of u s in g a ct ion r esea r ch a s a t ool for m a n a gem en t d evelop m en t w ill p r ov id e gr is t for t h e m ill of lea r n -in g -in t h e a ct ion r es ea r ch com m u n it y.

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