Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol10.Issue6.1996:

(1)

(2)

Yin Che o ng Che ng and Kwo k Tung Ts ui

To tal te ac he r e ffe c tive ne ss: ne w c o nc e ptio n and impro ve me nt

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 0 / 6 [1 9 9 6 ] 7 –1 7

b ody of k n ow led ge ess en t ia l for t ea ch in g, a n d k n ow h ow t o a p p ly it . By in t e gr a t in g t h ese t wo con ce p t ion s, effect ive t ea ch er s m ay b e a s s u m ed t o b e t h os e w h o p os sess t h e r eleva n t com p et en ce (in clu d in g n eces s a r y p r o-fes s ion a l k n ow led ge, sk ills a n d a t t it u d es ) a n d u s e t h e com p et en ce a p p r op r ia t ely t o a ch ieve t h eir s et goa ls. F r om t h is lin e of t h in k in g, t h e u n d er s t a n d in g of t ea ch er effect iven es s m u st b e b a s ed on t h e lin k a ges b et w een t ea ch er com p et en ce, t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a n d s et goa ls or exp ect ed ed u ca t ion a l ou t com es.

Structure of teacher ef fectiveness

M ed ley ’s [12] st r u ct u r e of t ea ch er effect ive-n es s is a ver y com p r eh eive-n sive fr a m ewor k w h ich ca n in t e gr a t e t h e t ea ch er t r a it p er sp ec-t ive, ec-t h e ec-t ea ch er b eh av iou r p er s p ecec-t ive a n d t h e p r oces s -p r od u ct of t ea ch in g p er s p ect ive t o exp la in t h e r ela t ion sh ip s b et w een t ea ch er com p et en ce, t ea ch er p er for m a n ce, s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d ed u ca t ion a l ou t -com es. H e exp la in ed t h a t :

T h e t er m “t ea ch er effect iven ess” w ill b e u s ed t o r efer t o t h e r esu lt s a t ea ch er get s or t o t h e a m ou n t of p r ogr es s t h e p u p ils m a k e t ow a r d som e s p ecifi ed goa ls of ed u ca t ion . On e im p lica t ion of t h is d efi n it ion is t h a t t ea ch er effect iven es s m u st b e d efi n ed , a n d ca n on ly b e a ssess ed , in t er m s of b eh av iou r s of p u p ils, n ot b eh av iou r s of t ea ch er s. For t h is r ea son , a n d b eca u s e t h e a m ou n t t h a t p u p ils lea r n is s t r on gly a ffect ed by fa ct or s n ot u n d er t h e t ea ch er ’s con t r ol, t ea ch er effect iven es s w ill b e r e ga r d ed n ot a s a st a ble ch a r a ct er ist ic of t h e t ea ch er a s a n in d iv id -u a l b-u t a s a p r od -u ct of t h e in t er a ct ion b et w een cer t a in t ea ch er ch a r a ct er ist ics a n d ot h er fa ct or s t h a t va r y a ccor d in g t o t h e s it u a t ion in w h ich t h e t ea ch er wor k s …

Accor d in g t o t h is con ce p t ion , M ed ley [12] p r op os ed t h a t t h e s t r u ct u r e of t ea ch er effect iven es s s h ou ld in clu d e n in e im p or effect a n effect com -p on en t s :

1 P r e-exis t in g t ea ch er ch a r a ct er is t ics – t h e k n ow led ge, a b ilit ies a n d b eliefs t h a t a t ea ch er p os s esses on en t er in g in t o t h e t ea ch er t r a in in g p r ogr a m m e).

2 Tea ch er com p et en ce – t h e s et of k n ow -led ge, a b ilit ies a n d b eliefs t h a t a t ea ch er p os s es s es a n d b r in gs t o t h e a ct u a l t ea ch in g en v ir on m en t on com p let ion of t h e t ea ch er t r a in in g p r ogr a m m e.

3 Tea ch er p er for m a n ce – t h e b eh av iou r of a t ea ch er w h en t ea ch in g t h a t m ay ch a n ge w h en t h e t ea ch in g en v ir on m en t is ch a n ged .

4 St u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce – t h e exp er ien ce fr om in t er a ct ion s b et w een t ea ch er a n d t h e s t u d en t s in t h e p r ocess of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g.

5 St u d en t b eh av iou r or lea r n in g ou t com es – t h e p r ogr ess s t u d en t s m a k e t ow a r d s a d efi n ed ed u ca t ion a l goa l.

6 Tea ch er t r a in in g – for bu ild in g u p t ea ch er com p et en ce.

7 E xt er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext – in clu d in g sch ool or ga n iza t ion a l st r u ct u r e,

m a n a gem en t , cu lt u r e, t ea ch in g fa cilit ies, r esou r ces, cu r r icu lu m , sch ool goa l a n d m ission , et c.

8 In t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext – in clu d in g cla ss size a n d com p osit ion , p u p il a b ilit ies, cla ss-r oom clim a t e, t ea ch ess-r -p u p il

r ela t ion s h ip, et c.

9 In d iv id u a l st u d en t ch a r a ct er ist ics – in d iv id u a l st u d en t s’ p r ev iou s lea r n in g exp er ien ce, p h y s ica l a n d in t ellect u a l a b ilit ies, lea r n in g st y les a n d ot h er p er -son a l ch a r a ct er ist ics.

Ch en g[9] fu r t h er d evelop ed Med ley ’s[12] st r u ct u r e by t h e in clu sion of t wo m or e com -p on en t s, n a m ely t ea ch er eva lu a t ion a n d -p r o-fession a l d evelop m en t , a s sh ow n in F igu r e 1. T h e st r u ct u r e in d ica t es t h e p r oced u r a l in t er -r ela t ion sh ip s a m on g t h e com p on en t s of t ea ch er effect iven ess :

1 St u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es a r e t h e p r od u ct of t h e in t er a ct ion b et w een s t u d en t s’ lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d in d iv id u a l ch a r a ct er ist ics.

2 St u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce is a ffect ed by b ot h t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext .

3 Tea ch er p er for m a n ce is d et er m in ed by t h e in t er a ct ion b et w een t ea ch er com p et en ce a n d ext er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext .

4 Tea ch er t r a in in g a n d p r e-exist in g t ea ch er ch a r a ct er ist ics ca n con t r ibu t e t o t ea ch er com p et en ce.

5 Tea ch er eva lu a t ion a ct iv it ies t h a t a r e b a sed on t h e in for m a t ion fr om t ea ch er p er for m a n ce, st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d lea r n in g ou t com es ca n fa cilit a t e t h e d evelop m en t of t ea ch er com p et en ce.

6 P r ofes sion a l d evelop m en t a ct iv it ies w h ich a r e su p p or t ed by t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext , t ea ch er p er for m a n ce, st u d en t s’ in d iv id u a l ch a r a ct er ist ics, lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d ou t com es ca n con t r ibu t e t o d evelop m en t of t ea ch er com p et en ce a n d t ea ch er ed u ca t ion .

(3)

[ 9] Yin Che o ng Che ng and

Kwo k Tung Ts ui

Strategies for improving teacher

ef fectiveness

F r om t h e a b ove st r u ct u r e of t ea ch er effect ive-n es s, Ch eive-n g[13] su gges t ed t h er e m ay b e t h r ee d iffer en t s t r a t e gies w h ich ca n b e u sed t o im p r ove or en h a n ce t ea ch er effect iven es s: t h e sh or t -t er m s t r a t e gy, t h e lon g-t er m s t r a t e gy a n d t h e dy n a m ic s t r a t e gy.

The short-term strategy

T h e s h or t -t er m s t r a t e gy is t h e t r a d it ion a l a n d m os t com m on ly -u sed st r a t e gy for im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven es s. It focu ses on ch a n gin g over t t ea ch er p er for m a n ce (m a in ly in t er m s of t ea ch in g b eh av iou r s) t o a d a p t t o t h e t ea ch -in g con t ext . Sh or t -t er m t r a -in -in g or p iecem ea l p r a ct ica l a dv ice a r e u sed t o cor r ect t ea ch er s’ w ea k n es s es a n d u n d esir a ble b eh av iou r s. T h e st r a t e gy is b a sed on t h r ee a ss u m p t ion s. F ir s t , t ea ch in g con t ext is som et h in g “given ” a n d n ot a lt er a ble. In or d er t o a ch ieve a good q u a l-it y of s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es, t ea ch er s m u s t a ccom m od a t e or a d ju st t h eir b eh av -iou r s t o t h e in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext . Secon d , t ea ch er b eh av iou r in cla s s r oom s m u s t b e cor r ect ed or ch a n ged if u n s a t is fa ct or y s ct u d en ct lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d ou ct com e a r e id en t ifi ed . T h ir d , som e s t r a igh t for -w a r d p r escr ip t ion s su ch a s st a n d a r d t ea ch in g b eh av iou r s a n d m et h od s cou ld r ea d ily b e u s ed by a ll t ea ch er s: cu r r icu lu m p la n n er s a n d t ea ch er t r a in er s oft en d evelop a n d in t r od u ce a gr ea t n u m b er of s t a n d a r d t ea ch in g b eh av iou r s t o sch oolt ea ch er s. Sch ool in s p ect or s a n d a d m in ist r a t or s give p r a ct ica l a dv ice on t ea ch in g b eh av iou r s t o

t ea ch er s d u r in g sch ool in sp ect ion s a n d t ea ch er a sses sm en t . T h is st r a t e gy a s su m es t h a t t h e t ea ch er is a n im p lem en t er, su b ject t o b ein g im p r oved for b et t er ed u ca t ion a l ou t -com e a n d , in ev it a b ly, t h e r ole of t ea ch er is ver y p a ssive a n d ext er n a lly m a n a ged . To a cer t a in ext en t , som e fr a gm en t a r y, su p er fi cia l a n d t a n gible effect s m ay b e a ch ieved by cor -r ect in g ce-r t a in t ea ch e-r b eh av iou -r s in t h e cla ssr oom . H ow ever, t h e effect s oft en ca n n ot b e in t er n a lized a n d t h e u s efu ln ess of t h is t r a d it ion a l s t r a t e gy is q u it e lim it ed . It m ay n ot su ccess fu lly in d u ce a n y lon g-t er m a n d sy st em a t ic im p r ovem en t in t ea ch er effect ive-n ess b eca u s e it igive-n or es t h e im p or t a ive-n ce of t ea ch er com p et en ce t o t ea ch er p er for m a n ce in t h e cla ss r oom . Wit h ou t d evelop m en t in t ea ch er com p et en ce, p er sist en t a n d effect ive ch a n ge in t ea ch in g b eh av iou r is a lm ost im p ossible.

The long-term strategy

T h e lon gt er m s t r a t e gy focu s es on s t r en gt h -en in g t ea ch er com p et -en ce so t h a t t ea ch er s ca n h ave su fficien t p r ofess ion a l k n ow led ge, t ech n iq u es a n d con fi d en ce t o d evelop t h eir ow n t ea ch in g st y les, a d a p t t o t h e ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext s a n d p er for m effec-t ively in effec-t h e cla ssr oom . Seffec-t r en geffec-t h en in g t ea ch er com p et en ce is a con t in u ou s lon g-t er m p r ocess in volv in g sy sg-t em a g-t ic lea r n in g a n d r efl ect ion . As sh ow n in F igu r e 1, est a b -lish m en t of t h e t ea ch er eva lu a t ion sy st em a n d t h e p r ofess ion a l d evelop m en t sy st em is n ecessa r y for d evelop in g t ea ch er com p et en ce a n d bu ild in g u p lon g-t er m t ea ch er effect ive-n ess. T h r ou gh s u m m a t ive, for m a t ive a ive-n d

Te ac he r e valuatio n ac tivitie s

Te ac he r c o mpe te nc e Pre -e xis ting

te ac he r c harac te ris tic s

Te ac he r performanc e

Stude nt le arning e xpe rie nc e

Stude nt le arning o utc o me s

Te ac he r e duc atio n

Exte rnal te ac hing c o nte xt

Individual s tude nt c harac teristic s

Pro fe s s io nal de ve lo pme nt ac tivitie s Inte rnal te ac hing c o nte xt

Source: adapte d fro m Me dle y [1 2 ] and Che ng [9 ] Figure 1

(4)

d ia gn os t ic t ea ch er eva lu a t ion , t ea ch er s m ay lea r n con t in u ou s ly a n d d evelop r e p er t oir es of p r ofes s ion a l com p et en ce w h ich ca n b e u sed t o a d a p t t o d iffer en t t ea ch in g con t ext s a n d ca r r y ou t t ea ch in g t a sk s effect ively [14]. T h r ou gh s y st em a t ic p r ofes sion a l d evelop -m en t t ea ch er s ca n gr ow a n d d evelop t o a cq u ir e n ew k n ow led ge, sk ills a n d a t t it u d es w h ich in t u r n p r om ot e or im p r ove t h eir t ea ch in g p er for m a n ce a t d iffer en t st a ges of t h eir ca r eer s. Obv iou s ly, t h is st r a t e gy is m u ch b et t er t h a n t h e sh or t -t er m s t r a t e gy b eca u s e it m ay h ave lon g-t er m , s y st em a t ic a n d in t er n a lized effect s on t ea ch er s’ com p e-t en ce a n d p er for m a n ce. Bu e-t e-t h e se-t r a e-t e gy se-t ill h a s lim it a t ion s. Sim ila r t o t h e s h or t -t er m s t r a t e gy, it a ssu m es t h a t t h e ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l con t ext s of t ea ch in g a r e “given s” a n d s t a t ic. Tea ch er s a r e con sid er ed a s d evel-op in g im p lem en t er s, a n d t h ey n eed t o a d a p t t h eir t ea ch in g b eh av iou r s t o t ea ch in g con -t ex-t s. To s om e ex-t en -t , -t h e r ole of -t h e -t ea ch er is p a s s ive a n d m od er a t ely ext er n a lly m a n -a ged . T h er efor e, t h is st r -a t e gy d oes n ot exp ect t h e a ct ive r ole of t ea ch er s in ch a n gin g t h e in t er n a l a n d ext er n a l con t ext s of t ea ch in g a n d cr ea t in g a n im p r oved en v ir on m en t for t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g. In ot h er wor d s, t ea ch er effect iven es s m ay n ot b e m a xim ized .

The dynamic strategy

In v iew of t h e lim it a t ion s of sh or t -t er m a n d lon g-t er m s t r a t e gies, a dy n a m ic s t r a t e gy ca n b e p r op os ed for im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect ive-n es s. It a s s u m es t h a t m os t of t h e com p oive-n eive-n t s a s s ocia t ed w it h t h e st r u ct u r e of t ea ch er effect iven ess (F igu r e 1) ca n b e a lt er ed . In or d er t o m a xim ize t ea ch er effect iven es s, b ot h t ea ch er s ’ com p et en ce a n d p er for m a n ce a n d t ea ch in g con t ext s s h ou ld b e ch a n ged . Als o, t ea ch er s s h ou ld n ot on ly a d a p t t o t h e t ea ch -in g con t ext s bu t a lso a d op t t h e r ole of ch a n ge a gen t . T h er efor e, t h is st r a t e gy a im s a t em p ow er in g t ea ch er s a s ch a n ge a gen t s, ed u ca t ion a l lea d er s a n d p r ofes sion a l im p lem en t er s, su ch t h a t t h ey ca n p lay a n a ct ive r ole in im p r ov in g b ot h ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext s a n d m a xim izin g t h eir effect iven es s a t b ot h or ga n iza t ion a l level a n d cla s sr oom level. T h e a ct iv it ies of p r ofes s ion a l d evelop m en t a n d t ea ch er eva lu a -t ion s h ou ld b e fu r -t h er d evelop ed a n d

s t r en gt h en ed t o h elp t ea ch er s t o d evelop n ot on ly k n ow led ge, sk ills a n d a t t it u d es bu t a lso cr it ica l m in d s a n d r efl ect ion a n d self-m a n a geself-m en t s k ills [15]. Follow in g t h is lin e of t h in k in g, t h e con ce p t of t ea ch er effect iven es s s h ou ld n ot b e con fi n ed t o t ea ch er b eh av iou r or p er for m a n ce in t h e cla s s r oom . It sh ou ld b e ext en d ed t o in cor p or a t e or ga n iza t ion a l a s p ect s s u ch a s t ea ch er in volvem en t a n d lea d er s h ip in cu r r icu lu m ch a n ges a n d

ed u ca t ion r efor m s. In ot h er wor d s, im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess sh ou ld b e a lon g-t er m a n d dy n a m ic p r ocess in volv in g n ot on ly t ea ch er s’ p r ofession a l gr ow t h a n d a lso sch ools’ con t in u ou s ch a n ge a n d d evelop m en t . T h e effect s of t h is st r a t e gy on t ea ch er s a n d sch ools a r e lon g t er m , sy s t em a t ic a n d ca n b e in t er n a lized a n d in st it u t ion a lized .

Ba sed on t h e a b ove d iscu ssion s, t h e ch a r a c-t er is c-t ics of c-t h e sh or c-t -c-t er m , lon g-c-t er m a n d dy n a m ic st r a t e gies a r e su m m a r ized in Ta ble I. Of t h e t h r ee, t h e dy n a m ic st r a t e gy a p p ea r s t o b e p r efer a ble.

Limitations of the traditional

concepts and strategies

(5)

[

Conc erns Change teac her performanc e Strengthen teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her Develop teac her c ompetenc e so that teac her c an

performanc e is improved improve teac hing c ontexts and maximize

effec tiveness

Assumption about teac hing c ontext External and internal c ontext are “ givens” External and internal c ontext are “ givens” External and internal c ontexts are alterable and

and static and static dynamic

Design Disc rete, piec emeal Systematic , long-term planning Systematic and dynamic , long-term planning

Foc us on overt performanc e Fac ilitate professional development Aims at long-term dynamic professional

Means Provide short-term training or piec emeal Establish teac her evaluation system Develop teac her evaluation system

prac tic al advic e Fac ilitate professional development Enhanc e professional development

Implementation Foc us on weakness Foc us on inc reasing c ompetenc e Ensure professional development

Correc t undesirable behaviours Develop personal repertoire Develop and empower to ac t as c hange agent

Presc riptions and instruc tions given by Continuous learning through evaluation and Continuous learning and reflec tion through c hange,

administrators, experts or outside agenc ies development ac tivities experiment, evaluation and development ac tivities

Ends Help teac her adapt to internal c ontext Help teac her adapt to external and internal Fac ilitate teac her to c hange and adapt to external

c ontexts and internal

Role of teac her Very passive, adjusted to teac hing c ontext Passive, to adapt to teac hing c ontext Ac tive, to c hange teac hing c ontexts

As implementer to be improved As developing implementer As developing leader, professional implementer and

Externally managed Externally managed Moderately externally managed c hange agent

Self-managing

Effec t on teac her effec tiveness Short term Long term Long term

(6)

t ea ch er effect iven es s a t t h e gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels.

Conceptual framework of total

teacher ef fectiveness

Ta k in g t h e lim it a t ion s of t h e t r a d it ion a l con ce p t s in t o con s id er a t ion , a n ew con ce p -t u a l fr a m ewor k of -t o-t a l -t ea ch er effec-t iven es s ca n b e p r op os ed , a s follow s.

Levels of teacher effectiveness

T r a d it ion a l t ea ch er effect iven es s im p r ove-m en t p r ogr a ove-m ove-m es focu s on in d iv id u a l t ea ch er p er for m a n ce in a cla s s r oom .

P r in cip a ls a n d a d m in is t r a t or s t r y t o m a n ip u -la t e in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s’ com p et en ce a n d p er for m a n ce in a n a t t em p t t o im p r ove s t u d en t s ’ b eh av iou r a l ou t com es. It is

a s s u m ed t h a t w h en in d iv id u a l t ea ch er p er for -m a n ce is i-m p r oved , in d iv id u a l st u d en t s, t h en t h e w h ole cla ss a n d , fi n a lly, a ll s t u d en t s in t h e s ch ool w ill h ave a cor r es p on d in g im p r ove-m en t in lea r n in g ou t coove-m es. In r ea lit y, t h e s it u a t ion is m u ch m or e com p lica t ed . F ir s t , t h e Colem a n st u dy m ay b e u sed a s a n illu st r a -t ion . T h e s -t u dy fi n d in gs h a d b een in -t er p r e-t ed a s p r oof t h a t sch ools h a d lit t le effect on s t u -d en t lea r n in g, a lt h ou gh a ccor -d in g t o Ba r r a n d Dr eeb en [22] it w a s m is in t er p r et ed . H ow -ever, it d em on st r a t es t h a t w h en t ea ch er, s ch ool a n d st u d en t ch a r a ct er is t ics w er e a ll a ggr e ga t ed t o t h e s ch ool level (or cla s s level), t h e in d iv id u a l t ea ch er effect iven es s or con t r i-bu t ion wou ld b e d im in is h ed a n d d et er ior a t ed . Good et a l.[23] a r gu e t h a t : “if t ea ch er s m a k e a d iffer en ce, a n d if p u p ils a r e t o b e exp os ed t o b ot h good a n d p oor t ea ch in g, t h en it sh ou ld n ot b e s u r p r isin g t h a t m a n y s ch ools (cla s s es ) a r e fou n d t o b e q u it e sim ila r in t h eir effect s on s t u d en t s”. Obv iou s ly, t h e im p r ovem en t of in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s d oes n ot n eces s a r ily p r om is e over a ll sch ool effect iven es s. Secon d , t ea ch er s oft en wor k in is ola t ed con d it ion s w h er e t h ey s eld om s ee or h ea r on e a n ot h er t ea ch [14,24]. T h is isola t ion a n d p r iva cy w ill h in d er t ea ch er s’ lea r n in g a n d s h a r in g of t h eir s u cces ses w it h collea gu es. Ow in g t o t h es e con s t r a in t s, in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s m u st wor k a lon e t o id en t ify p r oblem s, d evelop s olu t ion s a n d ch oose a lt er n a t ives [25-27]. F u r t h er m or e, a s s ch ool set t in gs b ecom e m or e com p lex a n d d em a n d gr ea t er a ccou n t a b ilit y, in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s’ effor t s h ave les s im p a ct . On t h e con t r a r y, in or d er t o in cr ea se t ea ch er a n d s ch ool effect iven es s, a gr ou p effor t is r eq u ir ed [28]. It is b elieved t h a t t h e s y n er gy of a gr ou p is p ot en t ia lly gr ea t er t h a n t h e su m of t h e en er gies of it s m em b er s. In ot h er wor d s, a gr ou p effor t wou ld p r od u ce gr ea t er effect t h a n t h e gr ou p ’s m ost com p et en t m em b er s

cou ld h ave a ch ieved a lon e. In fa ct , t ea ch er s w h o wor k a s t ea m s or gr ou p s n ot on ly u se t h eir en er gy effect ively bu t a lso cr ea t e n ew en er gy [29,30]. It is obv iou s t h a t w h en t ea ch -er s a ct t oget h -er t h ey m ay h ave a b et t -er ch a n ce of in fl u en cin g a n d ch a n gin g t h e con -s t r a in t -s given by t h e ext er n a l a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext s. T h er efor e, t h e con sid er a -t ion of -t ea ch er effec-t iven ess sh ou ld in clu d e n ot on ly t h e in d iv id u a l level bu t a lso t h e gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels.

Domains of effectiveness

Med ley [12] su gges t s t h a t t ea ch er com p et en ce r efer s t o t h e set of k n ow led ge, a b ilit ies a n d b eliefs a t ea ch er p osses ses a n d t h a t t ea ch er p er for m a n ce is t h e u se of k n ow led ge a n d sk ill in t h e cla ss r oom . Or n st ein [5] cla im s t h a t ever y t ea ch er h a s h is / h er ow n t ea ch in g st y le, w h ich is a com p osit e of p er son a lit y a n d p h i-losop h y, ev id en t by b eh av iou r a n d a t t it u d e. Ru b in [31] a r gu es t h a t t ea ch in g st y le in volves ch oices a m on g a lt er n a t ives, a n d t h e ch oices t ea ch er s m a k e a ct u a lly d em on st r a t e t h eir p er ceived im a ges a n d r oles. T h r ou gh t h eir st y le, t ea ch er s in t e gr a t e t h e t h eor ies or p ed a -gogy in w h ich t h ey b elieve a n d t h e p r a ct ices t h ey a d op t in t h e cla ssr oom . F r om t h e lit er a -t u r e, i-t is clea r -t h a -t -t ea ch er com p e-t en ce a n d p er for m a n ce sh ou ld in volve t h e elem en t s of b eliefs, va lu es, p er ce p t ion s, a t t it u d es, k n ow l-ed ge, sk ills a n d b eh av iou r s. F u r t h er m or e, t ea ch er s’ t ea ch in g p r oces ses in fl u en ce st u -d en t s’ lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n -d ou t com es; a n -d st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es a r e u su a lly r ecog-n ized a s t h e r es u lt of lea r ecog-n iecog-n g p r ocesses iecog-n t er m s of cogn it ive, a ffect ive a n d b eh av iou r a l ch a n ge a n d d evelop m en t . Follow in g t h is lin e of t h in k in g, w e m ay a ssu m e t h a t t h e con sid er -a t ion of t e-a ch er effect iven ess sh ou ld in clu d e t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch er com p et en ce a n d t ea ch er p er for m a n ce in va r iou s d om a in s su ch a s t h e b eh av iou r a l, t h e a ffect ive a n d t h e cogn it ive; a n d t h is t ea ch er q u a lit y m ay h ave effect s on st u d en t s in va r iou s d om a in s a ccor d in gly.

The concept of total teacher effectiveness Ta k in g t h e t h r ee d om a in s (a ffect ive, b eh av -iou r a l a n d cogn it ive) a n d t h e t h r ee levels (in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels) in t o con sid er a t ion , t h e n a t u r e a n d ch a r a ct er ist ics of t ea ch er effect iven ess sh ou ld b e st u d ied a t m u lt i-levels a n d m u lt i-d om a in s. Bor r ow in g Ch en g’s[16] id ea of t h e sch ool p r oces s m a t r ix, w e ca n p r op ose a n ew con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k of t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven ess for in vest iga t in g t h e com p lica t ed n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect ive-n ess. T h is fr a m ewor k is illu st r a t ed a s sh ow ive-n in F igu r e 2.

(7)

[ 1 3] Yin Che o ng Che ng and

Kwo k Tung Ts ui

t ea ch in g p r ocess es a n d st u d en t s ’ lea r n in g p r oces s es. T h er efor e, t h e con ce p t of t ea ch er effect iven es s in volves t wo im p or t a n t

ca t e gor ies of a ct or s (t ea ch er s a n d s t u d en t s) a t t h r ee d iffer en t levels (in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool). T h e p r ocess es a n d effect s of t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g m ay occu r in t h e b eh av iou r a l, a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive d om a in s of d iffer en t a ct or s a t d iffer en t levels. Sp ecifi ca lly, t ea ch er effect iven es s s h ou ld in volve t h e b eh av iou r a l, a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive p er for m a n ce of a ll t ea ch er s a n d st u d en t s a t in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels. T h is con ce p t of t ea ch er effect iven es s is d iffer en t fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l t h in k in g, w h ich focu ses m a in ly on t h e in d i-v id u a l lei-vel of t ea ch er or st u d en t a n d ign or es t h e m u lt ip licit y of p er for m a n ces of t ea ch er s a n d s t u d en t s. T h e n ew con ce p t ca n b e ca lled t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven es s b eca u se it ca n p r ov id e a h olis t ic p ict u r e of t h e n a t u r e of t ea ch er effect iven es s by t a k in g in t o con s id er a t ion m u lt id om a in s of com p et en ce a n d p er -for m a n ce of t ea ch er s a n d s t u d en t s a t t h e m u lt i-levels. T h e ch a r a ct er is t ics of t h is t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven es s fr a m ewor k a r e fu r t h er illu s t r a t ed in t h e follow in g s ect ion s.

Layers of teacher ef fectiveness

As s h ow n in F igu r e 2, t ea ch er effect iven es s is r ela t ed t o t h e t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g p r o-ces ses in volv in g t ea ch er com p et en ce, t ea ch er p er for m a n ce, s t u d en t exp er ien ce a n d s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com e layer s. T h e t ea ch er com p e-t en ce layer is e-t h e e-t oe-t a l b eh av iou r a l, a ffece-t ive a n d cogn it ive com p et en ce of t ea ch er s a t t h e

in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels. T h is layer r e p r esen t s t h e t ot a l st a t ic q u a lit y of t ea ch er s. T h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer is t h e t ot a l p er for m a n ce of t ea ch er s in t h e t h r ee d om a in s a t t h e t h r ee levels. It r e p r es en t s t h e dy n a m ic q u a lit y of t ea ch er s in t h e t ea ch in g p r ocess. In gen er a l, t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer is p os it ively a ssocia t ed w it h t h e q u a lit y of t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer. In a d d it ion , t h e r ela t ion s h ip b et w een t h ese t wo layer s ca n b e m od er a t ed by t h e in fl u en ce of t h e ext er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext (e.g. or ga n iza t ion a l fa ct or s, lea d er sh ip a n d sch ool en v ir on m en t , et c.). T h e st u d en t exp er i-en ce layer r e p r esi-en t s t h e t ot a l lea r n in g exp e-r ien ce of st u d en t s in t h e t h e-r ee d om a in s a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels. T h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer r e p r esen t s t h e t ot a l lea r n in g ou t com es of s t u d en t s in t h e t h r ee d om a in s a t t h e t h r ee levels. In gen er a l, t h e q u a lit y of t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer a s a w h ole h a s a p os it ive im p a ct on t h e q u a lit y of t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer, a n d t h e la t t er h a s a p osit ive r ela t ion -sh ip w it h t h e q u a lit y of t h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer. Aga in , t h es e r ela t ion sh ip s m ay b e a ffect ed by t h e ch a r a ct er ist ics of in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext (in clu d in g st u d en t su b cu lt u r e, cla ss r oom clim a t e, st u d en t a b ilit y gr ou p in g, lea r n in g en v ir on m en t et c.).

Teacher competence layer

T h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer, in t er a ct in g w it h t h e ext er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext , a ffect s t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer. Wh en t ea ch er s wor k in d e p en d en t ly a s in d iv id u a ls, t h e ext er -n a l t ea ch i-n g co-n t ext m ay oft e-n d om i-n a t e t h e Co gnitive do main

Affe c tive do main Be havio ural do main Individual le ve l

Gro up le ve l

Sc ho o l le ve l

Te ac he r Stude nt

Exte rnal Te ac hing c o nte xt

Inte rnal Te ac hing c o nte xt

Pre -e xis ting Stude nt c harac te ris tic s Te ac he r

c o mpe te nc e laye r

Te ac he r performanc e laye r

Stude nt e xpe rie nc e laye r

Stude nt le arning o utc o me s laye r Te ac hing Le arning Figure 2

(8)

p er for m a n ce of in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s. In d iv id u a l t ea ch er s m ay h ave t o a d a p t t o t h e en v ir on -m en t in or d er t o a ch ieve a cer t a in level of t ea ch in g p er for m a n ce. In t h is r es p ect , t h e r ole of t ea ch er s t en d s t o b e p a ss ive a n d t ea ch er effect iven es s is lim it ed . It is n ot su r p r is in g t h a t m os t im p r ovem en t a n d en r ich -m en t p r ogr a -m -m es i-m p le-m en t ed t o i-m p r ove s om e b eh av iou r a l a sp ect s of in d iv id u a l t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a r e oft en n ot s u cces s fu l, if n ot fa ilu r es [21]. T h er efor e, w e su gges t t h a t t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer s h ou ld b e im p r oved (in clu d in g com p et en ce in m u lt i-d om a in s a t m u lt i-levels) so t h a t t ea ch er s ca n b e em p ow er ed t o wor k colla b or a t ively, a s a gr ou p or a s a w h ole s ch ool t ea m . In t h ese cir cu m s t a n ces, t ea ch er s ca n a ct a s a s t r on g collect ive for ce t o in fl u en ce a n d ch a n ge t h e con d it ion s of t h e ext er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext , n ot ju st a d a p t t o it . T h e h igh er q u a lit y of t ea ch er com p et en ce layer ca n p r om is e b et t er op p r t u n it ies for t ea ch er s t o a ct a s a ch a n ge a gen t a n d in it ia t e ed u ca t ion r efor m s w h ich , in t u r n , p r om ot e over a ll t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a n d s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es.

Teacher performance layer

T h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer, in t er a ct in g w it h t h e in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext , in fl u en ces t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer. Cu r r en t ly, t h e m ost com m on a p p r oa ch t o im p r ov in g t h e q u a lit y of st u d en t s ’ lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d ou t com es is t o im p r ove a n d ch a n ge t h e b eh av iou r s of a cer t a in t ea ch er a t a cer t a in p oin t in or p er iod of t im e. T h is a p p r oa ch is oft en in effect ive. T h er e a r e t wo r ea s on s for t h is. F ir st , st u d en t p er for m a n ce a t a n y p oin t in t im e is t h e cu m u la t ive effect of t h e p er for m a n ce of a n u m b er of t ea ch er s. Let u s t a k e a loca l secon d a r y sch ool a s a n exa m -p le. T h er e a r e a b ou t t en t o 12 s u b ject t ea ch er s t ea ch in g t h e sa m e cla s s a t secon d a r y on e, a n ot h er t en t o 12 su b ject t ea ch er s a t

s econ d a r y t wo, a n d som e m or e t ea ch er s a t t h e r em a in in g yea r s. It is clea r t h a t in d iv id u a l s t u d en t p er for m a n ce a t a n y p oin t in t im e s h ou ld b e a cu m u la t ive effect of h is or h er p a st a n d p r esen t t ea ch er s; a n d sh ou ld n ot b e t h e s ole effect of a n y p a r t icu la r t ea ch er. T h er efor e, if w e w a n t t o im p r ove s t u d en t s’ lea r n in g exp er ien ce, w e sh ou ld im p r ove t h e w h ole t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer, in clu d in g t h e t h r ee levels a n d t h e t h r ee d om a in s. Secon d , in a n or m a l t ea ch in g en v ir on m en t , t ea ch in g a n d lea r n in g p r ocess es t a k e p la ce in t h e cla ss r oom . T h is m ea n s t h a t , m ost of t h e t im e, t h e t ea ch er w ill t ea ch a gr ou p of st u d en t s a s a w h ole. If w e t a k e t h e t ea ch er s t u -d en t r a t io in t o con s i-d er a t ion , w e ca n s ee t h a t a n in d iv id u a l t ea ch er ’s in fl u en ce on in d iv id -u a l s t -u d en t s m ay n ot b e a s s t r on g a s w h en com p a r ed w it h t h e in fl u en ce fr om t h e in t er

-n a l t ea ch i-n g co-n t ext (e.g. st u d e-n t s’ p eer gr ou p s, cla ss r oom clim a t e, cla ss size, et c.). In or d er t o h ave a st r on ger in fl u en ce on t h e in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext a n d t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer, t h e im p r ovem en t of t h e w h ole t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer, n ot ju st in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s, sh ou ld b e im p or t a n t . In sh or t , w h en t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a s a w h ole layer ca n a ct on t h e st u d en t s a t t h e sa m e t im e a n d in t h e sa m e d ir ect ion , t h er e w ill b e a gr ea t er ch a n ce t o d evelop a gr ea t er lea r n in g en v ir on m en t a n d h ave b et t er st u -d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ces a n -d ou t com es.

Student experience layer and student learning outcomes layer

Un d er t h e in fl u en ce of t h e t ea ch er p er for -m a n ce layer a n d in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext , a ll st u d en t s a t in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels ca n a ch ieve lea r n in g exp er ien ce in t h eir a ffect ive, b eh av iou r a l a n d cogn it ive d om a in s. T h r ou gh st u d en t s’ fu r t h er lea r n in g p r ocess es, t h e lea r n in g exp er ien ce ca n b e con ver t ed in t o st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es in m u lt i-d om a in s a t m u lt i-levels. T h e s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer in F igu r e 2 r e p r e-sen t s t h e t ot a l st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es. Obv iou s ly, t h e p r eexist in g st u d en t ch a r a ct er -is t ics (e.g. IQ , fa m ily b a ck gr ou n d , et c.) m ay a lso a ffect t h e con ver sion p r ocess of lea r n in g exp er ien ce in t o lea r n in g ou t com es a n d t h e q u a lit y of ou t com es. T h e a sses sm en t of t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven ess is b a sed m a in ly on t h e q u a lit y of t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer a n d t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer, t a k in g t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer a n d t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer in t o con sid er -a t ion . T h e r esu lt s of -a ss essm en t c-a n b e u sed t o im p r ove t h e lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer, t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer a n d t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer. In ot h er wor d s, t h er e sh ou ld b e feed b a ck loop s fr om t h e la t t er layer s t o t h e for m er : t h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer t o t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp e-r ien ce layee-r t o t h e t ea ch ee-r p ee-r foe-r m a n ce layee-r t o t ea ch er com p et en ce layer, a s sh ow n in F igu r e 2.

A holistic approach to improving

teacher ef fectiveness

(9)

Kwo k Tung Ts ui

a ffect ive, b eh av iou r a l a n d cogn it ive d om a in s a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels.

Accor d in g t o t h e con ce p t of con gr u en ce in sy s t em [17,32,33], w h et h er t ea ch er com p et en ce is con gr u en t a cr os s t h e a ffect ive, b eh av iou r a l a n d cogn it ive d om a in s a n d a cr os s t h e in d iv id -u a l, gr o-u p a n d sch ool levels (i.e. con gr -u en ce w it h in t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer ) ca n a ffect t h e con t r ibu t ion of t h e t ea ch er com p e-t en ce layer e-t o e-t h e e-t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer. T h e gr ea t er t h e con gr u en ce of t ea ch er com p e-t en ce a cr os s d om a in s a n d a cr os s levels, e-t h e gr ea t er t h e con t r ibu t ion of t h e t ea ch er com -p et en ce layer t o t h e t ea ch er -p er for m a n ce layer. T h e con gr u en ce a cr os s d om a in s r e p r sen t s t h e ext en t t o w h ich a ffect ive com p e-t en ce, b eh av iou r a l com p ee-t en ce a n d cogn ie-t ive com p et en ce of t ea ch er s a r e m u t u a lly s u p -p or t ed a n d r ein for ced in con t r ibu t in g t o t ea ch er s ’ a ct ion a n d p er for m a n ce. T h e con -gr u en ce a cr os s levels r e p r es en t s t h e ext en t t o w h ich t h e com p et en ce of in d iv id u a l t ea ch er s, gr ou p s of t ea ch er s a n d w h ole s ch ool t ea ch er s a r e m u t u a lly su p p or t ed a n d r ein for ced in con t r ibu t in g t o t ea ch er s’ a ct ion s a n d p er for -m a n ce. Si-m ila r ly, t h e gr ea t er t h e con gr u en ce of t ea ch er p er for m a n ce a cr os s d om a in s a n d a cr os s levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w it h in t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer ), t h e gr ea t er t h e con t r ibu t ion of t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer t o t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer. Also, t h e gr ea t er t h e con gr u en ce of s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce a cr os s d om a in s a n d a cr os s levels (i.e. con gr u en ce w it h in t h e st u -d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer ), t h e gr ea t er t h e con t r ibu t ion of t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er i-en ce layer t o t h e st u d i-en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer.

Ba s ed on t h e con ce p t of con gr u en ce w it h in layer s, t h e a p p r oa ch t o im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven es s s h ou ld in clu d e a ss u r a n ce of con gr u en ce w it h in t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer, w it h in t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer a n d w it h in t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer. T h is h olist ic a p p r oa ch is ver y d iffer en t fr om t h e t r a d it ion a l t h in k in g w h ich focu ses on ly on fr a gm en t a r y a n d over t a s p ect s of t ea ch er p er for m a n ce w it h ou t t a k in g t ot a lit y a n d con gr u en ce in t o con s id er a t ion .

Teacher ef fectiveness development

cycle

Accor d in g t o Ch en g[17,20] a n d Ch en g a n d Ta m [21], t h e d evelop m en t cycle ca n b e u s ed t o st r en gt h en t h e q u a lit y of t ea ch er layer s a n d en s u r e con gr u en ce w it h in t ea ch er layer s. Sp ecifi ca lly, a lon g-t er m p r ogr a m m e of s t a ff (t ea ch er ) d evelop m en t m ay b e est a blis h ed a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels t o fa cilit a t e t h eir r efl ect ion on t h e con gr u en ce

b et w een t h e va lu es a n d b eliefs of ed u ca t ion a n d m a n a gem en t in sch ool a n d t h e con gr u en ce of p er for m a n ce in t h eir a ffect ive, b eh av -iou r a l or t ech n ica l, a n d cogn it ive d om a in s. T h e d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m e s u p p or t s t h em t o m a k e a con t in u ou s lea r n in g cycle for t h eir ow n d evelop m en t a n d im p r ovem en t . T h is is in lin e w it h t h e lit er a t u r e in t h e fi eld of t ea ch er d evelop m en t a n d sch ool ch a n ges [24,34-37].

T h e d evelop m en t cycle m ay st a r t a t t h e in d iv id u a l t ea ch er level a n d focu s on over t p er for m a n ce, m a st er in g t ea ch in g a n d cla ss-r oom m a n a gem en t t ech n iq u es. T h en , t ea ch er s sh ou ld b e su p p or t ed t o h ave op p or t u n it ies a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d sch ool levels t o r efl ect on t h eir va lu es, b eliefs a n d t h e m ea n in gs of ed u ca t ion a n d sch ool m a n a gem en t . F r om t h e r efl ect ion by t h em selves or a m on g t h em s elves, t h ey ca n r eor ga -n ize t h eir cog-n it ive st r u ct u r e, r esh a p e t h eir t ea ch in g st y les a n d r e-est a blish t h eir p r ofes-sion a l con fi d en ce a n d com m it m en t . T h r ou gh self-lea r n in g a s a n in d iv id u a l or a s a gr ou p, t h ey a r e m or e w illin g t o co-op er a t e a n d m or e ca p a ble of a ch iev in g b et t er t ea ch in g p er for -m a n ce [35,38]. A su b st a n t ia l lit er a t u r e su p p or t s t h e id ea t h a t , n o m a t t er w h et h er a t in d iv id u a l level, t h e gr ou p level, or t h e w h ole sch ool level, t ea ch er s’ p er for m a n ce is lin k ed w it h t h eir b eliefs, a t t it u d es, sa t isfa ct ion , com m it m en t a n d sen se of a ch ievem en t [14,24,39-41]. T h er efor e, t h e d evelop m en t cycle s h ou ld in clu d e a st r on g com p on en t on t h e a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive d om a in s in a d d it ion t o t h e b eh av iou r a l or t ech n ica l com p on en t for t ea ch er s a t m u lt i-levels.

Sim ila r ly, a t t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er i-en ce layer, t ea ch er s ca n h elp t o est a blish con t in u ou s st u d en t d evelop m en t cycles a t t h e in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool levels a cr oss t h e b eh av iou r, a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive d om a in s t h a t h elp st u d en t s t o lea r n , exp er ien ce, r efl ect a n d d evelop t o a ch ieve m a xim u m lea r n in g ou t com es. Obv iou sly, t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer is d r iven by t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer. Develop m en t of t ea ch er layer s w ill r esu lt in d esir a ble d evelop m en t in st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce a n d en d u p w it h d es ir a ble st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es.

Conclusion

Ba sed on t h e t r a d it ion a l con ce p t of t ea ch er effect iven ess, t h er e a r e t h r ee st r a t e gies for im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven ess : t h e sh or t -t er m s-t r a -t e gy, -t h e lon g--t er m s-t r a -t e gy a n d -t h e dy n a m ic st r a t e gy. Com p a r a t ively, t h e

(10)

ign or e t h e com p lexit y of t ea ch er effect iven ess a n d n a r r ow t h e con ce p t ion of t h e in d iv id u a l t ea ch er, p a r t icu la r ly in a cla s s r oom con t ext . T h e con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k of t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven ess p r ov id es a n ew p er s p ect ive for in ves t iga t in g t h e p r ocess a n d d evelop m en t of t ea ch er effect iven es s. T h is fr a m ewor k s u gges t s t h a t t h e p r ocess a n d effect of t ea ch -in g a n d lea r n -in g s h ou ld b e r e p r es en t ed by layer s, in clu d in g t h e b eh av iou r a l, a ffect ive a n d cogn it ive d om a in s of d iffer en t a ct or s (t ea ch er a n d st u d en t ) a t d iffer en t levels (in d iv id u a l, gr ou p a n d s ch ool). T h er e a r e fou r layer s : t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer, t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer, t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer a n d t h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer. T h e layer con ce p t p r ov id es a m or e com p r eh en sive u n it t o con -s id er t h e com p lexit y of t ea ch er effect iven e-s -s.

T h e t ot a l q u a lit y of t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer con t r ibu t es t o t h e t ot a l q u a lit y of t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer, a n d t h e la t t er con t r ibu t es t o t h e t ot a l q u a lit y of t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer a n d t h en t o t h e q u a lit y of t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer. T h e fr a m ewor k su gges t s a h olis t ic a p p r oa ch t o im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven es s, w it h em p h a s is on t h e im p r ovem en t of w h ole layer s of t ea ch er com p et en ce a n d p er for -m a n ce in s t ea d of fr a g-m en t a r y i-m p r ove-m en t of t ea ch er b eh av iou r. In or d er t o en su r e t ot a l layer q u a lit y a n d m a xim ize t ea ch er effect ive-n es s, coive-n gr u eive-n ce a ss u r a ive-n ce a cr os s d om a iive-n s a n d a cr os s levels w it h in t h e t ea ch er com p e-t en ce layer, e-t h e e-t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer a n d t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer a r e im p or t a n t . T h e t ea ch er effect iven es s d evelop -m en t cycle est a blish ed w it h in t h e t ea ch er layer s s h ou ld b e n eces sa r y t o en su r e con gr u -en ce a n d p u r s u e t ot a l t ea ch er effect iv-en es s.

Sin ce t h e con ce p t ion of t ea ch er effect ive-n es s is d iffer eive-n t fr om t r a d it ioive-n a l t h iive-n k iive-n g, t h e im p lica t ion s a n d st r a t e gies a dva n ced for r es ea r ch m ay b e m or e com p r eh en sive a n d s op h ist ica t ed , t a k in g m u lt i-d om a in s a n d m u lt i-levels in t o con s id er a t ion . Som e n ew a n d s ign ifi ca n t r es ea r ch a r ea s a n d t op ics ca n b e p r op os ed for s t u dy in g t ot a l t ea ch er effec-t iven es s, in clu d in g:

• t h e r ela t ion sh ip of t h e ext er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext a n d t h e t ea ch er com p et en ce layer t o t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer ;

• t h e r ela t ion sh ip of t h e in t er n a l t ea ch in g con t ext a n d t h e t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer t o t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer ; • t h e r ela t ion sh ip of t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g

exp er ien ce layer a n d p r e-exis t in g s t u d en t ch a r a ct er is t ics t o t h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer ;

• t h e con gr u en ce w it h in t h e t ea ch er com p e-t en ce layer a n d ie-t s im p a ce-t s on e-t h e e-t ea ch er p er for m a n ce layer ;

• t h e con gr u en ce w it h in t h e t ea ch er p er for -m a n ce layer a n d it s i-m p a ct s on t h e st u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer ;

• t h e con gr u en ce w it h in t h e s t u d en t lea r n in g exp er ien ce layer a n d it s im p a ct s on t h e st u d en t lea r n in g ou t com es layer ;

• t h e con t r ibu t ion of t h e d evelop m en t cycle t o t h e t ot a l q u a lit y of t ea ch er layer s a n d st u d en t layer s; a n d

• t h e fu r t h er t h eor et ica l d evelop m en t of t ot a l t ea ch er effect iven ess, b a sed on t h e r esea r ch on t h e a b ove a r ea s.

H op efu lly, t h e p r op osed con ce p t u a l fr a m ewor k ca n p r ov id e a n ew d ir ect ion for st u dy -in g a n d im p r ov -in g t ea ch er effect iven ess -in p a r t icu la r a n d s ch ool effect iven ess in gen er a l. T h e on goin g wor ldw id e ed u ca t ion a l r efor m s ca n b en efi t fr om t h e r es ea r ch a n d p r a ct ice of t h is n ew fr a m ewor k .

References

1 Coop er, B.S. a n d Con ley, S.C., “F r om bla m e t o em p ow er m en t : cr it ica l is su es in t h e t ea ch er wor k en v ir on m en t ”, in Con ley, S.C. a n d Coop er, B.S. (E d .), T h e S ch ool a s a W ork E n v i-r on m en t: Im p lica tion s foi-r R efoi-r m , Ally n & Ba con , Bos t on , MA, 1991, p p. 2-16.

2 Ca r n e gie For u m on E d u ca t ion a n d t h e E con -om y ’s Ta sk For ce on Tea ch in g a s a P r ofession , A N a tion Prep a red : T ea ch ers for th e 21st Cen tu r y, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1986.

3 E d u ca tion Com m ission R ep or t 5 , t h e Gover n m en t P r in t er, H on g Kon g, 1992. 4 E d u ca tion Com m ission R ep or t 1 to 4 , t h e

Gover n m en t P r in t er, H on g Kon g, 1984-1990. 5 Or n s t ein , A.C., “Tea ch er effect iven ess

r es ea r ch : t h eor et ica l con sid er a t ion s ”, in Wa xm a n , H .C. a n d Wa lb er g, H .J . (E d s), E ffectiv e T ea ch in g: Cu r ren t R esea rch ,

M cCu t ch a n P u blis h in g Cor p or a t ion , Ber k eley, CA, 1991.

6 Bor ich , G.D., “P a r a d igm s of t ea ch er effect ive-n ess r es ea r ch ”, E d u ca tioive-n a ive-n d Ur b a ive-n S ociety, Vol. 18, 1986, p p. 143-67.

7 Or n s t ein , A.C., “Resea r ch on t ea ch er b eh av iou r : t r en d s a n d p olicies ”, H igh S ch ool J ou r n a l, Vol. 69, 1986, p p. 399-402.

8 Rya n , D.W., Dev elop in g a N ew M od el of T ea ch er E ffectiv en ess, Min ist r y of E d u ca t ion , On t a r io, 1986.

9 Ch en g, Y.C., Fu n ction a n d E ffectiv en ess of E d u ca tion , 3r d ed . (2n d ed . 1991, 1st ed . 1986), Wid e An gle P r ess, H on g Kon g, 1995. 10 N eed les, M .C. a n d Ga ge, N.L., “E ss en ce a n d

a ccid en t in p r ocess -p r od u ct r esea r ch on t ea ch in g”, in Wa xm a n , H .C. a n d Wa lb er g, H .J . (E d s), E ffectiv e T ea ch in g: Cu r ren t R esea rch , M cCu t ch a n P u blis h in g Cor p or a t ion , Ber k eley, CA, 1991.

(11)

Kwo k Tung Ts ui

12 Med ley, D.M., “Tea ch er effect iven es s”, in Mit zel, H .E . (E d .), E n cyclop ed ia of E d u ca tion a l R esea rch , 5t h ed ., T h e F r ee P r es s, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1982.

13 Ch en g, Y.C., Im p r ov in g t ea ch er effect iven es s: con ce p t ion a n d st r a t e gies ”, p a p er p r es en t ed a t t h e ed u ca t ion sem in a r on Tea ch in g E ffect ive-n ess iive-n N ew P er sp ect ives h eld by t h e Ch iive-n es e Un iver sit y of H on g Kon g, 1993.

14 Ser giova n n i, T.J ., T h e Pr in cip a lsh ip : A R efl ec-tiv e Pra ctice Persp ecec-tiv es, Ally n & Ba con , Bost on , MA, 1987.

15 Ch eu n g, W.M. a n d Ch en g, Y.C., “A m u lt i-level fr a m ewor k for self-m a n a gem en t in s ch ool”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l M a n a ge-m en t, Vol. 10 N o. 1, 1996, p p. 17-29.

16 Ch en g, Y.C., “Ma n a gem en t a n d effect iven es s of m or a l a n d civ ic ed u ca t ion in s ch ool: a fr a m e-wor k for r esea r ch a n d p r a ct ice”, p a p er p r esen t ed a t t h e In t er n a t ion a l Con fer en ce on Mor a l a n d Civ ic E d u ca t ion , H on g Kon g, 1993. 17 Ch en g, Y.C., “Sch ool effect iven es s a n d s ch

ool-b a sed m a n a gem en t : a m ech a n ism for ed u ca t ion q u a lit y a n d s ch ool d evelop m en t ”, k ey n ot e sp eech p r esen t ed a t t h e In t er n a t ion a l Con gr ess for Sch ool E ffect iven es s a n d Im p r ovem en t , Melb ou r n e, Au s t r a lia , J a n u a r y 1994.

18 Ca ldw ell, B.J ., “In t er n a t ion a l p er s p ect ives on t h e im p a ct of sch ool-b a s ed m a n a gem en t ”, p a p er d eliver ed a t t h e Ch in es e Un iver s it y of H on g Kon g on 12 Decem b er in t h e p u blic lect u r e in t h e Wei Lu n Vis it in g P r ofes sor sh ip of B.J . Ca ldw ell, 1994.

19 Ch en g, Y.C., “Sch ool ed u ca t ion q u a lit y : con ce p t u a liza t ion , m on it or in g, a n d en h a n ce-m en t ”, in Siu , P.K. a n d Ta ce-m , T.K. (E d s ), Qu a lity in E d u ca tion : In sigh ts fr om Differen t Persp ectiv es, T h e H on g Kon g E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch Associa t ion , H on g Kon g, 1995, p p. 123-47.

20 Ch en g, Y.C., S ch ool E ffectiv en ess a n d S ch ool-b a sed Im p r ov em en t: A M ech a n ism for Dev elop m en t, F a lm er P r es s, Lon d on , in p r es s. 21 Ch en g, Y.C. a n d Ta m , W.M ., “A t h eor y of

sch ool-b a sed st a ff d evelop m en t : d evelop m en t m a t r ix”, E d u ca tion J ou r n a l, Vol. 22 N o. 2, 1994, p p. 221-36.

22 Ba r r, R. a n d Dr eeb en , R., “In s t r u ct ion in cla s s -r oom s ”, in Sh u lm a n , L.S. (E d .), R ev iew of R esea rch in E d u ca tion , 5t h ed ., F.E . P ea cock , It a sca , IL, 1978.

23 Good , T., Bid d ie, B. a n d Br op h y, J ., T ea ch ers M a k e a Differen ce, H olt , Rin eh a r t & Win s t on , N ew Yor k , N Y, 1975.

24 Rosen h olt z, S., “Wor k p la ce con d it ion s t h a t a ffect t ea ch er q u a lit y a n d com m it m en t : im p lica t ion s for t ea ch er in d u ct ion p r ogr a m s ”, T h e E lem en ta r y S ch ool J ou r n a l, Vol. 89 N o. 4, 1989, p p. 421-39.

25 Lieb er m a n , A. a n d Miller, L., T ea ch ers, T h eir World a n d T h eir Work , As socia t ion for

Su p er v is ion a n d Cu r r icu lu m Develop m en t , Alexa n d r a , VA, 1984.

26 Dr eeb en , R., T h e N a tu re of T ea ch in g, Scot t , For es m a n , Glen v iew, IL, 1970.

27 Lot t ie, D., S ch ool T ea ch er , Un iver s it y of Ch ica go P r ess, Ch ica go, IL, 1975.

28 Kor m a n s k i, C.L., a n d Mozen t er, A., “A n ew m od el of t ea m bu ild in g: a t ech n ology for t od ay a n d t om or r ow ”, in P feiffer, J .W. (E d .), T h e 1987 A n n u a l: Dev elop in g H u m a n R esou rces, Un iver s it y Associa t es, Sa n Die go, CA, 1987. 29 N em ir off, P.M. a n d P a sm or e, W.A., “Lost a t sea :

a con s en s u s -seek in g t a sk ”, in P feiffer, J .W. a n d J on es, J .E . (E d s), T h e 1975 A n n u a l H a n d b ook for Gr ou p Fa cilita tors, Un iver s it y

As s ocia t es, Sa n Die go, CA, 1975.

30 Ka r p, H .B., “Tea m bu ild in g fr om a Gest a lt p er s p ect ive”, in P feiffer, J .W. a n d J on es, J .E . (E d s), T h e 1980 A n n u a l H a n d b ook for Gr ou p Fa cilita tors, Un iver s it y Associa t es, Sa n Die go, CA, 1980.

31 Ru b in , L.J ., A r tistr y in tea ch in g, Ra n d om H ou s e, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1985.

32 Ch en g, Y.C., “E ffect iven ess of cu r r icu lu m ch a n ge in sch ool: a n or ga n iza t ion a l

p er s p ect ive”, In ter n a tion a l J ou r n a l of E d u ca -tion a l M a n a gem en t, Vol. 8 N o. 3, 1994, p p. 26-34. 33 N a d ler, D.A. a n d Tu sh m a n , M.L., “A gen er a l

d ia gn os t ic m od el for or ga n iza t ion a l b eh av ior : a p p ly in g a con gr u en ce p er sp ect ive”, in H a ck m a n , R.J ., et a l. (E d s), Persp ectiv es on B eh a v iou r in Orga n iz a tion s, McGr aw -H ill, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1983.

34 H a r gr eves, A., Ch a n gin g T ea ch ers, Ch a n gin g T im es: T ea ch ers’ Work a n d Cu ltu re in th e Post-m od er n A ge, Ca ssell, Lon d on , 1994.

35 F u lla n , M ., S u ccessfu l S ch ool Im p r ov em en t: T h e Im p lem en ta tion Persp ectiv e a n d B eyon d , Op en Un iver s it y P r ess, Bu ck in gh a m , 1992.

36 Wh it a k er, P., M a n a gin g Ch a n ges in S ch ool, Op en Un iver s it y P r ess, Bu ck in gh a m , 1993. 37 Ros en h olt z, S.J . a n d Sim p son , C., “Wor k p la ce

con d it ion s a n d t h e r ise a n d fa ll of t ea ch er s’ com m it m en t ”, S ociolog y of E d u ca tion , Vol. 63, 1990, p p. 241-57.

38 Ser giova n n i, T.J . a n d St a r r a t t , R.J .,

S u p er v ision : A R ed efi n ition , 5t h ed ., McGr aw -H ill, N ew Yor k , N Y, 1993.

39 Ch en g, Y.C., “Tea ch er ’s locu s of con t r ol a s a n in d ica t or of t ea ch er s’ job a t t it u d es a n d p er -ceived or ga n iza t ion a l fa ct or s”, J ou r n a l of E d u ca tion a l R esea rch , Vol. 87 N o. 3, 1994, p p. 180-8.

40 M a eh r, M .L. et a l., T ea ch ers’ Com m itm en t a n d J ob S a tisfa ction : Pr oject rep or t, Office of E d u ca t ion a l Resea r ch a n d Im p r ovem en t (E D), Wa s h in gt on , DC, 1990.