Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:I:International Journal of Educational Management:Vol12.Issue5.1998:

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Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1998] 2 3 2 –2 3 9

Training school principals, educating school

governors

Angela Thody

Inte rnatio nal Educ atio nal Le ade rship Ce ntre , Unive rsity o f Linc o lnshire and Humbe rside , Linc o ln, UK

School leadership in England and Wales is legally shared between the full-time princi-pal and the part-time volun-teers, the school governors. Their professional develop-ment opportunities during the last ten years have taken opposite directions. Princi-pals’ development has moved to a training focus, with a nationalised, standardised, competency-based qualifi ca-tion for aspirant headteach-ers. Governors’ education remains a non-standardised, decentralised system but has now become largely school-based and centred on educa-tional issues. In exploring why such differences have occurred, the reasons sug-gested concern differing role expectations, training devel-opments in related occupa-tions, centralisation and decentralisation, uncertain-ties about the objectives of educational leadership and the costs of professional development.

Introduction

E ffect ive lea d er sh ip cr ea t es effect ive sch ools. To b e effect ive, sch ool lea d er s n eed p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t t o im p r ove t h eir sk ills. T h ese a r e t h e a ssu m p t ion s w h ich u n d er p in a ll of t h e r esea r ch t h a t h a s b een d on e on effec-t ive sch oolin g a n d on effec-t h e im p or effec-t a n ce of p r e p a r a t ion for, a n d in st r u ct ion in , t h e n eces-sa r y q u a lit ies of sch ool lea d er sh ip (Ca ldw ell a n d Sp in k s, 1988; F u lla n , 1991; N a t ion a l Com -m ission on E d u ca t ion , 1993; DfE , 1996; E a r ley, 1994; Au d it Com m ission / OF STE D, 1995; Deem et a l., 1995; E sp a n d Sa r a n , 1995). Sch ool lea d er sh ip in a n E n glish or Welsh sch ool[1] is sh a r ed b et w een t h e fu ll-t im e, p a id p r in cip a l a n d a volu n t eer, p a r t t im e, b oa r d of gover -n or s, a -n d t h is a r t icle is co-n cer -n ed w it h b ot h of t h ese. T h is m od el of sh a r ed lea d er sh ip is fou n d in m a n y ot h er E u r op ea n a n d Com m on -w ea lt h cou n t r ies a lt h ou gh gover n or s in E n g-la n d a n d Wa les h old m or e p ow er s t h a n t h eir cou n t er p a r t s elsew h er e.

T h is a r t icle is con cer n ed w it h t h e ch a n ges in t h e p r ofession a l d evelop m en t of p r in cip a ls a n d gover n or s d u r in g t h e la st t en yea r s. It w ill b e su ggest ed t h a t t h e cou r ses for p r in ci-p a ls h ave m oved fr om ed u ca t ion t o t r a in in g w h ile t h ose for gover n or s h ave m oved fr om t r a in in g t o ed u ca t ion . T h e con t ext in w h ich t h ese d evelop m en t s h ave t a k en p la ce w ill b e ou t lin ed , t oget h er w it h a d escr ip t ion of t h e d evelop m en t s t h em selves. Su ggest ion s w ill b e m a d e con cer n in g t h e r ea son s for t h e ch a n ges a n d t h e a r t icle con clu d es w it h r efl ec-t ion s on ec-t h e p ossible fu ec-t u r e of p r ofession a l d evelop m en t for t h ese t wo gr ou p s.

In t h is r efl ect ion on p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t for p r in cip a ls a n d gover n or s, t h e wor d “ed u ca t ion ” is u sed t o m ea n t h e t r a n sm ission a n d a b sor p t ion of k n ow led ge u su a lly t h r ou gh a sy st em a t ic p r ocess. “E d u ca t ion ” h a s, h ow -ever, a cq u ir ed n or m a t ive over t on es in d em oc-r a t ic sy st em s a n d is oft en a ssu m ed t o im p ly t h e st u dy of a w id e r a n ge of t op ics, t h e d evel-op m en t of t h e cr it ica l fa cu lt ies a n d t h e en cou r a gem en t of in d iv id u a l cr ea t iv it y (Kelly, 1995). A p er son wh o is ed u ca t ed is r e ga r d ed a s on e a ble t o m a k e ch oices fr om com p et in g en d s a n d wh o h a s m or e lea r n in g t h a n t h a t wh ich wou ld b e r e ga r d ed a s st r ict ly n ecessa r y for t h e p er for m a n ce of a job. In con t r a st , a p er son

wh o h a s b een t r a in ed is gen er a lly seen a s on e wh o h a s b een given gu id a n ce on t h e sk ills n eed ed for a sp ecifi c job, r eq u ir in g a focu s a n d d iscip lin e p r ov id ed by ot h er s. A p er son wh o is t r a in ed is a ssu m ed t o b e a ble t o p er for m t o t h e st a n d a r d s set for a job.

Research sources

T h e v iew s exp r essed in t h is a r t icle a r ise fr om r esea r ch p r oject s w h ich I h ave com p let ed over t h e la st t en yea r s on gover n or t r a in in g, t h e r oles of gover n in g b od ies, t h e r oles of gover n or s fr om bu sin ess a n d in d u st r y, on t h e h ist or y of com m u n it y in volvem en t a n d on in t er n a t ion a l com p a r ison s. T h ese h ave u sed a su r vey of 1,500 gover n or s in a Mid la n d s Loca l E d u ca t ion Au t h or it y (LE A[2]), fa ce-t ofa ce a n d t ele p h on e in t er v iew s w it h gover -n or s, gover -n or t r a i-n er s, cou -n cillor s a -n d cler k s in t wo LE As, focu s gr ou p in t er v iew s a n d ob ser va t ion s of w h ole gover n in g b od ies a n d gover n or s’ log r ecor d s (T h ody, 1989, 1990a , 1990b, 1994a , 1994b, 1994c, 1997a , 1998a , 1998b ; In d u st r y in E d u ca t ion , 1995; T h ody a n d N k a t a , 1996, 1997). Ot h er d ocu m en t a r y sou r ces, on b ot h gover n or sh ip a n d p r in ci-p a ls’ issu es, in clu d in g b ot h a ca d em ic a n d gover n m en t p u blica t ion s, a r e r efer r ed t o a b ove a n d in t h e cou r se of t h e a r t icle. P er -son a l r esea r ch in t o sch ool p r in cip a lsh ip h a s in clu d ed st u d ies by ob ser va t ion on t h e a ct iv it ies of p r in cip a ls a n d by in it er v iew s on m en -t or in g a s a -t r a in in g m e-t h od for p r in cip a ls (T h ody, 1991, 1993; T h ody a n d Cr y st a l, 1995) su p p or t ed by exp er ien ce in p r ov id in g d e gr ee a n d d ip lom a cou r ses for p r in cip a ls a n d in t r a in in g p r in cip a ls on ea ch of t h e gover n m en t ’s su ccessive t r a in in g p r ogr a m m es d u r -in g t h e 1990s; m en t or -in g for n ew ly -a p p o-in t ed h ea d t ea ch er s, H E ADLAMP (sh or t cou r ses for n ew ly a p p oin t ed h ea d s) a n d t h e N a t ion a l P r ofession a l Qu a lifi ca t ion for H ea d t ea ch er s (N P QH for a sp ir a n t sch ool p r in cip a ls) (Cr eis-son a n d E llieis-son , 1998).

School leadership: shared

responsibilities

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[ 2 3 3] Ange la Tho dy

Training sc ho o l princ ipals, e duc ating sc ho o l go ve rno rs

Inte rnatio nal Jo urnal o f Educ atio nal Manage me nt 1 2 / 5 [1 9 9 8 ] 2 3 2 –2 3 9

b et w een a sch ool p r in cip a l a n d a b ody of ext er n a l, la r gely n on -ed u ca t ion a list , sch ool gover n or s. T h e sch ool p r in cip a l is a fu ll-t im e, p a id em p loyee, w h o m u st b e a q u a lifi ed t ea ch er a n d w h o u su a lly a lso h a s a p ost gr a d -u a t e d e gr ee in ed -u ca t ion a n d con sid er a ble exp er ien ce of sch ool m a n a gem en t . T h e sch ool gover n or s a r e p a r t -t im e, u n p a id volu n t eer s w h o give t h eir t im e t o h elp a dv ise a n d d ir ect t h e p olicies of t h e sch ool. E a ch sch ool h a s b et w een t en a n d 22 gover n or s, t h e n u m b er in cr ea sin g a s t h e n u m b er of st u d en t s in cr ea ses. T h ese gover n in g b od ies con sist of elect ed p a r en t s, elect ed t ea ch er s a n d a p p oin t ed r e p r esen t a t ives of t h e loca l p olit i-ca l p a r t ies w h o con t r ol loi-ca l gover n m en t . T h ese t h r ee gr ou p s t h en collect ively co-op t r e p r esen t a t ives of t h e loca l com m u n it y w h o m ay in clu d e bu sin ess p eop le, com m u n it y a ct iv ist s, m em b er s of loca l a ssocia t ion s a n d r e p r esen t a t ives of r eligiou s gr ou p s. T h u s t h e exp er t p r in cip a l sh a r es sch ool lea d er sh ip w it h a n on -exp er t b ody bu t on e w h ich p r ov id es t h e p r in cip a l w it h a m ea n s of con su lt in g t h e v iew s of a sch ool’s ext er n a l st a k eh old -er s.

T h e t a sk of sch ool lea d er sh ip is ext en sive a n d in clu d es r esp on sib ilit ies for b ot h en su r -in g t h a t sch ools a r e solven t bu s-in esses a n d t h a t t h ey a ch ieve a ca d em ic su ccesses for t h eir st u d en t s. A sch ool p r in cip a l h a s t o b e b ot h a com p et en t bu sin ess execu t ive a n d in st r u ct ion a l lea d er, w h ile gover n or s h ave t o b e aw a r e of t h e n eed s of b ot h a sp ect s of sch oolin g in or d er t o give a p p r op r ia t e a dv ice a n d t o m on it or w h et h er or n ot t h e p r in cip a l a n d st a ff a r e a ch iev in g t h eir t a r get s. All sch ools a r e fu lly selfm a n a gin g a n d t h e p r in -cip a l a n d gover n or s a r e join t ly r esp on sible for m a n a gin g h u m a n , fi n a n cia l a n d p h y sica l r esou r ces. T h is in clu d es m a k in g t h e sch ool’s st r a t e gic p la n a n d m on it or in g it t o see it is im p lem en t ed . T h e sch ool m u st a lso d ecid e h ow t o d ist r ibu t e it s r esou r ces a m on g a ll of t h e sch ool’s r eq u ir em en t s, in clu d in g t ea ch er s’ sa la r ies. T h e p r in cip a l’s sa la r y is d et er -m in ed by t h e gover n or s a n d a ll st a ff a r e a p p oin t ed , a n d ca n b e p r om ot ed or d ism issed by t h e gover n or s. P r in cip a l a n d gover n or s m u st en su r e t h a t t h e N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m is d eliver ed t o a cce p t a ble n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s (a s t est ed by n a t ion a l exa m in a t ion s). T h ey m u st b e a ble t o d em on st r a t e t o t h e gover n m en t ’s in sp ect or a t e, t h e Office for St a n d a r d s in E d u -ca t ion (OF STE D) t h a t t h e lea d er sh ip of t h e sch ool is effect ive a n d efficien t .

T h e p ow er s ou t lin ed , of b ot h sch ool p r in ci-p a ls a n d gover n or s, h ave in cr ea sed t o t h eir p r esen t a p ogee ver y r a p id ly over t h e la st t en yea r s a n d t h eir gen er a l d ir ect ion h a s r em a in ed u n ch a n ged d esp it e t h e 1997 ch a n ge fr om a Con ser va t ive t o a La b ou r gover n m en t .

T h e d evelop m en t s a r e sim ila r t o t h ose in a lm ost a ll ot h er OE CD cou n t r ies bu t h ave b een m ost ext en sive in E n gla n d a n d Wa les (Bola m , 1997, p. 267). Refl ect in g on h ow p r in ci-p a ls a n d gover n or s h ave b een ci-p r e ci-p a r ed for t h ese d evelop m en t s m ay, t h er efor e, b e u sefu l for ot h er cou n t r ies con sid er in g a dva n cin g t h eir ow n r efor m s fu r t h er.

Professional development for

principals and governors: ten years

of change

Accom p a n y in g t h e sch oolin g r efor m s a s d escr ib ed w er e con com it a n t ch a n ges in t h e p r ofession a l d evelop m en t op p or t u n it ies for p r in cip a ls a n d gover n or s. T h ese a r e su m -m a r ised in Ta ble I.

For p r in cip a ls, t h e m ovem en t h a s b een t o a n a t ion a lised , com p u lsor y, com p et en cy -led t r a in in g (Cr eissen a n d E llison , 1998). For gover n or s, t h e m ovem en t is t o a

d ecen t r a lised , v ir t u a lly sch oolb a sed , n on -com p u lsor y, w id er ed u ca t ion for t h eir p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t .

T h er e h a s b een con sen su s a m on g gover n -m en t , p r ofession a l a ssocia t ion s a n d t o so-m e ext en t , h igh er ed u ca t ion in st it u t ion s, t h a t t h e d evelop m en t of t h e N P QH is a cce p t a ble a n d m u ch of it h a s a r isen fr om p r ev iou s r esea r ch w it h in h igh er ed u ca t ion a b ou t t h e d esir a b il-it y of a com p et en cy a p p r oa ch t o t r a in in g (H eller a n d P a u t ler, 1990, p. 142; E a r ley, 1993; E sp, 1993; J ir a sin gh e a n d Lyon s, 1996). T h er e a r e, of cou r se, d iscu ssion s a b ou t t h e d esir -a b ilit y of t h e p r ecise for m -a t -a d op t ed -a n d d eb a t e a b ou t t h e p r escr ip t ive n a t u r e of t h e t r a in in g m a t er ia ls, bu t t h ese a r e a r gu m en t s a b ou t t h e n icet ies of t h e id ea r a t h er t h a n of t h e id ea it self.

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Table I

Pro fe ssio nal de ve lo pme nt fo r princ ipals and go ve rno rs

Principals, pre-1997 Governors, pre-1990

• Optional • Optional

• Mainly part-time higher degrees over several years • Short c ourses – 1 day to 8 weeks part time, non-ac c redited • University or LEA provided • LEA provided, most LEAs have governor training c o-ordinators • Wide educ ation, theory and prac tic e • Aimed to offer the legal information about governorship • Aimed to produc e reflec tive princ ipals (Sc hon, 1 9 8 7 ) through ac tion learning and a researc h • Foc us was to produc e c ompetent governors

orientation • Not standardised

• Not standardised ac ross the c ountry • Small amount of targeted government funding, reserved for governor training • Targeted government funding to ensure spending on princ ipals’ training • No c entral guidanc e, e.g. eac h LEA devised own c ourses

• Central guidanc e and pressure through the enc ouragement of sc hemes for mentoring and • Termed, “ training” HEADLAMP short c ourses for newly-appointed princ ipals and through advisery and dissemination

bodies, the Sc hool Management Task Forc es and the National Development Centre • Termed, “ professional development”

Principals, post-1997 Governors, post-1990

• National Professional Qualific ation for Headteac hers (NPQH), introduc ed in 1 9 9 7 , bec oming • Optional

c ompulsory by 2 0 0 2 for all aspirant princ ipals • No entry, nor c onc luding, assessment

• Assessment required for entry to NPQH and to be awarded the NPQH • Both off-site and in-sc hool c ourses ar offered but the latter are most popular; short, • Higher degrees still available through universities non-ac c redited c ourses of 1 / 2 days

• NPQH organised by regional spec ialist c onsortia awarded c entral government c ontrac ts • LEA organised

• Emphasis on the ac quisition of management c ompetenc es and skills • Disc usses teac hing and learning, wide ranging skills and knowledge of educ ation • Aims to c reate effec tive princ ipals raising standards, being ac c ountable • Aims to c reate effec tive governors raising standards, being ac c ountable • Standardised c ore modules on strategic direc tion and ac c ountability; modules on learning and • Not standardised

teac hing, people and relationships, effec tive management of financ ial and physic al resourc es • Small amounts of funding are made available but it is subsumed into sc hool budgets • Targeted funding must be spent on NPQH and sc hools c an c hoose whether or not to spend it on governor educ ation

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gr ou p of p eop le w h o for m a gover n in g b ody is lik ely t o b e d iver se a n d m ay n ot collect ively cover a ll t h e r esp on sib ilit ies of gover n or s. In a 1997 su r vey of 50 p r im a r y a n d 13 secon d a r y sch ools in on e LE A (T h ody, 1997a ) on ly on e w a s fou n d w h ich h a d or ga n ised t h eir p r ofes-sion a l d evelop m en t so t h a t ea ch gover n or h a d a t t en d ed som e cou r ses t o en su r e t h a t ever y d u t y of t h e gover n in g b ody h a d b een st u d ied by a t lea st of on e of t h eir m em b er s.

Changes in education and training

for principals and governors: a

projected rationale

Role expectations

T h e op p osit e d ir ect ion s follow ed by p r ofession a l d evelop m en t for p r in cip a ls a n d gover n or s cou ld b e r ela t ed t o t h e gr ea t er r ole cer -t a in -t y for p r in cip a ls w h o a r e exp ec-t ed -t o em b ody t h r ee m a jor t r a d it ion s. F ir st , t h er e is t h e n in et een t h -cen t u r y m or a l lea d er, h igh ly ed u ca t ed , w it h st r on g socia l con t r ol ob jec-t ives, secon d , jec-t h e m id -jec-t w en jec-t iejec-t h cen jec-t u r y p r ofession a l exp er t lea d in g cu r r icu lu m in n ova -t ion a n d socia l en gin eer in g for eq u i-t y w i-t h a st r on g em p h a sis on p a r t icip a t or y d ecision m a k in g a n d , t h ir d , fr om t h e la t e 1980s on w a r d s, t h e ch ief execu t ive of a bu sin ess. Wh ile t h e ot h er t r a d it ion s r em a in , t h e m ost r ecen t is a cce p t ed , a n d p r om u lga t ed by t h e gover n m en t a s t h e d om in a n t on e in r esp on se t o m eet in g t h e n eed s of t h e self-m a n a gin g sch ool. For t h is r ole, t h e com p et en cy -b a sed t r a in in g of t h e N P QH ca n b e seen a s m ost su it a ble.

T h e im p or t a n ce of r et a in in g t h e ea r lier t r a d it ion s of p r in cip a lsh ip is, h ow ever, r ecogn ised iecogn t h e N P QH t r a iecogn iecogn g. Wh ile t h e t r a iecogn -in g m a t er ia ls a r e ver y p r escr ip t ive, t h er e is st r ess t h r ou gh ou t on list en in g t o t h e v iew s of st a ff, p a r en t s, gover n or s a n d st u d en t s, in t h e t r a d it ion s of t h e m id -t w en t iet h cen t u r y sch ool p r in cip a l a n d on d evelop in g va lu es a n d v ision s, in t h e t r a d it ion s of t h e

n in et een t h -cen t u r y sch ool p r in cip a l. Ma n y of t h ose w h o m u st p a ss t h eir N P QH w ill a lso ch oose t o a d d a p ost -gr a d u a t e d e gr ee t o t h eir q u a lifi ca t ion s a s w ell a n d u n iver sit ies a r e r ew r it in g t h eir Ma st er s’ d e gr ee cou r ses t o p er -m it a ccr ed it a t ion t o p a r t of t h eir d e gr ees t o t h ose w h o h old t h e N P QH .

For gover n or s, t h er e is n o clea r d efi n it ion of t h eir p r im a r y r ole w h ich cou ld lea d t o t h e p r od u ct ion of a sin gle t r a in in g m od el. Ar e gover n or s a dv iser s t o p r in cip a ls or a con d u it for t h e v iew s of ext er n a l st a k eh old er s? Ar e t h ey join t m a n a ger s w it h t h e p r in cip a l or m on it or s of t h e wor k of t h e p r in cip a l a n d st a ff ? Ar e t h ey p a r t of a sch ool’s m a n a gem en t t ea m or r e p r esen t a t ives of gover n m en t t o

w h om t h e sch ool is a ccou n t a ble? Do gover -n or s a -n d t h eir a ssocia t io-n s h ave a p a r t t o p lay in n a t ion a l p olicy m a k in g? T h e ou t com e of t h is u n cer t a in t y is u n r esolved d eb a t es a b ou t w h a t gover n or p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t is for a n d w h a t , t h er efor e, -m igh t b e a d esir a ble for m a t for it . Cu r r en t gover n or p r ofession a l d evelop m en t d oes p r od u ce it s exp ect ed ou t p u t s of m or e gover n or s w h o a r e b et t er in for m ed a b ou t ed u ca t ion (DE S, 1989; P ou n ce, 1993; Sch lech t e, 1995; N or t h a n t s, 1994-1995, 1995-1996) bu t t h er e a r e d eb a t es over w h et h er or n ot it sh ou ld in cr ea se it s em p h a -sis on ed u ca t ion a l d evelop m en t (Br ow n in g, 1997) a n d over w h et h er or n ot sca r ce r esou r ces sh ou ld b e focu sed a lm ost en t ir ely on in d u ct ion or sp r ea d m or e t h in ly t o m eet som e of t h e n eed s of m or e exp er ien ced gover n or s (J on es, 1997). Som e gover n or s a r e d issa t -isfi ed w it h exist in g t r a in in g cou r ses a n d t h ese a r e b ein g ca n celled for la ck of en r ol-m en t s (N or t h a n t s, 1994-1995, 1995-1996; T h ody, 1997a ) bu t t h er e is a cce p t a n ce of t h e va lu e of sch ool-b a sed gover n or ed u ca t ion . T h er e is som e ev id en ce t h a t t h e t r a in in g en cou r a ges gover n or s t o feel in a d eq u a t e w h en d ea lin g w it h p r ofession a l ed u ca t ion a l m a t t er s (Ba con , 1978; Tu r n er et a l., 1991; Wa r in g, 1992; T h ody, 1994b ) bu t t h e p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t op p or t u n it ies for gover n or s h ave given t h em a n ew -fou n d p olit ica l con fi d en ce (Deem et a l., 1995; T h ody, 1995, 1997).

Training developments in related occupations

Sch ool p r in cip a ls a r e in cr ea sin gly r e ga r d ed a s t h e eq u iva len t s of sen ior m a n a ger s in m ed iu m -sized bu sin ess en t er p r ises, m a n a g-in g a n n u a l bu d get s of b et w een h a lf a n d fou r m illion p ou n d s. For sim ila r p ost s in p r iva t e sect or bu sin esses, m a n a ger s a r e n ow t r a in ed follow in g t h e com p et en cy fr a m ewor k s d evel-op ed by t h e M a n a gem en t Ch a r ter In itia tiv e la u n ch ed in t h e m id -1980s. E ver y m a n a ge-m en t p ost is gr a d ed a t Levels 1-5 a n d for ea ch of t h ese t h er e a r e r ela t ed com p et en ces t o b e a cq u ir ed . T h e com p et en cy list s for sch ool p r in cip a ls a r e n ot exa ct r e p lica s of t h ese, bu t t h ey d o em b ody t h e sa m e a p p r oa ch es. T h e m essa ge w h ich t h e gover n m en t w ish es t o em p h a sise is t h a t of sch ools a s bu sin esses in a m a r k et -led econ om y for ed u ca t ion .

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gover n or s; t h ose for sch ool p r in cip a ls n eed ed m or e u r gen t set t lem en t a n d w er e m or e a m en a ble t o r a p id cen t r a l a ct ion t h a n gover -n or s’ p r ofessio-n a l d evelop m e-n t , w h ich is st ill fi r m ly w it h in t h e p u r v iew of t h e LE As. Sch ool p r in cip a l d evelop m en t b e ga n leav in g t h e con t r ol of t h e LE As fr om t h e ea r ly 1980s bu t it is n ot u n t il t h e la t e 1990s t h a t it h a s m oved a lm ost com p let ely t o cen t r a l con t r ol. P er h a p s gover n or t r a in in g w ill follow in d u e cou r se.

Centralisation and decentralisation T h ese t wo a r e t h e a p p a r en t ly com p et in g t r en d s in ed u ca t ion in t r od u ced fr om t h e la t e 1980s on w a r d s. To cen t r a lise t h e sy st em , t h er e is n ow a N a t ion a l Cu r r icu lu m for a ll st a t e sch ools, n a t ion a l st a n d a r d s t o b e a t t a in ed a r e set by t h e cen t r a l gover n m en t a n d a ll sch ools a r e su b ject t o fr eq u en t in sp ect ion s w h ich op er a ect e a ccor d in g ect o n a ect ion a lly -set r eq u ir em en t s. To d ecen t r a lise, sch ools h ave b ecom e in d iv id u a lly self-m a n a gin g. P r ofession a l d evelop m en t for p r in cip a ls a n d gover n or s ca n b e seen t o em b ody t h e sa m e, con t r a d ict or y t r en d s. Sch ool p r in cip a lsh ip t r a in in g follow s t h e cen t r a lisa t ion m od el a n d sch ool gover n or t r a in in g follow s t h e d ecen -t r a lised m od el.

In cen t r a lisa t ion , on e cou ld d et ect t h e gov -er n m en t ’s in t en t ion t o con t r ol t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession m or e st r on gly a n d en su r e t h a t p u blic ed u ca t ion is r esp on sive t o gover n m en t a n d p u blic d em a n d s. N eit h er p r in cip a ls n or gover n or s t a k e d ecision s on w h a t is t a u gh t n or on h ow it is t a u gh t (su r ely t h e m ost im p or t a n t a sp ect s of ed u ca t ion ) bu t on ly on t h e a d m in ist r a t ion of t h e sch ool. If

cen t r a lised con t r ol is t h e in t en t ion of t h e gover n m en t , a s it a p p ea r s t o b e, t h en t h e n a t ion a lisa t ion of t h e t r a in in g of sch ool p r in cip a ls is yet a n ot h er p a r t of t h e con t r ol m ech -a n ism .

Gover n m en t s’ d ecision t o d im in ish t h e p r ev iou s lea d r ole of t h e u n iver sit ies a s t h e m a in p r ov id er s of cou r ses in ed u ca t ion a l lea d er sh ip m ay a lso b e in d ica t ive of t h is d esir e t o con t r ol w h a t is t a u gh t t o p r in cip a ls. T h is is d esp it e t h e la ck of u ser cr it icism s of u n iver sit y cou r ses. Br it ish cr it ics a r e ver y m ild com p a r ed w it h t h ose w h ich fa ce, for exa m p le, US u n iver sit y ed u ca t ion a l a d m in is-t r a is-t or p r e p a r a is-t ion p r ogr a m m es (J a cob son , 1990); Br it ish u n iver sit y cou r ses for sch ool p r in cip a ls a r e r ecogn ised for t h eir a d a p t a t ion t o t h e r ea l wor ld n eed s of p r a ct it ion er s a n d for t h e p a r t n er sh ip s en gen d er ed b et w een u n iver sit ies a n d sch ools.

T h e cen t r a lisa t ion a gen d a h a s n ot b een a p p lied t o gover n or s’ p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t . As yet , gover n -m en t h a s n ot b een d eci-sive on gover n or s’ r oles n or t h eir t r a in in g

a n d t h e d eb a t es on t h ese r em a in u n r esolved . P er h a p s gover n m en t con sid er s gover n or s t o b e less im p or t a n t t o sch ool ou t com es t h a n p r in cip a ls. T h is con clu sion is su p p or t ed by t h e 1998 le gisla t ion w h ich w ill p er m it gover -n or s’ p ow er s t o b e d ecr ea sed , a lt er ed or su s-p en d ed in t h e n ew E d u ca t ion a l Act ion Ar ea s for t h e im p r ovem en t of fa ilin g sch ools. Wit h -ou t cen t r a l in t er ven t ion , t h er e is u n lik ely t o b e a n a t ion a lly a gr eed p r ofession a l d evelop m en t p r ogr a m m e for gover n or s. T h e Gover -n or T r a i-n i-n g Co-or d i-n a t or s for ea ch LE A d o m eet a n d d iscu ss issu es of com m on con cer n bu t t h e d et er m in ed in d iv id u a lism of t h eir em p loyer s, t h e LE As, p r even t s t h eir d ecid in g on com m on p r ogr a m m es.

Uncertainty about the objectives of educational leadership

T h e gover n m en t ’s d esir e t o cen t r a lise in or d er, a p p a r en t ly, t o con t r ol m ay h ave a less sin ist er in t er p r et a t ion . Su ccessive gover n -m en t s -m ay w ell h ave felt t h a t t h e t h eor et ica l a r gu m en t s a m on g a ca d em ics a b ou t w h a t con st it u t es effect ive p r in cip a lsh ip for effec-t ive sch ools w er e ob seffec-t r u ceffec-t in g effec-t h e n ecessa r y d ir ect ion t o t h e ed u ca t ion of p r in cip a ls. T h e a r gu m en t s h ave b een p r eva len t sin ce t h e d iscip lin e of ed u ca t ion a l a d m in ist r a t ion b eca m e a cce p t ed a r ou n d 25 yea r s a go a n d , a s yet , t h er e is n o r esolu t ion of t h em h er e or in ot h er cou n t r ies (Bola m , 1997, p p. 275-6). T h er e is a gr eem en t t h a t t r a in in g n eed s im p r ove-m en t , h er e a n d in ot h er cou n t r ies (J a cob son , 1990, p. 33) bu t n ot h ow it sh ou ld b e im p r oved n or t o w h a t en d s. Wit h t h e cu r r en t n eed s for sch ools t o r a ise st a n d a r d s in E n gla n d a n d Wa les, a ccor d in g t o gover n m en t , t h en som e-on e m u st obv iou sly t a k e a ct ie-on t o d ecid e h ow t o t r a in a p p r op r ia t ely t h ose w h o m u st r a ise st a n d a r d s. Aca d em ics d eb a t e, gover n m en t s d ecid e.

N on et h eless, gover n m en t s h ave n ot yet d ecid ed a b ou t gover n or t r a in in g a n y m or e t h a n h ave a ca d em ics. T h e a ca d em ic d eb a t e a b ou t t h e r oles a n d t r a in in g of gover n or s h a s b een r efer r ed t o a b ove. T h e gover n m en t a l d eb a t e is illu st r a t ed in p u blica t ion s su ch a s t h e DfE (1996) Gu id e to Good Gov er n a n ce. T h e p olit ica l d eb a t e w a s ev id en ced in t h e r a p id ch a n ges in le gisla t ion con cer n in g gover n or s b et w een 1986 a n d 1988. In t h e 1986 E d u ca t ion Act , gover n or s w er e given t h e p ow er t o d ecid e a sch ool’s cu r r icu lu m . By 1988, t h is p ow er w a s w it h d r aw n a n d r e p la ced w it h

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Costs of professional development T h e p olit ica l a n d fi n a n cia l cost s of d ir ect in t er ven t ion in p r ofession a l d evelop m en t for p r in cip a ls m ay h ave p r even t ed ea r lier m oves t o a q u a lifi ca t ion su ch a s t h e N P QH . P olit i-ca lly, t h e p r in cip a ls’ p r ofession a l a ssocia t ion s a r e st r on g a n d a r e t h em selves ext en sively in volved in t r a in in g p r ov ision . T h ey h ave a ssessm en t cen t r es for ser v in g a n d a sp ir in g p r in cip a ls a n d r u n sh or t cou r ses. T h e u n iver -sit ies h ave, for m a n y yea r s, d om in a t ed t h e p r ov ision of a ccr ed it ed cou r ses for p r in ci-p a ls.

Gover n m en t s h ave n ow d ecid ed t h a t t h ey ca n r isk en t er in g t h e t er r it or y of t h ese est a b -lish ed st a k eh old er s, p er h a p s b eca u se t h e p u blic’s est im a t e of t h e st a t u s of t h e t ea ch in g p r ofession h a s d eclin ed sin ce t h e m id -1980s a n d b eca u se of t h e u n iver sit ies’ d e p en d en ce on gover n m en t fu n d in g a n d t h e in t r od u ct ion of gover n m en t con t r ols on u n iver sit ies t h r ou gh a ssessm en t s of t h eir t ea ch in g a n d r esea r ch . In su ch a clim a t e, t h e a d d it ion of con t r ol over p r in cip a ls’ q u a lifi ca t ion s is n ot u n exp ect ed a n d op p osit ion t o it fr om w it h in t h e ed u ca t ion p r ofession s is u n lik ely t o b e w ell r eceived p u blicly.

F in a n cia lly, gover n m en t s h ave t r ied ch ea p er op t ion s for p r in cip a ls’ p r ofession a l d evelop m en t bu t h ave a b a n d on ed t h ese (e.g. m en t or in g). Gover n m en t s h ave r eject ed exp en sive, elit ist id ea s su ch a s a st a ff colle ge, a n d n ow a p p ea r t o h ave con clu d ed t h a t w h a t -ever is d on e w ill b e exp en sive. If it is t o b e exp en sive, t h en it w ill b e con t r olled t o en su r e t h a t in vest m en t p r od u ces t h e ou t com es d esir ed .

T h e in vest m en t in ea ch a sp ir a n t p r in cip a l’s t r a in in g w ill b e in t h e r e gion of £2,000-£3,000 bu t t h e n u m b er s t o b e t r a in ed a r e sm a ll com -p a r ed w it h t h e n u m b er s of gover n or s n eed in g p r ofession a l d evelop m en t . T h er e a r e a p p r oxi-m a t ely 350,000 gover n or s, t h e oxi-m a jor it y of w h om w ill ser ve for fou r yea r s. E ver y fou r yea r s, t h er efor e, t h er e w ill b e n ew gover n or s t o t r a in ; sin ce t h e fi r st gover n in g b od ies w er e a p p oin t ed u n d er t h e cu r r en t le gisla t ion in 1988, it is p ossible t o est im a t e t h a t a r ou n d on e m illion p eop le h ave ser ved a s gover n or s. E ven a sh or t in d u ct ion cou r se for t h is n u m -b er wou ld p r ove ver y exp en sive. P olit ica lly, t h e gover n or s’ n a t ion a l a ssocia t ion s a r e n ot st r on g a n d a r e on ly ju st b e gin n in g t o lea r n h ow t o p r essu r ise gover n m en t s. P ossibly t h ey h ave n ot yet b een a ble t o exer t en ou gh p r es-su r e t o p er es-su a d e gover n m en t s t o d ed ica t e m or e r esou r ces t o gover n or s’ p r ofession a l d evelop m en t or gover n or s’ loca l p r ofession a l a ssocia t ion s p r efer t o en cou r a ge loca l t r a in -in g p r ov ision -in or d er t o avoid los-in g t h eir ow n st a t u s w it h loca l gover n or s.

Reflections on the future

P r in cip a ls’ p r ofession a l d evelop m en t h a s m oved t o a t r a in in g m od el w h ile gover n or s h ave m oved t o a n ed u ca t ion m od el. T h e p ossi-ble r a t ion a le for t h ese ch a n ges a p p ea r s t o r ely on con t r a d ict ion s t o su p p or t ea ch d evelop m en t . It m ay b e p ossible t o exp la in t h e con t r a -d ict ion s sim p ly b eca u se t h e r oles of p r in ci-p a ls a n d gover n or s a r e d iffer en t yet t h ey b ot h sh a r e t h e sa m e r esp on sib ilit ies a n d b ot h a r e le ga lly lia ble for a ch iev in g sch ool effect ive-n ess.

In m y op in ion , t h e ch a n ges a r e m or e a fu n c-t ion of c-t im e c-t h a n of n or m a c-t ive p r in cip les d r iv in g ea ch d ist in ct evolu t ion . It seem s t o m e lik ely t h a t gover n or p r ofession a l d evelop -m en t w ill -m ove t o a co-m p et en cy list in g of sk ills a n d p er h a p s a n a t ion a l cu r r icu lu m p r om u lga t ed t h r ou gh su ch m ea n s a s a m u lt i-m ed ia CD a s a gr eei-m en t gr ow s over w h a t gover n or sh ip en t a ils, a s exp er ien ce of t h eir t r a in in g gr ow s, a s t h eir k n ow led ge of ed u ca -t ion in cr ea ses, a s gover n m en -t s d ecid e on -t h e p olit ica l im p or t a n ce of gover n or s a n d a s r esea r ch r e p or t s in d ica t e t h e d ir ect ion s t o t a k e. Su ch a n a p p r oa ch wou ld b e a d d it ion a l t o exist in g p r ov ision , in t h e sa m e w ay a s is n ow m a n d a t or y for a sp ir in g p r in cip a ls. P r in cip a ls ca n con t in u e w it h p ost gr a d u a t e ed u ca -t ion w h ile a lso a cq u ir in g -t h eir N P QH . In d eed , t h ey w ill n eed t o; on ce ever y a sp ir a n t p r in cip a l h a s r ea ch ed t h e b a sic st a n d a r d d em a n d ed by t h e gover n m en t , select ion b oa r d s w ill n eed t o u se ot h er cr it er ia t o d is-t in gu ish a p p lica n is-t s for p osis-t s a n d on e of is-t h ese cou ld b e t h e p ossession of a p ost -gr a d u a t e q u a lifi ca t ion . In t h is w ay, b ot h t h e ed u ca t ion a n d t r a in in g m od els w ill co-exist .

T h is co-exist en ce sh ou ld en a ble t h e r oles of p r in cip a ls a s in st r u ct ion a l lea d er s a n d a s bu sin ess execu t ives t o op er a t e con cu r r en t ly r a t h er t h a n b ein g seen a s m u t u a lly exclu sive or in a h ier a r ch y in w h ich t h e p r in cip a l a s ed u ca t ion a l lea d er h a s p a r a m ou n t cy. Gover -n or s a lso -n eed t h e k -n ow led ge t h a t w ill e-n a ble t h em t o m on it or b ot h t h e r oles op er a t ed by p r in cip a ls.

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elect ion s a n d in n er cit y sch ools h ave d iffi-cu lt y p er su a d in g a n yon e t o st a n d a s gover n or. If eit h er of t h ese sh or t a ges ca n b e r ela t ed t o la ck of su it a ble t r a in in g, t h en it is t o b e h op ed t h a t t h e ch a n ges w ill a m elior a t e t h e sit u a -t ion . P r in cip a ls h ave r e p or -t ed ly -t a k en ea r ly r et ir em en t b eca u se t h ey feel in ca p a ble of cop in g w it h t h e st r esses of t h e cu r r en t bu si-n ess execu t ive m od el of p r isi-n cip a lsh ip. T h e N P QH t r a in in g is d esign ed t o p r ov id e t h e sk ills t o en a ble p r in cip a ls t o op er a t e t h is en t r e p r en eu r ia l m od el. T h e sim ila r it y b et w een t h e N P QH a n d ot h er m a n a ger ia l q u a lifi ca t ion s is a lso d esign ed t o r a ise t h e st a t u s of p r in cip a lsh ip a n d t h e gover n m en t h op es, t h er eby, t o a t t r a ct t h ose fr om ou t sid e ed u ca t ion t o t h e job. T h er e is yet lit t le ev i-d en ce t h a t t h is is h a p p en in g bu t t h e N P QH m ay m a k e it m or e of a p ossib ilit y.

Notes

1 Scot la n d a n d N or t h er n Ir ela n d , t h e ot h er t wo con st it u en t n a t ion s of t h e Un it ed Kin gd om , a r e n ot in clu d ed in t h is p a p er a s t h ey h ave a d iffer -en t sy st em t o t h a t of E n gla n d a n d Wa les. 2 T h er e a r e 114 LE As ea ch r esp on sible for m ost

of t h e st a t e p r ov ision in t h eir a r ea s.

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