8
theories such as type of language function, type of language form, function message, and position of the currents Study.Previous study is used as the reference of this research. The underlying theories are useful for the writer to conduct the research.
A.Previous Studies
There are some previous studies related to the study that are necessary as reference to this studies. Ten previous studies used as references in this current research, and those studies are written by Cuevas (2003), Herrera and Reissland (2003), Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003), Mathycuk (2004), Rowe (2007), Vosoughi (2010), Degaf (2010), Golden (2012), Salehuddin (2012), Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (1997).
1. Cuevas (2003)
First study is conducted by Cuevas (B.A., California State University, Northridge, 2003) entitled Caretakers’ Perceptio s of I ple e ti g Applied Behavioral Analysis with their Children. The topic of his research is the
implementation of applied behavioral analysis (ABA) with their autistic child. The type of this study is exploratory and uses qualitative methodologies.
The data source of this study is a convenience sample of parents and/or caregivers whose child has a diagnosis of autism and who received educational services through the Yolo County Office of Education. The data collection technique is documentation. The technique of data analysis are descriptive qualitative.
The result of this study shows that four problems were identified in the interviews. Study participants discussed strategies and techniques for implementing ABA and gave examples of how their home and family were modified and adjusted in order to implement it. Implications for both service providers and parents with autistic children are discussed. Social networking and communication among parents is important for the successful implementation of ABA.
2. Herrera and Reissland (2003)
The second study is conducted by Herrera and Reissland (Department of Psychology,University of Aberdeen, UK, 2003) entitled Maternal Touch and Maternal Child-directed Speech: Effects of Depressed Mood in the Postnatal
Period. This research describes the affects of postnatal depression to the
especially mothers which is in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The type of this study is systematic study.
The data source of this study is mothers who are only in mildly depressed, as assessed by the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). The data collection technique is documentation. The data analysis technique is quantitative.
The result of this study shows that depressed mothers in comparison with non-depressed mothers lifted their infants more, restraining their behaviors. Infants of depressed mothers in contrast to infants of non-depressed mothers spent greater periods of time in touching self rather than mother or toy, compensating for the lack of positive touch from their mothers. Mothers with depressed mood of 6-month-old infants included fewer affective and informative features in their speech than their controls. Non-depressed mothers of younger babies, showed a higher use of affective features when compared with non-depressed mothers of older infants. In contrast, non-depressed mothers of 6-and 10-month-old babies showed similar frequencies of affect-salient speech during the i te a tio s i spite of thei i fa ts ha gi g de elop e tal de a ds.
3. Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (2003)
The third study is conducted by Faulkner, Lieven, and Tomasello (University of Manchester, 2003) entitled A Construction Based Analysis of Child Directed Speech. This study describes the child directed speech of twelve
stud is to u de sta d the othe s utte a es hi h a e atego ized i te s of
ge e al o st u tio al atego ies. “e o dl , to dete i e othe s utte a es
within these categories which is specified in terms of the initial words that framed the utterance, item based phrases .The type of this study is item based construction study.
The data were taken from the Manchester corpus (Theakston et al., 2001) whichwas accessed from the CHILDES database (MacWhinney& Snow, 1985, 1990). The corpus consists of data taken from twelve English-speaking mother–child dyads. The dyads were recruited through newspaper advertisements and local nurseries in the Manchester and Nottingham areas. All the children (six girls and six boys) were firstborns, monolingual and were cared for primarily by their mothers. The data collection technique is documentation by recorded the participant at home in the presence of an investigator on two separate occasions in every three week period for twelve months.
The result shows: 1) overall, only about 15% of all maternal utterances had SVO form (most were questions, imperatives, copulas, and fragments); 2) 51% of all maternal utterances began with one of 52 item-based phrases, mostly consisting of two words or morphemes (45% began with one of just 17 words); and 3) children used many of these same item-based phrases, in some cases at a
4. Mathycuk (2004)
The forth study is conducted by Mathycuk (Department of English CHEP, Andrews University, 2004) entitled The role of child-directed speech in language acquistion: A case study. This research examines the nature of child-directed
speech (CDS) from the perspective of function and social interactionist theory. The objective of this research is to understand the system of knowledge arises in the mind/brain. Specifically, the researcher want to know L1 acquisition through a study of the interaction between a young child and his family in order to discover how it might be that infants come to understand the relationship between the phonetic and semantic net which is thrown over them in the first few years of life and the world which that net represents. The type of this study is a case study.
The data source of this research is Hikaru (H), born on October 20, 1996 (19 months old at the beginning of the study), is the youngest son of a Japanese couple living in a small mid-Western college town. At the time of data collection H s fathe as a do to al stude t a d his othe as a ho e ake ho, i
addition to caring for H, cared for his two older siblings, a boy, Tadahiro (usually called Ta-kun), at the initial time of the study, seven years of age and a girl, Sakura (usually called A-chan), five years of age. The data collection technique is e o di g H s spee h du i g o al i te a tio s ith his pa e t o e a pe iod
of twelve months. The data analysis technique is first transcribe the recorded
types: (1) the data sets are numbered from 1 to 32 and represent the different recording sessions and, (2) a consecutive numbering of utterances from the beginning of the first data set to the end of the last data set.
The esults of this stud sho ed that fou of Hallida s se e fu tio s
appeared to be present in the language the parents used with their child. They were: (a) the Regulatory function—the Do as I tell ou fu tio , ) the
I te a tio al fu tio the Me a d ou fu tio , the Heu isti fu tio —the
Tell e h fu tio , a d d the I fo ati e fu tio —the I e got
so ethi g to tell ou fu tio . While the pa e ts of the su je t e e see to
use roughly equal amounts of language with the child, the distribution of language functions used by mother was importantly different from that used by father, therefore, it is suggest that this difference in CDS aids the language development of the infant by providing more interactive negotiation, which is argued to be crucial factor in language development.
5. Rowe (2007)
The fifth study is conducted by Rowe (University of Chicago, 2007) entitled Child-Directed Speech: Relation to Socioeconomic Status, Knowledge of Child Development and Child Vocabulary Skill. The objective of this study is to
determine why American parents from different socioeconomic backgrounds communicate in different ways with their children.
at child age 2;6. Transcripts of these interactions provided measures of child-di e ted spee h. Child e s o a ula o p ehe sio skills e e easu ed
using the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test at 2;6 and one year later at 3;6. The data collection technique is by documentation.
The result of this study indicate that: (1) child-directed speech with toddlers aged 2;6 predicts child vocabulary skill one year later, controlling for earlier toddler vocabulary skill ; (2) child-directed speech relates to socioeconomic status as measured by income and education; and (3) the relation between socioeconomic status and child-directed speech is mediated by parental knowledge of child development. Potential mechanisms through which parental knowledge influences communicative behavior are discussed
6. Vosoughi (2010)
The sixth study is conducted by Vosoughi (B.S., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010) entitled Interactions of caregiver speech and early word learning in the Speechome Corpus: Computational Explorations. The research
acquisition and caregiver speech is bidirectional. The type of this research is computational exploration research.
The data source of this study is 9 children {24 month age range, and the corresponding subset of the corpus contains 4260 hours of 14-track audio, of which an estimated 1150 hours contain speech. Of the 488 days in this time range, recordings were made 444 of the days with a mean of 9.6 hours recorded per day. The data collection technique is by transcriptions, speaker identity, and prosodic features. The data analysis of this study is by developing a parallelized algorithm similar to map-reduce [36] that runs across four Intel quad-core machines. Each of these four machines can run 4 simultaneous clients software (one for each core).
The result indicates that the researcher found significant correlations between all 6 variables and the child's age of acquisition (AoA) for individual words, with the best linear combination of these variables producing a correlation of r = -.55(p < .001). The current results are based on 218 fully transcribed days containing an average of 28,712 words per day of combined CAS and child speech, totaling 6.26 million words. It is estimated that the fully transcribed 9{24 month corpus will contain 12 million words.
7. Degaf (2010)
language functions used by the caretakers of autistic children in Miracle Run. The objectives of this study are to find out the kinds and the effectiveness of language functions used by the caretakers in film and to describe the most dominant kinds of language functions found. The type of this study is descriptive qualitative research.
The data source are the language used by the caretakers like mother, doctor, teacher, and therapist when talk to the autistic children. The result of this study shows that there are several language functions used by the caretakers, such as instrumental function, regulatory function, representational function, interactional function, personal function, heuristic function and imaginative function. The most dominant kind of language function is regulatory function. Then the effective of language functions are regulatory function used in 19 utterances, interactional function used in 6 utterances, imaginative function used in 5 utterances, personal function used in 2 utterances and representational function and heuristic function used in 1 utterance.
8. Golden (2012)
The eighth study is conducted by Golden (the University of Utah, 2012) entitled Parents in Relationships with Their Children with Autism: A Qualitative Study. This stud des i es pa e t s pe eptio s a d e pe ie es i thei
relationships grow and change over time. The type of this study is qualitative research.
The data sources of this research are 34 caregivers whose children had been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. The study include 9 fathers (26%), 24 mothers (71%), and 1 grandmother (3%). The data collection technique is individual interview and member checking. The data analysis technique is interpretative, phenomenological methods.
The result of this study shows that a majority of parents in this study described having relationships that were close and satisfying, despite the numerous challenges of having a child with autism. This study emerged five themes: 1) parent perceptions of early bonding and attachment ranged from highl u usual to u e a ka le a d o al ; a o e hel i g ajo it of
parents described their relationships as nonreciprocal; 3) a large majority of parents identified significant barriers to creating relationships with their children; 4) parent strategies for creating connections with their children ranged from very limited to successful and well-established; and 5) an overwhelming majority of pa e ts des i ed thei elatio ships as g o i g a d ha gi g o er time, although the e og ized the ould e ai thei hild e s a etake .
9. Salehuddin (2012)
to hild e s usage of u e al lassifie s. The o je ti e of this stud is to ide tif
the numeral classifiers usage in caretaker-child interaction in a situation where all numeral classifiers had the same chance of being talked about.
The data sources of this study are 11 caretakers. The participants were all native speakers of Malay who spoke standard Malay as their first language and were from middle SES. The caretakers were between 22 and 56 years old (mean = 37.55 years old) whereas the children were between 4:4 and 5:9 (mean = 5.14 years old). Only three of the caretakers were male and among the children fi e e e fe ale. The data olle tio te h i ue is pla i g Puta , Ca i, &Ki a
“pi , “eek, & Cou t ga e that as desig ed to e ou age a a etake a d a
child to interact with each other in a naturalistic setting, playing a counting game by spinning (putar) a spinning wheel, seeking (cari) the object that is revealed by the spinning wheel, and counting (kira) the objects in a picture book. The data analysis technique is by used a semi-structured elicitation procedure in the form of a game to examine numeral classifier usage in caretaker-child interactions.
classifier (12 times) followed by biji [3D: small] (8 times), and batang [1D: +rigid] (8times). A majority of caretakers used numeral classifiers as a prompting mechanism to get children to count the objects. Except for one caretaker (pair 11), all the other caretakers did not insist their children to use numeral classifiers when counting. Two of the caretakers also used numeral classifiers as an anaphoric expression – an expression used to refer to an already mentioned object.
10.Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (1997)
The tenth study is conducted by Tardif, Shatz, and Naigles (University of Michigan, 1997) entitled Caregiver Speech and Children's Use of Nouns versus Verbs: A Comparison of English, Italian, and Mandarin. This study describes
naturalistic samples of adult-to-child speech to determine if variations in the input are consistent with reported variations in the proportions of nouns and verbs in children's early vocabularies. The objective of this study is to examine the use of common nouns and main verbs across all three languages; and to examine various input factors and their possible relations both to formal structural features of the language and to the composition of children's early vocabularies.
their caregivers recorded in their Pisa homes. 3) The Mandarin transcripts are from a sample of children studied by Tardif (1993) and involve 10 children and their Mandarin-speaking caregivers in Beijing, China. The data collection technique is documentation by using naturalistic records of interactions between the caregivers and toddlers in their own homes. The data analysis technique is coding or transcript each language that produce by the participant.
The results suggest a pattern consistent with the children's spontaneous production data. Namely, the speech of English-speaking caregivers emphasized nouns over verbs, whereas that of Mandarin-speaking caregivers emphasized verbs over nouns. The data from the Italian-speaking caregivers were more equivocal, though still noun-oriented, across these various input measures.
11.Shiou-ping ye (2002)
The eleventh study is conducted by Shiou-Ping Ye (De La Salle University, 2002). Entitled A correlational study of behavioral problems of children with autism and the coping strategies of their parents. This Research describes strategies used by
parents with their autistic children's behavior problems. This research consistsinvolved 40 parent-respondents of children with autism from six public schools and two private schools in Metro Manila.
The result finding in this result indicated that in order for parents to be effective in helping their autistic children's problems regarding communication, psychomotor, psychosocial, and degree of dependence, they should have adequate knowledge, background and information about their children's learning process. Among the parents most helpful coping strategies were psychological counseling, self-education and family therapy. Its results and findings also showed that home and school should establish a harmonious partnership with regard to working towards the total development of the autistic children.
12.Position of current study
children in Miracle Run . The eighth previous study uses the language used by the caretakers like mother, doctor, teacher, and therapist when talk to the autistic children found in Miracle Run Movie and analyzing about pa e t s perceptions and experiences in their relationship with their children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD . The ninth previous study uses the speech from 34 caregivers whose children had been diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder and analyzing about ca etake s usage of u e al lassifie s a d thei ea tio s to hild e s usage of u e al lassifie s . The tenth previous study
uses the speech from 11 caregivers of native speakers of Malay who spoke standard Malay as their first language and was from middle SES and analyzing about naturalistic samples of adult-to-child speech to determine if variations in the input are consistent with reported variations in the proportions of nouns and verbs in children's early vocabularies and the last previous study uses strategies used by parents with their autistic children's behavior problems and analyzing about strategies used by parents with their autistic children's behavior problems .
B. Underlying Theory
1. Caretaker Speech
I the ea l life, e te of hild e s spee h e i o e t is thei pa e ts
or caretakers (Fauziati, 2008: 114). Talking the children has always been fundamental to language development. The parents talk to children to give some information and ask the children to communicate. When the parent talk to children emphasizes important word, and usually the children will identify where words begin and end. The caretaker or parent will provide them the clues needed to help them develop their own language skill. The adults usually use the pitch and slow voices to make the children easy understand what the purpose of speech directed to children.
a. Notion
Caretaker speech is a sort speech that children receive when they are still young. In other word, caretaker speech is a speech by adult to children. While Bloomer Grifiths, and Merrison (2005: 320) stated that caretaker is an adult who is there for the most of young child's waking hours and give a good source of information about which words the child knows.
contains many questions and imperatives; its pitch is higher and has an exaggerated intonation pattern.
Similarly, Warren; Leubecker; and Bohannon (1984) assume that motherese is characterized by simpler, shorter, well-formed utterances of limited sentence types, a greater proportion of concrete words, and more repetition. Moreover, differing prosodic features, including a slower rate of speech, a rise in the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the voice, and a preference for certain intonational contours, have been observed in maternal speech (Baldwin and Baldwin: 1973).
There are some features of child directed speech according to Tiritilli (2002), namely: phonological features, lexical features, syntactic features, conversational features, repetition, and turn-taking.
a. Phonological features: Higher pitch, greater range of frequencies, slower rate of speech, clearer enunciation, emphasis on one or two words in a sentence, and special pronunciations of individual words. b. Lexical features: Substitutions, diminutives, semantically inappropriate
o ds, a d use of hild s o e fo s.
d. Conversational features: More restricted topics, more repetitions of own utterances, more questions, fewer declaratives, more deictic declaratives, provision of both questions and answers by adult, and
epetitio s, e pa sio s, e asts of hild s utte a es Ba o , : .
e. Repetition is one of the most frequently used methods of prolonging conversation, as well as one of the particular traits of child-directed speech. The more times a child hears a sentence clearly modeled, the
o e that hild s la guage lea i g is fa ilitated Ba o , : .
f. Turn-taking becomes a model for the infant of the conventions. Routines of turn-taking also serve other functions in linguistic development. Babies gain experience in vocalizing, and participate in situations in which that vocalizing becomes more language-like. Bloom (1987:212)
Adult typically exaggerates annunciation, specifically vowels, reduces the speed of conversation, simplifies the grammatical and vocabulary content of the conversation, speaks in a higher tone or pitch and uses shorter duration sentences and phrases (Seaton: 1905).
Fernald (1989: 10) argues that motherese is a way to adapt speech to the hild s pe epti e a ilities a d thus ust e ol e as a fu tio of he
de elop e t: to e effe ti e, the o u i ati e sig als of the othe ust e
ell at hed to the pe eptual apa ilities a d li itatio s of the ou g . The
that the simple language forms used by young children, or the modified form of speech often used by adults with young children also known as motherese or caregiver speech.
b. Characteristics of Caretaker Speech
According to Fauziati (2011: 116) states that adult generally exaggerate intonation and use a slower tempo and frequently repeat or rephrase what their say or children say. And according to Clark and Clark (1977: 32) stated that adult s spee h to i fa ts is i flue ed th ee fa to s. Fi st, Adults ha e to ake
sure that children realize a speech is being addressed to them. Usually they use a name, special tone of voice, or by touching them. Second, when they have the child e s atte tio , the ust hoose the ight o ds a d the ight se te es to make the children easily understand them. Third, they say what they have to say in many different ways.
Further, Warren; Leubecker; and Bohannon (1984) assume that motherese is characterized by simpler, shorter, well-formed utterances of limited sentence types, a greater proportion of concrete words, and more repetition. Moreover, differing prosodic features, including a slower rate of speech, a rise in the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the voice, and a preference for certain intonational contours, have been observed in maternal speech (Baldwin and Baldwin: 1973).
There are some features of child directed speech according to Tiritilli (2002), namely: phonological features, lexical features, syntactic features, conversational features, repetition, and turn-taking.
g. Phonological features: Higher pitch, greater range of frequencies, slower rate of speech, clearer enunciation, emphasis on one or two words in a sentence, and special pronunciations of individual words. h. Lexical features: Substitutions, diminutives, semantically inappropriate
o ds, a d use of hild s o e fo s.
i. Syntactic features: Use of nouns in lieu of pronouns, use of plural pronouns in place of singular, intentional ungrammatical usage, more grammatically correct usage, more grammatically simple phrases, and shorter phrases.
declaratives, provision of both questions and answers by adult, and
epetitio s, e pa sio s, e asts of hild s utte a es Ba o , : .
k. Repetition is one of the most frequently used methods of prolonging conversation, as well as one of the particular traits of child-directed speech. The more times a child hears a sentence clearly modeled, the
o e that hild s la guage lea i g is fa ilitated Ba o , : .
l. Turn-taking becomes a model for the infant of the conventions. Routines of turn-taking also serve other functions in linguistic development. Babies gain experience in vocalizing, and participate in situations in which that vocalizing becomes more language-like (Bloom, et al, 1987:212)
Adult typically exaggerates annunciation, specifically vowels, reduces the speed of conversation, simplifies the grammatical and vocabulary content of the conversation, speaks in a higher tone or pitch and uses shorter duration sentences and phrases (Seaton: 1905).
c. Function of Caretaker speech
There are several explains about functions of caretaker speech. The writer presents 2 figures who explain about function of caretaker speech, they are
B o a d Fe gusso , Ga i a s i Wh att .
intention behind the use of a simplified speech style is more communicative than pedagogical.
Ga i a s i te ie i Wh att suggest that othe s do t use
baby talk to teach language to their children, but in order to make themselves understood; to keep to minds on the same topic by controlling attention; to improve the intelligibility of their speech; and mark utterances as directed to children. In other word, to maximizes their chance in guaranteeing communicative interactions.
2. Speech Act
According to Searle ( in Yan Huang, 2007: 93) states that speech act theory is that the uttering of sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions.
3. Teaching English to Young Learners
According to Fauziati (2010:89) the best to teach children English is not to create the illusion that they are simply playing games. And rather than focus on individual development, it is also a very good idea to promote class interaction as far as possible.
language acquisition has shown that older learner exhibit more learning gains than younger learners. Light bown and Spada (1999 )point to the various studies showing that older children and adolescents make more progress than younger lea e s. This a ha e ee due to the hild e s i eased og iti e a ilities.
4. Language Form
According to Katamba (1994: 11) language form consists of some expressions and sentences as follows:
a. Expression in disciplining children
According to Elizabeth, (2007:69) states that disciplining children is Discipline means to teach—and it is a very rare lesson that can be learned in one simple session. According to Christine Chandler Laura MCGrath (2004:24) there are six expressions in disciplining children, namely natural consequences, reward for good behavior, positive discipline method, be consistent, calm down.
1) Natural consequences
Chandler (2004:24) states that to develop control over their own behavior children need to understand consequences, as follow: a) if then thinking provides the rational basis for understanding the consequences of their actions; b) The consistent use of clear, contingent consequences provides the frame work for behaving with intention; c) in disciplining hild e , pa e ts ost po e ful o se ue es is thei o i te tio . In
the first born in this new family and you are very important and actually being adopted with special because you were born under the heart and a lot of that the a ted to gi e ou .
2) Be consistent
According to Chandler (2004:58)states that consistent is require children to use the good a e s that ou e taught the . Child e ho outi el p a ti e
using good manners will adopt those manners as good habits. From expression as follow: 1) teach children with empathies; 2) practices what to say; 3) teaches him/her how to calm down. For example in these expressions such as: 1)teach hild e ith e pathies It s i po ta t he ou eed the atte tio , he ou
feel like thi k so ei g fai , ou go to tell ou do t g o to o my your dad. I feel atte tio to ight a d I eall eed o e atte tio . 2) practices what to say ou eed to use ou o ds . 3) teaches him/her how to calm down do not to
choose screaming, do not to choose screaming . 3) Positive Discipline method
According to Chandler (2004:188) states that Positive discipline method is a technique used by parents and caregivers to modify their children's behavior by reinforcing desired behaviors. This technique has proven effective for parents, teachers, coaches, leaders, and anyone responsiblefor a child or group of children.in this example is ou get a e a d .
According to Chandler (2004:80) states that reward system is a technique specially structured to encourage children to take responsibility for performing daily task.
Expression is the manner or form in which a thing is expressed in words; wording; phrasing. www.dictionary.reference.com/../expression. In this example is you doing a good job .
5) Calm Down
According to Chandler (2004:46) states that calm down is a structured discipline tool designed to help children learn to manage their own behavior-particularly to bring an end to unwanted actions.
In these example are ha ds a e ot fo hitti g , fi st-fi st o hi i g , e o siste t .
b. Sentence
Sentence is a full predication contains a subject plus predicate with a finite verb (Frank, 1972: 220). Frank explains that sentences are classified in two ways, by types and the other one is by number of full predication.
1) Classification by types.
There are four kinds of sentence based on its type. They are declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentence (Frank, 1972: 220).
In declarative sentence or usually called statement, the subject and predicate have the normal word order. The characteristic of this sentence is that it is ended by full stop in writing and a drop in pitch in speech. For example:
- She is my teacher. - He buys some apples.
a) Imperative sentence.
An imperative sentence just expresses the predicate in spite of person or tense, the simple form of the verb is used. The major characteristic of imperative sentence is that it is finished by a period in writing and a drop in pitch in speech. For example:
- Open the door! - Do not liter!
b) Interrogative sentence.
In interrogative sentence, the subject and the auxiliary are often reversed. The sentence is finished by a question mark in writing. For example:
- Do you live in Indonesia? - What are you doing? c) Exclamatory sentence.
An exclamatory sentence usually expresses strong emotion or feeling. This sentence uses an exclamation mark. For example:
- How beautiful she is.
b) Classification by number of full predication.
According to Frank (1972: 222-223) there are 4 classifications of sentence by number full of predications. They are simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and compound complex sentence.
a) Simple sentence
Such sentences have only one full predication in the form of an independent clause. For example Martha has been painting her room.
b) Compound Sentence
Such sentences have two or more full predictions in the form of independent clauses. In compound sentence, each verb has a different subject. The sentences are joined three ways:
- By a comma and coordinating conjunction (and, but, yet, so, or, for, nor). For example: Martha has been painting her room, but Peg went to the movies.
- With a semicolon (;). For example: Martha has been painting her room; Peg went to the movies.
- With a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (then, however, therefore, consequently, etc.). For example: Martha has been painting her room; however, Peg went to the movies.
Such sentences also have two or more full predication. One of these is an independent clause that is similar to the form of the simple sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clauses. The dependent clauses in a complex sentence may occur at any place in the sentence. They are:
- Before a main clause: Although Tom reads novels, Jack reads comics.
- After a main clause: Rugby is a sport that I have played only once. - Interrupting a main clause: The dog, although he was well fed,
howled loudly.
- Before and after a main clause: When the pianist sat down at the piano, she played a melody that she had written recently.
d) Compound-complex Sentence
It contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. For example:
- The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, which was smarter, lived inside the house.
According to Paul (2009: 34), language form also called structure of language is divided into 3. They are the sound system, the structure of word, and the structure of sentence.
The major topic associated with the sound system are phonology and phonetic. In fact, both phonetic and phonology are important for discussing the speech reception and production of deaf or hard of hearing students (Paul, 2009: 34-35). According to Owens in Paul (2009: 21) phonology is the aspect of language concerned with the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.
The sound system of English refers to the use of phonemes. A phoneme is an abstract concept that actually refers to a family of distinctive, similar sounds, and guides the pronunciation of words. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sounds that can signal a difference in meaning (Paul, 2009: 35).
b. The structure of words
Johannes, (2009:157) states that morpheme, word or lexeme which are used in linguistics to describe a grammatical fact or to elaborate a general and new theory, but they are not defined on the basis of a consensus among linguists.
Wo d is the oldest of these te s.
c. The structure of sentences
In the structure of sentences, the important point is syntax. Syntax refers to rules that govern the order or arrangement of words. This arrangement reveals meaningful relationship within and between sentences. The arrangement concerns word order, sentence organization, and relationship between words (Paul, 2009: 50). Paul argues that a better way to describe a sentence is that it must contain at least one noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). A noun phrase (NP) contains at least a noun, with the option of one or more determiners. The verb phrase (VP) contains an auxiliary (such as modal, tense, or aspect) and a verb, and maychontain noun phrase, embedded sentence, and prepositional phrase.
5. Language Function
There are several concepts which explain about language function. The writer presents 6 figures who explain about language function, they are Hallida s o ept, Fi o hia o s o ept, B o a d Yule s o ept, Ja ko so s
o ept, B o a d Yule s o ept, C stal s o ept,a d Pozzi s o ept.
Halliday (1977: 19–20) stated that there are at least 7 function of language, namely instrumental, personal, interactional, regulatory, representational, heuristic, and imaginative function.
1) The instrumental function: is the function that language serves of satisf i g the hild s ate ial eeds, of e a li g hi to o tai the
goods and services he wants. This is the I a t fu tio of la guage.
2) The pe so al fu tio : is used to e p ess the hild s o u i ue ess;
to express his awareness of himself, in contradistinction to his environment, and then to mould that self-ultimately, language in the development of the personality. This includes expression of personal feeling, of participation and withdrawal, of interest, and pleasure. We
ight all this the he e I o e fu tio of la guage.
3) The i te a tio al fu tio : is hat e ight gloss as the e a d ou function of language. This is language used by the child to interact with those around him, particularly his mother and others that are important to him, and it includes meanings such as generalized g eeti gs Hello, Pleased to eet ou. A d also responses to calls
Yes? , as ell as o e spe ifi fo s.
ta les a d use it to o t ol othe s. The egulato is the do as I tell
ou fu tio of la guage.
5) Representational function: use language to explain something. It is the one which is undoubtedly dominant in the adults use of language, and even more so in the adults image of what language , is one which does not emerge in the life of the child until considerably after the others. We a also all i fo ati e fu tio o the I e got something to tell
ou fu tio .
6) Heuristic function: once the boundary between the child himself and his environment is beginning to be recognized, then the child can turn towards the exploration of the environment; this is the heuristic function of la guage, the tell e h fu tio that hi h late o develops into the whole range of questioning forms that the young child uses.
7) Imaginative function: is the function of language whereby the child creates an environment of his own. As well as moving into, taking over and exploring the universe which he finds around him. The child also uses language for creating a universe of his own. This we may call the
let s p ete d fu tio of la guage.
b. Fino hiaro’s on ept of language function.
1) Pe so al fu tio is la if i g o a a gi g o e s ideas. It o sists of: (a) Expressing ones thoughts or feelings: love, pleasure, surprise, likes, dislikes, distress, anger, fear, sorrow; (b) Communicating moral, intellectual, and social concerns; and (c) Expressing everyday feelings of hunger, fatigue, cold, or warmth.
2) Interpersonal function is enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships. It consists of: (a) Greetings and leave-taking; (b) Introducing people to others; (c) Extending invitations - accepting invitations; (d) Refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements; (e) Apologizing; (f) Indicating agreement - Indicating disagreement; (g) Interrupting another speaker politely: (h) Complimenting someone; and (i) Expressing gratitude - Acknowledging gratitude.
3) Directive function is attempting to influence the actions of others accepting or refusing direction. It consists of: (a) Making requests; (b) Making suggestions; (c) Refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative; (d) Persuading someone to change their point of view; (e) Asking for help - Responding to a help; and (f) Giving instructions - Responding to instructions.
(a) Asking for a description of someone or something; (b) Defining something or a language item - Asking for a definition; (c) Requesting facts about events or actions - Reporting facts; and (d) Evaluating the results of an action or an event.
5) Imaginative function: expanding ideas offered by others or by a listening or reading passage. It consists of: (a) Creating rhymes poetry stories or plays; and (b) Solving problems or mysteries.
c. Ja ko son’s on ept of language function.
Roman Jackobson (in Waugh: 1980) defined six function of language. Each function has an associated factor. They are:
1) Referential function: corresponds to the factor of message and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now."
2) E p essi e alte ati el alled e oti e” o affe ti e fu tio :
3) Conative function: engages the addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"
4) Poetic function: focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code itself, and how it is used) and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.
5) Phatic function: is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers. It also provides the keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel: "Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye"...
6) Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or "reflexive") function: is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe itself.
d. Brown and Yule’s on ept of language function.
Brown and Yule (1983) argue that language performs two major functions: transactional and interactional function. (1) Transactional function is to passing information across, giving instructions, socialization etc. while (2) Interactional function is to help in establishing and sustaining social relationships.
Crystal (1997) stated that language serves seven purposes. It is used for the communication of ideas, for emotional expression (as the case of expressing frustration), for social interaction (i.e. greeting others), for the sheer power of reality (as there is in magic and incantation), for recording facts, as the instrument of thought and for the expression of identity (i.e. the signaling of who we are and where e elo g .
f. Pozzi’s on ept of language function.
According to Pozzi (2004), language function refers to the purpose for which speech or writing is being used. In speech these include giving instructions; introducing ourselves; and making requests. In academic writing we use a range of specific functions in order to communicate ideas clearly. These include describing processes; comparing or contrasting things or ideas; and classifying objects or ideas.
C. Theoretical Framework
The literature and underlying theories above give the writer the understanding on language forms, language functions, message function. The underlying theories are used as a basic of clarifying the framework of this study that leads into actual discussion. The major issue of this research is to analyze the language forms in the Finck Family Nanny 911 Reality Show Episode 1 based o La guage fo s o ept s. su h as expressions and sentences. The researcher
a al ses the la guage fo s ased o Kata a s o epts. After classifying and
solve the problem above, the researcher uses theories in underlying theories as the foundation to analyze the detail as follow: language forms, language functions, message functions.
To analyze the caretaker speech, the researcher applies seven theories are used to guide in language function namely Finocchiaro (1983) suggests that there are 5 function of language, they are pe so al fu tio , i te pe so al
fu tio , di e ti e fu tio , efe e tial fu tio , i agi ati e fu tio .
Jackobson (in waugh 1980) explains that defined six function of language, they
are e p essi e fu tio , o ati e fu tio , e p essi e fu tio , efe e tial
fu tio , poeti fu tio , phati fu tio , etali gual fu tio . Crystal
(1997) stated that language serves seven purposes. It is used for the communication of ideas, for emotional expression (as the case of expressing frustration), for social interaction (i.e. greeting others), for the sheer power of reality (as there is in magic and incantation), for recording facts, as the instrument of thought and for the expression of identity (i.e. the signaling of who e a e a d he e e elo g . Pozzi (2004) explains that language function
Halliday (1977) stated that there are at least 7 functions of language, namely instrumental, personal, interactional, regulatory, representational, heuristic, and imaginative function. And to analyzing language form the researcherapplies theories are used to guide in languages forms, they are: Speech Act theory (1998: 93) and Katamba Theory (1994:11). Speech act theory is that the uttering of sentence is, or is part of, an action within the framework of social institutions and conventions. And Katamba theory explains that language form consists of some expression and sentences. And the researcher applies theory is used to guide in teaching English to young learners such as Fauziati (2010:89) explains that the best to teach children English is not to create the illusion that they are simply playing games. And rather than focus on individual development, it is also a very good idea to promote class interaction as far as possible.
