9
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Brief Description about Novel
Wellek and Warren (1948: 3) said in his book entitled The Theory of Literature that literature is distinct activity, one is creative, an art literary work as a form and result of creative work, in reality is a media which used language to tell about human’s life so that a literary work consists of problem of human’s life. Literary term was used to called cultural tendency which can be found in our society and it keeps developing. Literature is not only in written form but also in spoken form. Literature is usually divided according to its geography or language. The categories of literature are novel, short story, poem, poetry, drama, and painting.
Novel is one form of literature. A novel is a totality, a comprehensiveness that is artistic. As a totality, the novel has passages elements, most related to one another in
close and mutually dependent. The elements of a novel-builder who is then collectively
form a totality that in addition to the formal elements of language. The division of the
element in novel is the intrinsic and extrinsic elements. A novel is usually tells about
people’s life in interacting with their environment and social life. A novel is such a great thing even though it exists in written form yet it can tell any kind of event according to author’s willing. Eagleton says in his book entitled The English Novel: An Introduction,
10 The word “Novel” came from the Italian, Novella, which means the new staff that small. Novels developed in England and America. A novel was originally developed in the region from other forms of narrative nonfiction, such as letters, biographies, and history. But with a shift in society and time development, the novel is not only based on nonfiction data, author of novel can change the idea according to desired imagination.
In Europe and America, novel had become a special genre of literature and its works design had become wider in which created many kinds of genre. The first form of modern novel can be found in some era like classical Roman era in which many kinds of romantic novel were shown. Eastlake says in her article entitled Romantic Antiquity: Rome in the British Imagination,
“The idea of ancient Rome for Romantic writers and the ways in which Rome was portrayed and utilized in literature to forge a sense of British national identity and political modernity (Eastlake, 2010:1).”
11 Realist and naturalist novels began to be exposed since 19th century. In this era, Charles Dickens, Thackeray and George Elliot (England), Tolstoy and Dostoevsky (Russia), Nathaniel Hawthorne (America) became journalistic references to reveal the hidden reality which was caused by hypocrisy of false morality and decency aristocratic. During the 20th century and the consequences which was caused by the great events of World War 1 and 2 had made the characters in novels became increasingly complex. The impact of World War had created two kinds of genre they are modernism and post-modernism
2.2 Sociology of Literature
Sociology of literature is derived from two terms “Sociology” and “Literature”. If we glance both terms, they seem different and have no any related meaning. On the other hand, if we learn about both terms, we can find that sociology and literature cannot be separated because each of them is interrelated. Leenheardt says in Lengyel’s journal entitled Sociology of Literary Creativity,
“The expression 'sociology of literature' covers two very different types of research, bearing respectively on literature as a consumer product and literature as an integral part of social reality, or, considered from another angle, bearing on society as the place of literary consumption and society as the subject of literary creation.” (Leenhardt qtd in Lengyel, 1967: 517)
12 “Sociology is the study of individual in a social setting that includes
group’s organization, cultures and societies; and of the interrelation of individuals, groups, organizations, cultures and societies.” (Rao, 2005: 6)
Generally, sociology teaches us how to understand about social environment and social phenomenon in our society. The object of study of sociology is society. A society is part of social environment. By using sociology, we can understand about society, its various institutions of human relationships and its manifestation of man’s social interaction and socialization. From explanation above, it can be concluded that sociology is a knowledge that concerned with social relationships and studies society, human interactions, inter-personal and intra-personal relations. It tries to study scientifically social institutions, organizations and systems.
Besides sociology, literature also discuss about the social condition in a society. Literature is considered as the social symptom. A literature was written in a certain time and related to rule, norm and also culture at that time. An author changes their work as a part of society. It is a specific evaluative criterion to say that an author should express the life of his own time fully, that he should be "representative" of his age and society (Wellek and Warren: 1948: 91). Satre says in his book entitled What is Literature,
“Literature is, in essence, the subjectivity of a society in permanent revolution. In such a society it would go beyond the antinomy of word and action. Certainly in no case would it be regarded as an act; it is false to say that the author acts upon his readers; he merely makes an appeal to their freedom and in order for his works to have any effect, it is necessary for the public to adopt them on their own account by an unconditioned decision.” (Satre, 1948: 159)
13 tries to change their mind set to be more sensitive towards their environment because we can learn many things from our social environment. Sociology and literature are discussing about social problem. Damono says in his book entitled Sosiologi Sastra Sebuah Pengantar Ringkas,
“Sebuah karya sastra di zaman modern ini, dapat dianggap sebagai usaha untuk menciptakan kembali dunia sosial ini: hubungan manusia dengan keluarga, lingkungannya, politik, negara, dan sebagainya.” (Damono, 1979: 8)
It can be concluded that literature cannot be separated from sociology because Literature is an art that develops in human society throughout the ages quite independently of sociology, whereas sociology is a science whose purpose is to discover the objective laws of social life in all its manifestations including creative art (Pospelov, 1967: 47). Thereby sociology of literature was created in order to analyze a social condition through literature.
Sociology of literature is a branch of literature study which discuss about the relation between literature and social condition through the text of a novel. Obviously, the approach of sociology of literature is about the relation of literature and society. According to Wellek and Werren in his book entitled The Theory of Literature,
“Literature is an exspression of society, it means literature is mirrors or expresses life is even more ambiguous. A writer inevitably expresses his experience and total conception of life but it would be manifestly untrue to say that he expresses the whole of life or even the whole life of a given time—completely and exhaustively.” (Wellek and Warren, 1948: 91)
14 reflected in the novel. So that by using sociology of literature we can find out what kind of social condition that happened at that time.
In sociology of literature there are 3 kinds of approaching, they are, the sociology of author, the sociology of literary work, and the sociology of reader. Author and his work are like two sides of a coin that cannot be separated. In one side, the author is part of society who lived among society itself so that it is not a surprise if there is an interaction between author and his society. Wellek and Werren says,
“First, there is the sociology of the writer and the profession and institutions of literature, the whole question of the economic basis of literary production, the social provenience and status of the writer, his social ideology, which may find expression in extra literary pronouncements and activities. Then there is the problem of the social content, the implications and social purpose of the works of literature themselves. Lastly, there are the Literature and Society problems of the audience and the actual social influence of literature.” (Wellek and Warren, 1948: 90-91)
2.3 Historical Approach
Historical approach is an approach that emphasized the understanding about the author’s biography, the background of historical event that underlie the time when the literary was created and how the development of the author’s life as well as the life of the literary work from time to time generally. A literary work is created as the representation of its time because a literary work always related to the time when it was created and also literary work is considered as documentation of historical event directly or not. According to Tyson in his book entitled Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide (Second Edition),
15 individual identity and society, literary texts shape and are shaped by their historical contexts.” (Tyson, 2006: 291-292)
Unni (2013) said in her article entitled Pendekatan Historis dalam Mengapresiasi Sastra that the basic principle behind the birth of this approach is the assumption that literary work however is also the part of its time. In addition, the understanding of author’s biography is really important in order to understand the content of literary work. Hence, historical approach priorities are context like social culture, situation or time as well as the life of the author. Historical approach is related to general historical competencies that are considered relevant, old literature with large empires, modern literature with social movements, economics, politics, and culture in general.
In the study of literature through the historical approach, readers can take advantage of variety of information about historicity addition, readers also can view the information about the biography of the author listed on the back as well as essays about the life of the author contained in the books of a collection of essays as well as magazines and newspapers. In a historical approach, the center of this research is how history is interpreted in a literary work in fact not how the history occurred. Tyson also says,
16 2.4 Social Changes in Victorian Age
Victorian age in England history was the reign of Queen Victorian period which lasted from June 20th, 1837 until January 22nd, 1901. This period was marked by a long period of reconcilement, prosperity, and glory of England in international region and also the national confident of England citizens were quite high. This period was named “Victorian Age” because there was much advancement which had been done by Queen Victoria in which England reached its prosperity at that time. Also, in this era, the development in England was quite fast. It was marked by the alteration of economic system into modern economic system and the fast growth of population which developed from 2 million until 6.5 million citizens. According to Greenbalt in his book entitled The Norton Anthology of English Literature: Major Authors Edition,
“London, a city which expanded from about 2 million inhabitants when Victoria came to the throne to 6.5 million at the time of her death. The rapid growth of London is one of many indications of the most important development of the age: the shift from a way of life based on the ownership of land to a modern urban economy based on the trade and manufacturing.” (Greenbalt, 2001: 1363)
England had a great transformation in politic and economy during Victorian age. Many kinds of invention were invented in this period as well as there were many kinds of social alteration. The kinds of alteration which happened during Victorian age are,
2.4.1 Moral and Behavior
17 parents. Women were not allowed to go out with a gown that exposed their tarsus. Men were not allowed to call a single woman by her first name except they had already engaged. Miller (2016) also said that young ladies were constantly chaperoned. To be found alone with a gentleman who was other than family was tantamount to social death.
2.4.2 Social Structure
In Victorian age, the social class was divided into three classes, high class, middle class and worker class. A family who had the most wealth could have a slave in this age. Industrial revolution which happened during Victorian age had made the class division were not too big. Especially, middle class got much more income after industrial revolution and was considered as rich people. The population had grown by two-fold during Victorian age. Foster (2005) said in his book entitled Class Struggle and the Industrial Revolution that there was a burst of population growth in the first three decades, then a slight lull, and finally from the 1760s an uninterrupted period of expansion.
2.4.3 Hospital, Surgery and Healthiness
18 would have to suffer unbearable pain for hours. During Victorian age, people ate their food in basement. They thought that their food would be digested better in the dark so that dinner room was place in basement.
2.4.4 Novel Became More Developed
Novel developed more quickly during Victorian age. The condition in England had become more conducive so that it motivated the novelist to write. Literature of this age tends to come closer to daily life which reflects its practical problems and interests. It becomes a powerful instrument for human progress. Socially & economically, Industrialism was on the rise and various reform movements like emancipation, child labor, women’s rights, and evolution. Greenbalt also says,
“Characteristics of Victorian literature: its variety both in style and in subject variety is in part a symptom of the Victorian writer’s bold independence and his zest for literary experiment for its own sake, but it is also a symptom of an absence of any final general agreement concerning the function of literature and art in a democratic society.” (Greenbalt, 2001: 1376)
During Victorian age, there were many famous novelists like Charles Dickens, William Thackeray and many others. Dickens and Thackeray were considered as the most famous novelist in this age. It based on consideration of the amount of works, quality, characteristics and the influence toward society as well as the development of the author. Most of Dickens’ works told about social imbalance in society due to industrial revolution while Thackeray’s work told about hypocrisy in social high class.
19 There were many new inventions during Victorian age. In 1876, telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell and radio was invented in 1895 by Guglielmo Marconi. Camera, toilet, sewing machine, vacuum, train and stamp were invented during Victorian age. Factory began to be supported by steam engine and police force was created in this age. Industrial revolution which happened in England had caused the advancement in knowledge which was marked by there were many kinds of intellectual activities. Greenbalt also says,
“England was the first country to become industrialized, her transformation was an especially painful one, but being first had a compensation: it was profitable. An early start enabled England to capture markets all over the globe.” (Greenbalt, 2001: 1363)
2.5 Industrial Revolution in England
20 “Fortunately few intellectual refinements were necessary to make the
Industrial Revolution. Its technical inventions were exceedingly modest, and in no way beyond the scope of intelligent artisans experimenting in their workshops, or of the constructive capacities of carpenters, millwrights and locksmiths: the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, the mule. Even its scientifically most sophisticated machine, James Watt's rotary steam-engine (1784), required no more physics than had been available for the best part of a century—the proper theory of steam engines was only developed ex post facto by the Frenchman Carnot in the 1820s—and could build on several generations of practical employment for steam engines, mostly in mines. Given the right conditions, the technical innovations of the Industrial Revolution practically made themselves, except perhaps in the chemical industry.” (Hobsbawn, 1962: 30-31)
The first industrial revolution was marked by a cotton spinning factory which was supported by machine which happened since 1760 until 1870. One of the machines that was invented was a cotton spinning machine named “Jenny” which invented by James Hargreaves in 1767. The name of the machine was retrieved by Hargreaves’ wife. Unfortunately, “Jenny” was not quite well-preserved until Richard Arkwight invented a water frame two years later. In 1779, Samuel Croupton combined the spinning machine “Jenny” and the water frame into a machine named “Mule”. In 1785, Cartwright had invented a weaver machine which was completed perfectly several years later. Hobsbawn also says,
“Cotton therefore provided prospects sufficiently astronomical to tempt private entrepreneurs into the adventure of industrial revolution, and an expansion sufficiently sudden to require it. Fortunately it also provided the other conditions which made it possible. The new inventions which revolutionized it—the spinning-jenny, the water-frame, the mule in spinning, a little later the power-loom in weaving—were sufficiently simple and cheap, and paid for themselves almost immediately in terms of higher output.” (Hobsbawn, 1962: 35-36)
21 country. Industrial centers had appeared in England, like
2.6 The Impact of Industrial Revolution in England
The industrial revolution was a turning point in the world that affects every aspect of our lives. Obviously, a change will leave its impact to the surrounding environment. There are positive and negative impacts of industrial revolution, they are,
2.6.1 Positive Impacts
• Cheap and Abundant Goods
The Industrial Revolution had resulted in increased of industrial enterprises
and factories on a large scale through the process of mechanization. According to
Hackett (1992) in his article entitled Industrial Revolution that English merchants were leaders in developing a commerce which increased the demand for more goods. The expansion in trade had made it possible to accumulate capital to use in industry. A cheaper system of production had grown up which was largely free from regulation.
• Trade Is Growing
Thanks to modern means of communication, quick and cheap, local
production turns into an international production. Shipping and international trade
are growing rapidly. According to Eagleton (2010) in her article entitled The
Industrial Revolution and the Changing Face of Britain that Britain has always
22 dramatically. It causes the increasing of people’s profit and made England reached its peak of prosperity in industrial revolution era.
• The Improvement of Transportation
The discoveries in any kinds of facilities and transportation had become more
perfect and smooth. Eagleton (2010) also said that Railways expanded significantly and the new railway connections boosted coastal towns as well as previously remote and isolated provincial towns. Thus, the dynamics of community life had increased. The existence of transportation really helped our life in any field. The invention of
transportation has brought great impact to human life nowadays
2.6.2 Negative Impacts
• Urbanization
The development of industrialization had created many cities and industrial centers. Many villagers moved to city in order to get a new job because the city with its industry activity had guaranteed a better life. It had caused many farm works were ignored and increased the population in city. According to Miller (2016) in his article entitled Victorian England that the population of Great Britain actually trebled during the 19th century. People were living longer, having larger families, infant mortality was down and immigrants escaping from the potato famine in Ireland all added up to a huge population explosion in Victorian times.
• Workers Low Wages
23 decreased so that the life of those workers became worse. Many industrialists choose women and children workers because the wages were cheaper. Humphries (2010) says in her book entitled Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution that even men in more settled jobs were forced by low wages in the agricultural sector or competition from factory production to work long hours.
• The Emergence of Industrialist Class and Worker Class
There were two class were known in industrial activity, worker or laborer class and industrialist or master class who owned the factory. Thereby, in society had emerged new classes they were industrialist class or capitalist community that lived in prosperity and worker class that lived in poverty. Miller (2016) also said that Victorian society could be quite pleasant, but only depending on your financial status. For those in the upper echelons of society, rules such as the proper forms of address, and even what to wear including which pieces of jewelry would be appropriate were all considered very important and for the lower class, the poor, there wasn't time for etiquette.
• The Relationship Gap between Master and Worker
24 class. 'The Poor' were invisible. The best way for society to deal with the poor was to ignore them. They were considered as 'burdens on the public'.
• Poverty
The number of villagers that moved to city was plenty so that city could not take in those villagers. In consequence, those villagers should live in crowded slum area. During industrial revolution, bourgeois class took many advantages while proletarian class had to get low wages. Miller (2016) also said that in the huge change in people’s lives. The period of adjustment led to many workers living in extreme poverty and even dying on city streets of starvation during Victorian times.
• Children Exploitation
In the era of the industrial revolution, there were many negative impacts that were received by children. In addition to famine, and lack of education, many children were also exploited and most of them were poor children or orphans. According to Humphries in her book entitled Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution,
“Unconscious assumptions about the universality of family structures have often led historians to neglect children who lived outside conventional families. Yet orphans and destitute children were most at risk of exploitation.” (Humphries, 2010: 10)
25 kinds of children exploitation during industrial revolution including baby farming, children apprentice, children laborer, and children recruitment as criminals
Children Apprentice
In the era of the industrial revolution, there were numerous orphanages to accommodate children that were left by their parents due to death or abandoning because they were not able to take care of them. Most of those children would be sent to the workhouse to work there if they were already 10 years old and some of them were also offered at cheap prices to become apprentice or slave for bourgeois or for those who run store. Humphries also says,
“Under such pressures pauper apprenticeships, never passports into the better trades, may have become ways to dispose of burdensome children, means by which they were hurriedly ushered into the labour market.” (Humphries, 2010: 46)
Children Labor
The increasing number of factories had sprung up everywhere, and also increasing of the demand so that factories were asked to produce quickly. In order to overcome it, manpower is needed. In economic terms, pay low cost in order to get much income, so that the factory owners employed children because they can be paid cheaper and those children did not have working hour limitation. Humphries also says,
26
Children Recruitment as Criminals
In industrial revolution era, the increasing of urbanization and poverty had led to the increasing of criminal levels. Many children were exploited by the criminal to be a young thief. Most of these children are street children. According to Miller (2016) that some poorer Victorian children found that criminal activities made their lives easier. Pickpockets were everywhere. Snatching food off food-vendor's carts and quickly running away was often the only method of getting something to eat. Those children were asked to rob handkerchief, money, jewels and many others. If they could not rob many things, they would be punished by the boss.
Baby Farming
In industrial revolution era many women worked in factory so they had to leave their baby to “baby farmer” to take care of their babies. Besides, the rate of orphan was also increasing because many parents were dead due to accident in the factory so those babies orphan were brought to “baby farmer”. According to Broder in her article,
“Baby farming, then, was a system of child care that built on women's informal neighborhood networks; in its worst abuses it also became a latent system for the disposal of unwanted babies.” (Broder, 2008: 4)
27 2.7 The Relevance of the Study
There are many theses that researched about children exploitation and also many people have researched Oliver Twist novel so that the writer found some thesis that is relevant to this study. These theses are used as reference and to understand more about the novel. Some of which will be mentioned in this review of literature.
2.7.1 Exploitation of Children during Industrial Revolution Depicted in Elizabeth Browning’s Poetry “The Cry Of The Children” by
